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137-534: Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie ( Indonesian: [baxaˈrudːin ˈjusuf haˈbibi] ; 25 June 1936 – 11 September 2019) was an Indonesian politician, engineer and scientist who served as the third president of Indonesia from 1998 to 1999. Less than three months after his inauguration as the seventh vice president in March 1998, he succeeded Suharto , who resigned after 32 years in office, thereby being
274-527: A Javanese noblewoman from Yogyakarta , which met each other while studying in Bogor . Habibie's paternal family comes from Kabila, just to the east of the town of Gorontalo in northern Sulawesi. He was the fourth of eight children. Habibie's father died when he was 14 years old. In 2018, the Gorontalo provincial government agreed to support the construction of the B. J. Habibie's Monument in front of
411-582: A UN-mandated peacekeeping force to halt violence. A period of UN administration followed and East Timor became independent in May 2002. The MPR Special Session in November 1998 decried the presence of corruption in Indonesia, focusing particularly on Suharto. In response to this, Habibie then appointed Andi Muhammad Ghalib as Attorney General . A tape of a telephone conversation between Habibie and Ghalib
548-412: A 5-year term. The Amended 1945 Constitution : The presidential candidate has to be an Indonesian citizen since their birth, who has not willingly become a citizen in another nation, has not betrayed the nation, and is physically and mentally capable of performing the duties. Amended Constitution also states that further criteria will be determined by laws. The president is also required to be nominated by
685-704: A Political Party or a coalition of Political Parties. 2017 Law No. 7 Regarding Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections The presidential candidate must: This law also stipulates that only political parties or a coalition of political parties that obtained 20% of the seats in the DPR or 25% of the total valid votes in the previous election may nominate president and vice president candidate. The Original 1945 Constitution : The presidential candidate has to be of Indonesian origin. The 1950 Provisional Constitution : The presidential candidate has to be an Indonesian citizen aged at least 30 years old. They cannot be someone who
822-512: A considerable loss. On 12 September 2019, a video was released showing East Timor 's former president , Xanana Gusmão , visiting Habibie in hospital on 22 July 2019. Gusmão is shown talking briefly to Habibie while crying, then kissing Habibie on the forehead and lowering his face to Habibie's chest, with the other holding his head. A wreath in Gusmão's name was at the funeral, with a sign reading: "Profound Condolences - With heartfelt sympathy for
959-483: A five-year term, once renewable, allowing for a maximum of 10 years in office. The new president of Indonesia is Prabowo Subianto , who assumed office on 20 October 2024 . The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK). The office was first filled on 18 August 1945 when Sukarno
1096-500: A large faction in the party remained loyal to Tandjung and opposed to Habibie. His political credibility was tarnished by the exposure of the 1999 Bank Bali scandal , in which banking funds were funneled to members of Habibie's re-election team. At the 1999 MPR General Session in October, Habibie delivered an accountability speech. MPR members then began voting to decide if they would accept or reject his speech. Habibie attempted to win
1233-602: A manufacturer of aircraft including Puma helicopters and CASA planes . It pioneered a small passenger airplane, the N-250 Gatotkaca , in 1995, but the project was a commercial failure. In developing Indonesia's aviation industry, he adopted an approach called "Begin at the End and End at the Beginning". In this method, elements such as basic research became the last things upon which to focus, whilst actual manufacturing of
1370-465: A pension. Former presidents are also entitled to a house, with electricity, water, and telephone bills covered by the government. In addition to that, former presidents shall have free healthcare for their families and a car with a chauffeur . The presidents of Indonesia, as the issuer of decorations and the Grandmaster of Star Decorations ( Tanda Kehormatan Bintang ) are automatically awarded
1507-485: A political base, linked to but independent of the Suharto administration. In January 1998, after accepting nomination for a seventh term as president, Suharto announced the selection criteria for the nomination of a vice president. Suharto did not mention Habibie by name, but his suggestion that the next vice president should have a mastery of science and technology made it obvious he had Habibie in mind. In that year, in
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#17327726807301644-693: A position with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in Hamburg . There, he developed theories on thermodynamics , construction, and aerodynamics known as the Habibie Factor (thermodynamics), Habibie Theorem (construction), and Habibie Method (aerodynamics), respectively. He worked for Messerschmitt on the development of the Airbus A-300 B aircraft. In 1974, he was promoted to vice president of the company. In 1974, Suharto recruited Habibie to return to Indonesia as part of his drive to industrialize and develop
