Friedrich Wilhelm Adolph Marr (November 16, 1819 – July 17, 1904) was a German journalist and politician, who popularized the term " antisemitism " (1881).
41-409: The Jewish question was a debate in 19th and 20th-century Europe that pertained to the status and treatment of Jews. Jewish question may also refer to: Jewish question The Jewish question was a wide-ranging debate in 19th- and 20th-century Europe that pertained to the appropriate status and treatment of Jews . The debate, which was similar to other " national questions ", dealt with
82-471: A secular state , and such a state did not leave any "space" for social identities such as religion . According to Bauer, such religious demands were incompatible with the idea of the " Rights of Man ". True political emancipation, for Bauer, required the abolition of religion. Karl Marx replied to Bauer in his 1844 essay On the Jewish Question . Marx repudiated Bauer's view that the nature of
123-481: A secular state . Bauer's conclusions were disputed by Karl Marx in his essay Zur Judenfrage , in which he argued that society cannot be free from the oppression of capitalism without removing Jews from society: "As soon as society succeeds in abolishing the empirical essence of Judaism—huckstering and its conditions—the Jew becomes impossible, because his consciousness no longer has an object... The social emancipation of
164-577: A Jewish businessman who had renounced his faith. In 1859, Marr was elected member of the Hamburg Parliament . In an article, in the Courier an der Weser on 13 June 1862, he attacked the elected liberal speaker of the house, the Jewish lawyer Isaac Wolffson [ de ] , accusing him and other Jews of betraying the democratic movement and abusing their emancipation in order to enter
205-628: A lawsuit by Aaron Sapiro, Ford publicly apologized for his anti-Semitism, retracted his earlier views, and closed his magazine. A "Jewish problem" was euphemistically discussed in majority-European countries outside Europe, even as the Holocaust was in progress. American aviator and celebrity Charles A. Lindbergh used the phrase repeatedly in public speeches and writing. For example in his diary entry of September 18, 1941, published in 1970 as part of The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh , he wrote [John T.] Flynn says he does not question
246-457: A means for Jews to become Germans. In his pamphlet Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum (The Way to Victory of Germanism over Judaism, 1879) he introduced the idea that Germans and Jews were locked in a longstanding conflict, the origins of which he attributed to race—and that the Jews were winning. He argued that Jewish emancipation resulting from German liberalism had allowed
287-483: A prominent role in social life. As an example, he referred to the pervasiveness of religion in the United States , which, unlike Prussia , had no state religion . In Marx's analysis, the "secular state" was not opposed to religion, but rather assumed it. The removal of religious or property qualifications for citizenship did not mean the abolition of religion or property, but rather naturalized both and introduced
328-507: A way of regarding individuals in abstraction from them. On this note Marx moved beyond the question of religious freedom to his real concern with Bauer's analysis of "political emancipation." Marx concluded that while individuals can be 'politically' free in a secular state, they were still bound to material constraints on freedom by economic inequality , an assumption that would later form the basis of his critiques of capitalism . Werner Sombart praised Jews for their capitalism and presented
369-771: Is the belief that Jewish people have undue influence over the media, banking, and politics. Based on this conspiracy theory, certain groups and activists discuss the "Jewish Question" and offer different proposals to address it. In the early 21st century, white nationalists , alt-righters , and neo-Nazis have used the initialism JQ in order to refer to the Jewish question. [T]he political annulment of private property not only fails to abolish private property but even presupposes it. The state abolishes, in its own way, distinctions of birth, social rank, education, occupation, when it declares that birth, social rank, education, occupation, are non-political distinctions, when it proclaims, without regard to these distinctions, that every member of
410-478: The Burgtheater . There he worked as an employee in two Jewish firms. Later, Marr claimed that he had unjustly lost his job. In 1841, he went to Zürich , where he became acquainted with political émigrés (like Georg Herwegh , Julius Fröbel , and August Follen ), most of whom were members of the democratic or liberal leftist movements of the early 19th century. In 1843, Marr was expelled from Zürich under
