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70-512: The idea of a just society first gained modern attention when philosophers such as John Stuart Mill asked, "What is a 'just society'?" Their writings covered several perspectives including allowing individuals to live their lives as long as they didn't infringe on the rights to others, to the idea that the resources of society should be distributed to all, including those most deserving first. In 1861, John Stuart Mill published an essay entitled, " Utilitarianism ". In this famous essay, Mill advocated

140-568: A drowning child counts as a harmful act, as does failing to pay taxes , or failing to appear as a witness in court. All such harmful omissions may be regulated, according to Mill. By contrast, it does not count as harming someone if—without force or fraud—the affected individual consents to assume the risk: thus one may permissibly offer unsafe employment to others, provided there is no deception involved. He does, however, recognise one limit to consent: society should not permit people to sell themselves into slavery . The question of what counts as

210-652: A nonconformist who refused to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England , Mill was not eligible to study at the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge . Instead he followed his father to work for the East India Company , and attended University College, London , to hear the lectures of John Austin , the first Professor of Jurisprudence . He was elected

280-569: A Connected View of the Principles of Evidence, and the Methods of Scientific Investigation ). In " Mill's Methods " (of induction), as in Herschel's, laws were discovered through observation and induction, and required empirical verification. Matilal remarks that Dignāga analysis is much like John Stuart Mill's Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, which is inductive. He suggested that it

350-592: A barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only shows that he who so speaks has never considered the subject. For Mill India was " a burden " for England and British colonialism "a blessing of unspeakable magnitude to the population" of India. He also stated his support for settler colonialism . Mill expressed general support for Company rule in India , but expressed reservations on specific Company policies in India which he disagreed with. He also supported colonialism in other places, such as Australia. Mill

420-779: A civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant." One way to read Mill's Principle of Liberty as a principle of public reason is to see it excluding certain kinds of reasons from being taken into account in legislation, or in guiding the moral coercion of public opinion. (Rawls, Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy, p. 291) These reasons include those founded in other persons good; reasons of excellence and ideals of human perfection; reasons of dislike or disgust, or of preference. Mill states that "harms" which may be prevented include acts of omission as well as acts of commission. Thus, failing to rescue

490-534: A foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1856. Mill's career as a colonial administrator at the East India Company spanned from when he was 17 years old in 1823 until 1858, when the company's territories in India were directly annexed by the Crown , establishing direct Crown control over India . In 1836, he was promoted to the company's political department, where he

560-520: A friend of Mill's father. There he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon . Mill went through months of sadness and contemplated suicide at twenty years of age. According to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his life's objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered "no", and unsurprisingly he lost

630-579: A lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left a deep impression on him. In Montpellier , he attended the winter courses on chemistry , zoology , logic of the Faculté des Sciences , as well as taking a course in higher mathematics. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say ,

700-436: A right to prevent. Holmes suggested that falsely shouting out "Fire!" in a dark theatre , which evokes panic and provokes injury, would be such a case of speech that creates an illegal danger. But if the situation allows people to reason by themselves and decide to accept it or not, any argument or theology should not be blocked. Here is Mill on the same topic: "No one pretends that actions should be as free as opinions. On

770-400: A self-regarding action and what actions, whether of omission or commission, constitute harmful actions subject to regulation, continues to exercise interpreters of Mill. He did not consider giving offence to constitute "harm"; an action could not be restricted because it violated the conventions or morals of a given society. Mill believed that "the struggle between Liberty and Authority is

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840-662: A single topic to reflect reasoned disagreements among scholars. Initially, the SEP was developed with U.S. public funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Science Foundation . A long-term fundraising plan to preserve open access to the encyclopedia is supported by many university libraries and library consortia. These institutions contribute under a plan devised by

910-467: A society sufficiently culturally and institutionally advanced to be capable of progressive improvement. If any argument is really wrong or harmful, the public will judge it as wrong or harmful, and then those arguments cannot be sustained and will be excluded. Mill argued that even any arguments which are used in justifying murder or rebellion against the government should not be politically suppressed or socially persecuted . According to him, if rebellion

980-460: A strong advocate of such social reforms as labour unions and farm cooperatives. In Considerations on Representative Government , he called for various reforms of Parliament and voting, especially proportional representation , the single transferable vote , and the extension of suffrage . In April 1868, he favoured in a Commons debate the retention of capital punishment for such crimes as aggravated murder ; he termed its abolition "an effeminacy in