1781-501: A presidential obligation to deliver accountability speeches near the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made and how those achievements had adhered to the GBHN set by the MPR. Despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was subservient to him. In 1969, a law was passed that required appointments to
1918-412: A promise of office before officially becoming president. The term of office is five years and after that the president can be re-elected for only one more term, whether successive or separated. The president and vice president candidate must receive over half the votes total, including at least 20% of the votes in at least half the 38 provinces to win. In the event that no ticket wins an outright victory,
2055-605: A result of the Variscan orogeny . After this event, and over the course of the following 200 million years, this area has been continuously flattened. During the Cretaceous period, the ocean penetrated the continent from the direction of the North Sea up to the mountainous area near Aachen, bringing with it clay, sand, and chalk deposits. While the clay (which was the basis for a major pottery industry in nearby Raeren )
2192-592: A rival camp including former vice president Try Sutrisno , defense minister Edi Sudradjat, Siswono Yudo Husodo , and Sarwono Kusumaatmadja. Habibie began to lose support from Akbar Tandjung and a faction in Golkar, composed of both reformers and hardliners, that wanted to oust him. In March 1999, Golkar put forth five presidential nominees: Habibie, Tandjung, Wiranto, Hamengkubuwono X , and Ginandjar Kartasasmita . In May 1999, after extensive lobbying, Golkar announced that Habibie would be their presidential candidate, but
2329-464: A runoff is held between the two tickets with the first and second most votes in the first round, with the ticket that receives the most votes elected as President and Vice President. The Original 1945 Constitution : Together with the vice president, the president is elected by the MPR with the largest number of votes. The president-elect is also required to read either an oath or a promise of office before officially becoming president. The term of office
2466-410: A son, Ilham Akbar Habibie. Habibie later found employment with the railway stock firm Waggonfabrik Talbot , where he became an advisor in designing train wagons. Due to his work with Makosh, the head of train construction offered his position to Habibie upon retirement three years later, but Habibie refused the position. In 1965, Habibie delivered his dissertation in aerospace engineering and received
2603-1047: A technocrat. Habibie was appointed a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng) in 1990. In 1993, he was awarded an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society (HonFRAeS). He was also named an honorary member of several professional bodies, including: As vice president, and later president of Indonesia, he was automatically bestowed the highest class of all civilian and military Star Decorations from Indonesia , namely: In addition, he also received several foreign decorations: [REDACTED] Austria : [REDACTED] Belgium : [REDACTED] Brazil : [REDACTED] Chile : [REDACTED] France : [REDACTED] Germany : [REDACTED] Italy : President of Indonesia [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The president of
2740-526: A transitional government, Habibie seemed determined to continue as president. He was initially unclear about whether he would seek a full term as president when he announced parliamentary elections in June 1998. Habibie faced opposition from many within the government party, Golkar; in July 1998, he struggled to win control of Golkar by appointing Akbar Tandjung as chair of the party, but was ultimately able to defeat
2877-535: A vice-presidential decree which gave the Central National Committee of Indonesia (KNIP) legislative powers. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State from that of Head of Government. Although a new constitution had not been set up yet, Indonesia was now a de facto parliamentary democracy with the president as a ceremonial Head of State whose function
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#17327726807303014-487: Is also able to seek advice from the Supreme Advisory Council (DPA). The 1950 Provisional Constitution : The president is assisted by the vice president. The Amended 1945 Constitution : If the president dies, resigns, removed, or is unable to perform their duties for any reason, they are replaced by the vice president . If the vice president becomes vacant, the president nominates two candidates and
3151-466: Is assisted by the vice president and their ministers . The ministers are appointed and dismissed by the president. Each minister is in charge of certain government affairs. The president is also allowed to form their own advisory teams which will further be regulated by laws passed by the DPR. The Original 1945 Constitution : The president is assisted by the vice president and their ministers. The president