451-606: The city's merchant class . After extensive public protests, Marr was not reelected in 1862. Marr and his first wife were divorced in 1873. In 1874, Marr married the Jewish Helene Sophia Emma Maria Behrend, who died within the same year. Marr's first marriage was an unhappy one, and despite being financially stable, Marr was in emotional distress. Marr's second marriage was a happy one, but then his wife and child died within days of each other, which left Marr in great distress and bitter towards
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#1732766243569492-810: The pogroms of eastern Europe by emigration to other places, primarily the United States and western Europe. In Nazi Germany , the term Jewish Question (in German: Judenfrage ) referred to the belief that the existence of Jews in Germany posed a problem for the state. In 1933 two Nazi theorists, Johann von Leers and Achim Gercke , both proposed the idea that the Jewish Question could be solved by resettling Jews in Madagascar , or somewhere else in Africa or South America. They also discussed
533-537: The " Burschenschaft Congress of 1818"). While they were opposed to the participation of Jews in their movement, similarly to Heinrich von Treitschke later, they did allow the possibility of the Jewish (and other) minorities to participate in the German state if they were to abandon all signs of ethnic and religious distinctiveness and assimilate into the German Volk . Marr rejected the premise of assimilation as
574-624: The "Blätter der Gegenwart für soziales Leben" (Present-Day Papers for Social Life, 1844/45). In 1845 he was expelled from Lausanne, too, and went to Hamburg. There he became a political journalist and published the satirical magazine Mephistopheles (1847/48–1852). He belonged to the leftists of the radical-democratic "party" and was a delegate to the National Assembly in Frankfurt after the March-Revolution of 1848 . After
615-669: The 1880s onwards, culminating in the Nazi phrase of the " Final Solution to the Jewish Question". Similarly, the expression was used by proponents for and opponents of the establishment of an autonomous Jewish homeland or a sovereign Jewish state . The term "Jewish question" was first used in Great Britain around 1750 when the expression was used during the debates related to the Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753 . According to Holocaust scholar Lucy Dawidowicz ,
656-579: The 1880s, the outbreak of anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia and consequent mass emigration of Jews to New York made relations worse. After 1880, escalating pogroms alienated both elite opinion and public opinion in the U.S. In 1903, the Kishinev pogrom killed 47 Jews, injured 400, and left 10,000 homeless and dependent on relief. American Jews began large-scale organized financial help and assisted in emigration from Russia. More violence in Russia led in 1911 to
697-491: The German people). To prevent this from happening, in 1879 Marr founded the League of Antisemites (Antisemiten-Liga), the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews and advocating their forced removal from the country. The Pan-German League , founded in 1891, originally allowed for the membership of Jews, provided they were fully assimilated into German culture. It
738-777: The German rabbi Martin Salomonski [ de ] imagines a refuge for Jews on the moon. The most infamous use of this expression was by the Nazis in the early- and mid-twentieth century. They implemented what they called their " Final Solution to the Jewish question" through the Holocaust during World War II , when they attempted to exterminate Jews in Europe. In his book The Jewish Question (1843), Bauer argued that Jews could only achieve political emancipation if they relinquished their particular religious consciousness. He believed that political emancipation required
779-444: The Jew is the emancipation of society from Judaism." According to Otto Dov Kulka of Hebrew University , the term became widespread in the 19th century when it was used in discussions about Jewish emancipation in Germany ( Judenfrage ). In the 19th century hundreds of tractates, pamphlets, newspaper articles and books were written on the subject, with many offering such solutions as resettlement, deportation, or assimilation of
820-615: The Jewish Question . Nazi propaganda was produced in order to manipulate the public, the most notable examples of which were based on the writings of people such as Eugen Fischer , Fritz Lenz and Erwin Baur in Foundations of Human Heredity Teaching and Racial Hygiene . The work Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens ( Allowing the Destruction of Life Unworthy of Living ) by Karl Binding and Alfred Hoche and