1050-547: A system of " constitutional checks". However, in Mill's view, limiting the power of government was not enough: Society can and does execute its own mandates: and if it issues wrong mandates instead of right, or any mandates at all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practises a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into

1120-461: A theory repugnant to his predecessors.“ Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism , an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham . He contributed to the investigation of scientific methodology , though his knowledge of the topic was based on the writings of others, notably William Whewell , John Herschel , and Auguste Comte , and research carried out for Mill by Alexander Bain . He engaged in written debate with Whewell. A member of

1190-492: A wholly original insight. During the same period, 1865–68, he was also a Member of Parliament (MP) for City of Westminster . He was sitting for the Liberal Party . During his time as an MP, Mill advocated easing the burdens on Ireland. In 1866, he became the first person in the history of Parliament to call for women to be given the right to vote, vigorously defending this position in subsequent debate. He also became

1260-456: Is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress . We can never be sure, he contends, that a silenced opinion does not contain some element of the truth. He also argues that allowing people to air false opinions is productive for two reasons. First, individuals are more likely to abandon erroneous beliefs if they are engaged in an open exchange of ideas . Second, by forcing other individuals to re-examine and re-affirm their beliefs in

1330-481: Is a critical component for a representative government to have to empower debate over public policy . He also eloquently argued that freedom of expression allows for personal growth and self-realization . He said that freedom of speech was a vital way to develop talents and realise a person's potential and creativity. He repeatedly said that eccentricity was preferable to uniformity and stagnation. The belief that freedom of speech would advance society presupposed

1400-415: Is assured a reasonable standard of living. Unfortunately, that is not the case. ... The Just Society will be one in which all of our people will have the means and the motivation to participate. The Just Society will be one in which personal and political freedom will be more securely ensured than it has ever been in the past. The Just Society will be one in which the rights of minorities will be safe from

1470-414: Is competent (although not necessarily considered specialists) in the field covered by the encyclopedia and peer review . The encyclopedia was created in 1995 by Edward N. Zalta , with the explicit aim of providing a dynamic encyclopedia that is updated regularly, and so does not become dated in the manner of conventional print encyclopedias. The charter for the encyclopedia allows for rival articles on

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1540-556: Is most fatal. Mill outlines the benefits of "searching for and discovering the truth" as a way to further knowledge. He argued that even if an opinion is false, the truth can be better understood by refuting the error. And as most opinions are neither completely true nor completely false, he points out that allowing free expression allows the airing of competing views as a way to preserve partial truth in various opinions. Worried about minority views being suppressed, he argued in support of freedom of speech on political grounds, stating that it

1610-418: Is really necessary, people should rebel; if murder is truly proper, it should be allowed. However, the way to express those arguments should be a public speech or writing, not in a way that causes actual harm to others. Such is the harm principle : "That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." At

1680-441: Is the undertaking to decide that question for others , without allowing them to hear what can be said on the contrary side. And I denounce and reprobate this pretension not the less, if put forth on the side of my most solemn convictions. However positive any one's persuasion may be, not only of the falsity, but of the pernicious consequences–not only of the pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions which I altogether condemn)

1750-570: Is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from many academic institutions worldwide. Authors contributing to the encyclopedia give Stanford University the permission to publish the articles, but retain the copyright to those articles. As of August 5, 2022, the SEP has 1,774 published entries. Apart from its online status, the encyclopedia uses the traditional academic approach of most encyclopedias and academic journals to achieve quality by means of specialist authors selected by an editor or an editorial committee that

1820-437: The East India Company from 1823 to 1858, argued in support of what he called a "benevolent despotism" with regard to the administration of overseas colonies. Mill argued: To suppose that the same international customs, and the same rules of international morality, can obtain between one civilized nation and another, and between civilized nations and barbarians, is a grave error. ... To characterize any conduct whatever towards

1890-552: The Liberal Party and author of the early feminist work The Subjection of Women , Mill was also the second member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage after Henry Hunt in 1832. John Stuart Mill was born at 13 Rodney Street in Pentonville , then on the edge of the capital and now in central London , the eldest son of Harriet Barrow and the Scottish philosopher , historian, and economist James Mill . John Stuart