3288-420: Is deemed to be undesirable or has had their right to take part in elections revoked. They are also required to not be involved with any private corporations. The Amended 1945 Constitution : Together with the vice president, the president is elected directly by the people on a single ticket. Further election rules are determined by laws passed by the DPR . The president-elect is required to read either an oath or
3425-694: Is divided into seven administrative districts, or boroughs, each with its own district council, district leader, and district authority. The councils are elected locally by those who live within the district, and these districts are further subdivided into smaller sections for statistical purposes, with each sub-district named by a two-digit number. The districts of Aachen, including their constituent statistical districts, are: Regardless of official statistical designations, there are 50 neighbourhoods and communities within Aachen, here arranged by district: The following cities and communities border Aachen, clockwise from
3562-452: Is five years and after that the president can be re-elected again. The 1950 Provisional Constitution : Together with the vice president, the president is elected according to rules specified by laws. The president-elect is required to read either an oath or a promise or a statement of office before officially becoming president. The president is constitutionally required to live where the seat of Government is. Before entering his/her office,
3699-512: Is known as Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia) since 2000. In 1978, he was appointed as State Minister of Research and Technology ( Indonesian : Menteri Negara Riset dan Teknologi , Menristek). He continued to play an important role in IPTN other "strategic" industries in this post. By the 1980s, IPTN had grown considerably, specializing in the manufacture of helicopters and small passenger planes. Under Habibie's leadership, IPTN became
3836-565: Is mostly found in the lower areas of Aachen, the hills of the Aachen Forest and the Lousberg were formed from upper Cretaceous sand and chalk deposits. More recent sedimentation is mainly located in the north and east of Aachen and was formed through tertiary and quaternary river and wind activities. Along the major thrust fault of the Variscan orogeny , there are over 30 thermal springs in Aachen and Burtscheid . Additionally,
3973-944: Is the 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants. Aachen is located at the northern foothills of the High Fens and the Eifel Mountains. It sits on the Wurm River , a tributary of the Rur , and together with Mönchengladbach , it is the only larger German city in the drainage basin of the Meuse . It is the westernmost larger city in Germany, lying approximately 61 km (38 mi) west of Cologne and Bonn , directly bordering Belgium in
4110-509: The Eifel and the High Fens and its subsequent prevailing westerly weather patterns, rainfall in Aachen (on average 805 mm/year) is comparatively higher than, for example, in Bonn (with 669 mm/year). Another factor in the local weather forces of Aachen is the occurrence of Foehn winds on the southerly air currents, which results from the city's geographic location on the northern edge of
4247-463: The MPR has to elect a new vice president out of the candidates within 60 days. If the president and the vice president dies, resigns, or are unable to perform their duties for any reason, the government will be taken over together by the minister of home affairs , minister of foreign affairs , and minister of defense . No later than 30 days after that, MPR must elect a new president and vice president from
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4384-596: The Meuse , and about 30 km (19 mi) north of the High Fens , which form the northern edge of the Eifel uplands of the Rhenish Massif . The maximum dimensions of the city's territory are 21.6 km ( 13 + 3 ⁄ 8 mi) from north to south, and 17.2 km ( 10 + 3 ⁄ 4 mi) from east to west. The city limits are 87.7 km ( 54 + 1 ⁄ 2 mi) long, of which 23.8 km ( 14 + 3 ⁄ 4 mi) border Belgium and 21.8 km ( 13 + 1 ⁄ 2 mi)
4521-600: The National Council of Timorese Resistance had been calling for a referendum in the territory for some time. Its chief diplomat, José Ramos-Horta , proposed a transitional period of autonomy leading up to a referendum. In late 1998, John Howard , the Prime Minister of Australia, sent a letter to Habibie suggesting that Indonesia defuse the East Timorese issue by providing autonomy to be followed by
4658-735: The Neolithic era, about 5,000 years ago, attracted to its warm mineral springs . Latin Aquae figures in Aachen's Roman name Aquae granni , which meant "waters of Grannus ", referring to the Celtic god of healing who was worshipped at the springs. This word became Åxhe in Walloon and Aix in French, and subsequently Aix-la-Chapelle to distinguish it from Aix-en-Provence , after Charlemagne had his palatine chapel built there in
4795-511: The Palace . Charlemagne spent most winters in Aachen between 792 and his death in 814. Aachen became the focus of his court and the political centre of his empire. During the Carolingian empire, a Jewish community lived near the royal palace. In Jewish texts, the city of Aachen was called Aish or Ash (אש). In 797, Isaac, a Jewish merchant, accompanied two ambassadors of Charlemagne to