861-538: The Jewish population. Similarly, hundreds of works were written opposing these solutions and offering instead solutions such as re-integration and education. This debate however, could not decide whether the problem of the Jewish question had more to do with the problems posed by the German Jews ' opponents or vice versa: the problem posed by the existence of the German Jews to their opponents. From around 1860,
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#1732766243569902-528: The Jewish question. ' " The question was next discussed in France ( la question juive ) after the French Revolution in 1789. It was discussed in Germany in 1843 via Bruno Bauer 's treatise Die Judenfrage ( ' The Jewish Question ' ). He argued that Jews could achieve political emancipation only if they let go their religious consciousness, as he proposed that political emancipation required
943-432: The Jewish religion prevented assimilation by Jews. Instead, Marx attacked Bauer's very formulation of the question from "can the Jews become politically emancipated?" as fundamentally masking the nature of political emancipation itself. Marx used Bauer's essay as an occasion for his own analysis of liberal rights. Marx argued that Bauer was mistaken in his assumption that in a " secular state ", religion would no longer play
984-454: The Jews to control German finance and industry. Furthermore, since this conflict was based on the different qualities of the Jewish and German races, it could not be resolved even by the total assimilation of the Jewish population. According to Marr, the struggle between Jews and Germans would only be resolved by the victory of one and the ultimate death of the other. A Jewish victory, he concluded, would result in finis Germaniae (the end of
1025-566: The United States repealing an 1832 commercial treaty. In the 1920s, according to historian Leo Ribuffo, auto magnate Henry Ford sponsored a major outburst of attacks on Jews in his magazine, the Dearborn Independent , bundles of which he sent to all Ford dealerships every week. It especially promoted The Protocols of the Elders of Zion , and also published new articles that blamed Jews for America's problems. In 1927, following
1066-455: The accusation that he had furthered communist activities. He turned to Lausanne , where he joined Hermann Döleke and Julius Standau, the founders of the secret Léman -Bund, which belonged to the " Junges Deutschland " (Young German Movement). Marr eventually became the head of the secret society and began to lean towards anarchism and atheism , founded another secret society, the "Schweizerischer Arbeiterbund" (Swiss Worker's Union) and edited
1107-657: The civil, legal, national, and political status of Jews as a minority within society, particularly in Europe during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. The debate began with Jewish emancipation in western and central European societies during the Age of Enlightenment and after the French Revolution . The debate's issues included legal and economic Jewish disabilities (such as Jewish quotas and segregation ), Jewish assimilation , and Jewish Enlightenment . The expression has been used by antisemitic movements from
1148-483: The early nineteenth century, which developed out of frustration among German students with the failure of the Congress of Vienna to create a unified state out of all the territories inhabited by the German people. The Burschenschaft rejected the participation of Jewish and other non-German minorities as members, "unless they prove that they are anxious to develop within themselves a Christian-German spirit" (a decision of
1189-399: The nation is an equal participant in national sovereignty, when it treats all elements of the real life of the nation from the standpoint of the state. Nevertheless, the state allows private property, education, occupation, to act in their way – i.e., as private property, as education, as occupation, and to exert the influence of their special nature. Far from abolishing these real distinctions,
1230-632: The press, education, culture, state and economy. They also proposed to condemn inter-marriage between Jews and non-Jews. They used this term to oust the Jews from their supposedly socially dominant positions. The topic was also taken up by Jews themselves. Theodor Herzl 's 1896 treatise Der Judenstaat advocates Zionism as a "modern solution for the Jewish question" by creating an independent Jewish state, preferably in Ottoman-controlled Palestine. The 1934 science fiction novel Zwei im andern Land [ de ] by