1960-459: The University of St Andrews . At his inaugural address, delivered to the University on 1 February 1867, he made the now-famous (but often wrongly attributed) remark that "Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing." That Mill included that sentence in the address is a matter of historical record, but it by no means follows that it expressed

2030-626: The Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time , followed in 1840 by The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon their History , presenting induction as the mind superimposing concepts on facts. Laws were self-evident truths, which could be known without need for empirical verification. Mill countered this in 1843 in A System of Logic (fully titled A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being

2100-551: The UK press. This prompted demands for better basic legal protection of press freedom. A new British Bill of Rights could include a US-type constitutional ban on governmental infringement of press freedom and block other official attempts to control freedom of opinion and expression. Mill was a member of Edward Gibbon Wakefield 's Colonization Society. In his Principles of Political Economy (1848) he praised Wakefield for his "important writings on colonization". Mill, an employee of

2170-454: The age of eight, Mill began studying Latin , the works of Euclid , and algebra , and was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the family. His main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study and compose poetry. One of his earliest poetic compositions

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2240-411: The beginning of the 20th century, Associate justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. made the standard of "clear and present danger" based on Mill's idea. In the majority opinion, Holmes writes: The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has

2310-498: The book lacked popular support. Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk to talk about political economy . At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham , brother of Jeremy Bentham and in the company of George Ensor , then pursuing his polemic against the political economy of Thomas Malthus . The mountain scenery he saw led to

2380-489: The cases which are least favourable to me—in which the argument opposing freedom of opinion, both on truth and that of utility , is considered the strongest. Let the opinions impugned be the belief in God and in a future state, or any of the commonly received doctrines of morality. ... But I must be permitted to observe, that it is not the feeling sure of a doctrine (be it what it may) which I call an assumption of infallibility . It

2450-436: The contrary, even opinions lose their immunity, when the circumstances in which they are expressed are such as to constitute their expression a positive instigation to some mischievous act. An opinion that corn-dealers are starvers of the poor, or that private property is robbery, ought to be unmolested when simply circulated through the press, but may justly incur punishment when delivered orally to an excited mob assembled before

2520-496: The details of life, and enslaving the soul itself. Mill's view on liberty , which was influenced by Joseph Priestley and Josiah Warren , is that individuals ought to be free to do as they wished unless they caused harm to others. Individuals are rational enough to make decisions about their well-being. Government should interfere when it is for the protection of society. Mill explained: The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with

2590-779: The friendship during the 1840s, though Carlyle's early influence on Mill would colour his later thought. Mill had been engaged in a pen-friendship with Auguste Comte , the founder of positivism and sociology, since Mill first contacted Comte in November 1841. Comte's sociologie was more an early philosophy of science than modern sociology is. Comte's positivism motivated Mill to eventually reject Bentham's psychological egoism and what he regarded as Bentham's cold, abstract view of human nature focused on legislation and politics, instead coming to favour Comte's more sociable view of human nature focused on historical facts and directed more towards human individuals in all their complexities. As

2660-436: The full rights of citizenship through policies which will give them both greater responsibility for their own future and more meaningful equality of opportunity. The Just Society will be a united Canada, united because all of its citizens will be actively involved in the envelope of a country where equality of opportunity is ensured and individuals are permitted to fulfill themselves in the fashion they judge best. ... On

2730-483: The general mind of the country". (It is said in 1868, when his first term ended, no party would nominate him due to his independent spirit. ) He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1867. He was godfather to the philosopher Bertrand Russell . In his views on religion, Mill was an agnostic and a sceptic . Like other philosophers of his time, Mill

2800-487: The happiness of striving towards this objective. Eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy. With renewed vigour, he continued to work towards a just society, but with more relish for the journey. He considered this one of the most pivotal shifts in his thinking. In fact, many of the differences between him and his father stemmed from this expanded source of joy. Mill met Thomas Carlyle during one of

2870-467: The height of " Trudeaumania ", and it eventually became identified as one of his trademark phrases. Unlike the " Great Society " of US President Lyndon B. Johnson , the label "Just Society" was not attached to a specific set of reforms, but rather applied to all Trudeau's policies, from multiculturalism to the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms . Trudeau defined a just society before becoming