4932-667: The RWTH Aachen (Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule), known especially for mechanical engineering, automotive and manufacturing technology as well as for its research and academic hospital Klinikum Aachen , one of the largest medical facilities in Europe. Aachen is located in the middle of the Meuse–Rhine Euroregion , close to the border tripoint of Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium . The town of Vaals in
5069-628: The Treaty of Verdun , the city was within the borders of Middle Francia , until it became part of East Francia after the Treaty of Meerssen (870). It subsequently was part of the Holy Roman Empire and was granted city rights in 1166 by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , becoming an imperial city . It served as the coronation site where 31 Holy Roman Emperors were crowned Kings of the Germans from 936 to 1531, until Frankfurt am Main became
5206-691: The War of Devolution . The second congress ended with the second treaty in 1748, ending the War of the Austrian Succession . In 1789, there was a constitutional crisis in the Aachen government, and in 1794 Aachen lost its status as a free imperial city . In 1629, the Aachen Jewish community was expelled from the city. In 1667, six Jews were allowed to return. Most of the Aachen Jewish community settled in Burtscheid. As recently as
5343-586: The migration period . The last Roman coin finds are from the time of Emperor Gratian (AD 375–383). Rome withdrew its troops from the area, but the town remained populated. By 470, the town came to be ruled by the Ripuarian Franks and subordinated to their capital, Cologne . During the Roman period, Aachen was the site of a flourishing Jewish community. Pepin the Short had a castle residence built in
5480-567: The vicus Aquae Granni was Frankized around the 5th century. This was followed by a period of sedentism under first Merovingian and then Carolingian rule. With the completion of the Carolingian Palace of Aachen at the transition to the 9th century, Aachen was constituted as the main royal residence of the Frankish Empire ruled by Charlemagne . Because of that the city is sometimes called "cradle of Europe". After
5617-788: The " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoleon's First French Empire . In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars , the Kingdom of Prussia took over within the new German Confederation . The city was one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century. Administered within the Rhine Province , by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1838, the railway from Cologne to Belgium passed through Aachen. The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions until 1875, when
B. J. Habibie - Misplaced Pages Continue
5754-566: The 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a provisional basis (MPRS), was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nation's highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the political tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. In 1967, Sukarno was forced to resign as president, and army chief of staff Suharto
5891-518: The Armed Forces although any decision on this matter needs to be countersigned by the appropriate ministers and wartime control of troops has to be placed under an Armed Forces Commander. The president requires permission from the DPR to declare war and sign treaties although the president has independent power to appoint ambassadors and to accept them. The president also has the power to grant pardons. The Amended 1945 Constitution : The president
6028-530: The Asian financial crisis and the chaos of the last few months of Suharto's presidency. Habibie's government began to make conciliatory gestures towards Chinese-Indonesians who, because of their elite status, were targeted in the riots of 1998 . In September 1998, Habibie issued a 'Presidential Instruction' forbidding use of the terms pribumi and non-pribumi to differentiate indigenous and non-indigenous Indonesians. In May 1999, Habibie directed that an ID card
6165-527: The Canadian city of Regina, Saskatchewan which is located at a similar latitude but at the heart of the North American landmass, far away from the sea's moderating effects, is classified as being in zone 3a. In the 1991–2020 period, the last freeze (at 2 m above ground) of spring occcured on April 28th and the first fall freeze on October 13th, on average. The Aachen weather station has recorded
6302-600: The Celtic god, and it seems it was the Roman 6th Legion at the start of the 1st century AD that first channelled the hot springs into a spa at Büchel, adding at the end of the same century the Münstertherme spa, two water pipelines, and a probable sanctuary dedicated to Grannus. A kind of forum, surrounded by colonnades, connected the two spa complexes. There was an extensive residential area. The Romans built bathhouses near Burtscheid . A temple precinct called Vernenum
6439-645: The DPR). If the Constitutional Court decides that the president has violated the law, the DPR can motion for the MPR to convene. The president would then be given one last chance to defend himself before the MPR makes the decision whether or not the president should be impeached. The decision of the MPR to dismiss the President and/or the Vice President is made with the approval of at least 2/3 of