1271-623: The pros and cons of supporting the German Zionists. Von Leers asserted that establishing a Jewish homeland in Mandatory Palestine would create humanitarian and political problems for the region. Upon achieving power in 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi state began to implement increasingly severe legislation that was aimed at segregating and ultimately removing Jews from Germany and (eventually) all of Europe. The next stage
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1312-540: The pseudo-scholarship that was promoted by Gerhard Kittel also played a role. In occupied France , the collaborationist regime established its own Institute for studying the Jewish Questions . According to historians Ronald J. Jensen and Stuart Knee, by the 1870s Russian-American relations were strained by the mistreatment of American Jewish visitors in Russia. President Ulysses S. Grant responded to American Jewish requests for action to protect visitors. By
1353-505: The seventeenth–eighteenth century court Jews as integrated and a model for integration. By the turn of the twentieth century, the debate was still widely discussed. The Dreyfus Affair in France, believed to be evidence of anti-semitism, increased the prominence of this issue. Theodor Herzl proposed the advancement of a separate Jewish state and the Zionist cause. Between 1880 and 1920, millions of Jews created their own solution for
1394-714: The state only exists on the presupposition of their existence; it feels itself to be a political state and asserts its universality only in opposition to these elements of its being. Wilhelm Marr Marr was born in Magdeburg as the only son of an actor and stage director. He went to a primary school in Hanover , then to a high school in Braunschweig . In Hamburg and Bremen , he was an apprentice in commerce, then he joined his father in Vienna , who had been engaged by
1435-399: The term "Jewish Question", as introduced in western Europe , was a neutral expression for the negative attitude toward the apparent and persistent singularity of the Jews as a people against the background of the rising political nationalism and new nation-states . Dawidowicz writes that "the histories of Jewish emancipation and of European antisemitism are replete with proffered 'solutions to
1476-538: The term was used with an increasingly antisemitic tendency: Jews were described under this term as a stumbling block to the identity and cohesion of the German nation and as enemies within the Germans' own country. Antisemites such as Wilhelm Marr , Karl Eugen Dühring , Theodor Fritsch , Houston Stewart Chamberlain , Paul de Lagarde and others declared it a racial problem insoluble through integration. They stressed this in order to strengthen their demands to "de-jewify"
1517-437: The truth of what I said at Des Moines, but feels it was inadvisable to mention the Jewish problem. It is difficult for me to understand Flynn's attitude. He feels as strongly as I do that the Jews are among the major influences pushing this country toward war. He has said so frequently and he says so now. He is perfectly willing to talk about it among a small group of people in private. A dominant anti-Semitic conspiracy theory
1558-407: The ultimate failure of the revolution he became, like so many other former revolutionaries, a proponent of the idea of German unification under Prussian leadership. In 1852, Marr went abroad, to Costa Rica , where he tried to make a living as a businessman. Lacking success, he returned to Hamburg, worked again as a journalist, and in 1854 he married Georgine Johanna Bertha Callenbach, daughter of
1599-478: The world. In 1875, there was a third marriage, to Jenny Therese Kornick (whose parents lived in a Christian-Jewish mixed marriage), who bore him a son. In 1877, this marriage was ended in divorce too; Marr's last wife was Clara Maria Kelch, daughter of a Hamburg working man. Marr's speeches and articles showed first indications of antisemitism in 1848. He was influenced by the Burschenschaft movement of
1640-552: Was only in 1912, eight years after Marr's death, that the League declared racism as an underlying principle. Nevertheless, Marr was a major link in the evolving chain of German racism that erupted into genocide during the Nazi era. According to Moshe Zimmermann in Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism , a book written 100 years after the fact, toward the end of his life Marr came to renounce antisemitism, arguing that social upheaval in Germany had been
1681-412: Was the persecution of the Jews and the stripping of their citizenship through the 1935 Nuremberg Laws . Starting with 1938 Kristallnacht pogrom and later, during World War II , it became state-sponsored internment in concentration camps . Finally the government implemented the systematic extermination of the Jewish people ( The Holocaust ), which took place as the so-called Final Solution to