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2940-489: The house of a corn-dealer, or when handed about among the same mob in the form of a placard" ( On LIberty , chapter 3). Mill's argument is now generally accepted by many democratic countries , and they have laws at least guided by the harm principle. For example, in American law some exceptions limit free speech such as obscenity , defamation , breach of peace , and " fighting words ". In On Liberty , Mill thought it

3010-413: The immorality and impiety of an opinion; yet if, in pursuance of that private judgment, though backed by the public judgment of his country or his contemporaries, he prevents the opinion from being heard in its defence, he assumes infallibility. And so far from the assumption being less objectionable or less dangerous because the opinion is called immoral or impious, this is the case of all others in which it

3080-409: The latter view, in which decision makers attended to the " common good " and all other citizens worked collectively to build communities and programs that would contribute to the good of others. The term was later used as a rhetorical device by Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau to encapsulate his vision for the nation. He first used the term in the 1968 Liberal Party leadership contest , at

3150-623: The latter's visits to London in the early 1830s, and the two quickly became companions and correspondents. Mill offered to print Carlyle's works at his own expense and encouraged Carlyle to write his French Revolution , supplying him with materials in order to do so. In March 1835, while the manuscript of the completed first volume was in Mill's possession, Mill's housemaid unwittingly used it as tinder, destroying all "except some three or four bits of leaves". Mortified, Mill offered Carlyle £200 (£17,742.16 in 2021) as compensation (Carlyle would only accept £100). Ideological differences would put an end to

3220-429: The liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in

3290-453: The most conspicuous feature in the portions of history." For him, liberty in antiquity was a "contest...between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the government." Mill defined social liberty as protection from "the tyranny of political rulers". He introduced a number of different concepts of the form tyranny can take, referred to as social tyranny, and tyranny of the majority . Social liberty for Mill meant putting limits on

3360-489: The never-ending road to perfect justice we will, in other words, succeed in creating the most humane and compassionate society possible. The phrase is now an ingrained part of Canadian political discourse. Those on the social-democratic left consider themselves Trudeau's heirs and vigorously denounce any policy that would harm the Just Society legacy, while the neoliberal right attacks the notion that Trudeau's Canada

3430-525: The nineteenth century" by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , he conceived of liberty as justifying the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control . Mill advocated political and social reforms such as proportional representation, emancipation of women, and the development of labor organizations and farm cooperatives. The Columbia Encyclopedia 5th ed. says of him “at times Mill came close to socialism,

3500-427: The opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. ... The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns him, his independence is, of right, absolute . Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign . On Liberty involves an impassioned defence of free speech . Mill argues that free discourse

3570-419: The original language. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, ultimately completing their classical economic view of factors of production . Mill's comptes rendus of his daily economy lessons helped his father in writing Elements of Political Economy in 1821, a textbook to promote the ideas of Ricardian economics ; however,

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3640-466: The permanent interests of people as progressive beings. (Rawls, Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy, p. 289) Mill states the Principle of Liberty as: "the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection." "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of

3710-518: The prime minister of Canada: No one in the society should be entitled to superfluous or luxury goods until the essentials of life are made available to everyone. At first glance, that distribution would appear to obtain in Canada. Thanks to our abundant natural wealth and to the techniques of the industrial era, it no longer seems necessary to trample on one another in the scramble for riches. Consequently, most people take it for granted that every Canadian

3780-557: The process of debate, these beliefs are kept from declining into mere dogma . It is not enough for Mill that one simply has an unexamined belief that happens to be true; one must understand why the belief in question is the true one. Along those same lines Mill wrote, "unmeasured vituperation, employed on the side of prevailing opinion, really does deter people from expressing contrary opinions, and from listening to those who express them." As an influential advocate of freedom of speech, Mill objected to censorship: I choose, by preference

3850-532: The ruler's power so that he would not be able to use that power to further his own wishes and thus make decisions that could harm society. In other words, people should have the right to have a say in the government's decisions. He said that social liberty was "the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual." It was attempted in two ways: first, by obtaining recognition of certain immunities (called political liberties or rights ); and second, by establishment of

3920-442: The subject." (However, Mill immediately added that "A violation of the great principles of morality it may easily be.") Mill viewed places such as India as having once been progressive in their outlook, but had now become stagnant in their development; he opined that this meant these regions had to be ruled via a form of " benevolent despotism ...provided the end is improvement." When the Crown proposed to take direct control over

3990-758: The territories of the East India Company , Mill was tasked with defending Company rule and penned Memorandum on the Improvements in the Administration of India during the Last Thirty Years , among other petitions. He was offered a seat on the Council of India , the body created to advise the new Secretary of State for India , but declined, citing disapproval of the new system of administration in India. On 21 April 1851, Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of intimate friendship. Taylor

4060-445: The whims of intolerant majorities. The Just Society will one in which those regions and groups which have not fully shared in the country’s affluence will be given a better opportunity. The Just Society will be one where such urban problems as housing and pollution will be attacked through the application of new knowledge and new techniques. The Just Society will be one in which our Indian and Inuit population will be encouraged to assume

4130-446: Was "chiefly an amanuensis to my wife". He called her mind a "perfect instrument", and said she was "the most eminently qualified of all those known to the author". He cites her influence in his final revision of On Liberty , which was published shortly after her death. Taylor died in 1858 after developing severe lung congestion , after only seven years of marriage to Mill. Between the years 1865 and 1868 Mill served as Lord Rector of

4200-469: Was a continuation of the Iliad . In his spare time he also enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe . His father's work, The History of British India , was published in 1818; immediately thereafter, at about the age of twelve, Mill began a thorough study of the scholastic logic , at the same time reading Aristotle 's logical treatises in

4270-503: Was a notably precocious child. He describes his education in his autobiography. At the age of three he was taught Greek . By the age of eight, he had read Aesop's Fables , Xenophon 's Anabasis , and the whole of Herodotus , and was acquainted with Lucian , Diogenes Laërtius , Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato . He had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic , physics and astronomy. At

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4340-612: Was among the founding members of the South Australian Association in 1833, which was set up to lobby the government to establish colonies in Australia. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ( SEP ) is a freely available online philosophy resource published and maintained by Stanford University , encompassing both an online encyclopedia of philosophy and peer-reviewed original publication. Each entry

4410-473: Was buried alongside his wife's. Mill joined the debate over the scientific method which followed on from John Herschel 's 1830 publication of A Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy , which incorporated inductive reasoning from the known to the unknown, discovering general laws in specific facts and verifying these laws empirically. William Whewell expanded on this in his 1837 History of

4480-482: Was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place . He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism , had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham had died. Mill

4550-758: Was interested in botany. It is believed that approximately 1,000 of his specimens are held by the Museum Requien in Avignon, and Mill's stepdaughter Helen donated specimens to the Kew Herbarium after his death. In the southern hemisphere, there are also specimens at the National Herbarium of Victoria , Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria , Australia. Mill died on 7 May 1873, at the age of 66, of erysipelas in Avignon , France, where his body

4620-625: Was married when they met, and their relationship was close but generally believed to be chaste during the years before her first husband died in 1849. The couple waited two years before marrying in 1851. Upon marriage, he made a declaration to repudiate the rights conferred upon him over her by virtue of the marriage under Victorian law. Accomplished in her own right, Taylor was a significant influence on Mill's work and ideas during both friendship and marriage. His relationship with Taylor reinforced Mill's advocacy of women's rights . He said that in his stand against domestic violence, and for women's rights he

4690-571: Was more "just" than other eras. Notable other users of the phrase have included Irish Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave of the Fine Gael party. John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873) was an English philosopher, political economist , politician and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism , he contributed widely to social theory , political theory , and political economy. Dubbed "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of

4760-462: Was necessary for him to restate the case for press freedom. He considered that argument already won. Almost no politician or commentator in mid-19th-century Britain wanted a return to Tudor and Stuart-type press censorship. However, Mill warned new forms of censorship could emerge in the future. Indeed, in 2013 the Cameron Tory government considered setting up an independent official regulator of

4830-434: Was responsible for correspondence pertaining to the company's relations with the princely states , and, in 1856, was finally promoted to the position of Examiner of Indian Correspondence. In On Liberty , A Few Words on Non-Intervention , and other works, he opined that "To characterize any conduct whatever towards a barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only shows that he who so speaks has never considered

4900-546: Was very likely that during his stay in India he came across the tradition of logic, in which scholars started taking interest after 1824, though it is unknown whether it influenced his work. Mill's On Liberty (1859) addresses the nature and limits of the power that can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual . Mill's idea is that only if a democratic society follows the Principle of Liberty can its political and social institutions fulfill their role of shaping national character so that its citizens can realise

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