6576-454: The Eifel. Because the city is surrounded by hills, it suffers from inversion-related smog. Some areas of the city have become urban heat islands as a result of poor heat exchange, both because of the area's natural geography and from human activity. The city's numerous cold air corridors, which are slated to remain as free as possible from new construction, therefore play an important role in
6713-589: The Government and has the power to name and remove ministers. The president has the power to create laws with the agreement of the People's Representative Council (DPR), to make Government regulations in accordance with laws, and in the case of emergencies has the power to make Government regulations in lieu of law. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over the Army, Navy, and Air Force whilst security-wise,
6850-460: The MPR to be made official by the president. He also took measures that largely emasculated the opposition parties. For example, he had the power to issue governmental regulations in lieu of law. Nominally, if these regulations were not approved by the House of People's Representatives (DPR, the pre-2004 legislative branch), they were considered revoked. However, given the DPR's infrequent sessions and
6987-702: The Netherlands and Indonesia), he had to continue his study at the Technische Hochschule Aachen ( RWTH Aachen University ) in Aachen, Germany . In 1960, Habibie received an engineer's degree in Germany with the title Diplom-Ingenieur . He remained in Germany as a research assistant under Hans Ebner at the Lehrstuhl und Institut für Leichtbau, RWTH Aachen to conduct research for his doctoral degree. In 1962, Habibie returned to Indonesia for three months on sick leave . During this time, he
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#17327726807307124-586: The Netherlands lies nearby at about 6 km (4 mi) from Aachen's city centre, while the Dutch city of Heerlen and Eupen , the capital of the German-speaking Community of Belgium , are both located about 20 km (12 mi) from Aachen city centre. Aachen lies near the head of the open valley of the Wurm (which today flows through the city in canalised form), part of the larger basin of
7261-497: The Netherlands. The highest point in Aachen, located in the far southeast of the city, lies at an elevation of 410 m (1,350 ft) above sea level. The lowest point, in the north, and on the border with the Netherlands, is at 125 m (410 ft). As the westernmost city in Germany (and close to the Low Countries), Aachen and the surrounding area belongs to a temperate climate zone ( Cfb ), with humid weather, mild winters, and warm summers. Because of its location north of
7398-477: The OFP (Overseas Fellowship Program), STMDP (Science Technology and Manpower Development Program) and STAID (Science and Technology for Industrial Development). These three programs provided scholarships to thousands of high school graduates to earn their bachelor's degrees in the STEM fields and for other technical professionals to continue their study for master's and doctorate program in the United States, Europe, Japan, and other countries. In Suharto 's regime, as
7535-480: The President of the Republic of Indonesia : "I solemnly pledge to fulfill the duties of President (Vice President) of the Republic of Indonesia to the best of my capabilities and in the fairest way possible, to uphold the Constitution by all means and to execute all laws and regulations as straightforwardly as possible as well as to dedicate myself to the service of the Nation and the People." The Amended 1945 Constitution : The president has constitutional authority over
7672-417: The President of the Republic of Indonesia : "I swear by God to fulfill the duties of President (Vice President) of the Republic of Indonesia to the best of my capabilities and in the fairest way possible, to uphold the Constitution by all means and to execute all laws and regulations as straightforwardly as possible as well as to dedicate myself to the service of the Nation and the People." Pledge of Office of
7809-439: The President or Vice President must take an oath or affirmation in the session of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) . If the MPR is unable to hold a session, the oath or promise is made in a session of the People's Representative Council (DPR) . If the DPR is unable to hold a session, the oath or affirmation is made before the leadership of the MPR in the presence of the leadership of the Supreme Court . Oath of Office of
7946-428: The Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Presiden Republik Indonesia ) is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia . The president is the leader of the executive branch of the Indonesian government and the supreme commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces and the Indonesian National Police . Since 2004 , the president and vice president have been directly elected to
8083-532: The Roman Curia as such. In 936, Otto I was crowned king of East Francia in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. During the reign of Otto II , the nobles revolted and the West Franks under Lothair raided Aachen in 978. Aachen was attacked again by Odo of Champagne , who attacked the imperial palace while Conrad II was absent. Odo relinquished it and was killed afterwards. The palace and town of Aachen had fortifying walls built by order of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa between 1172 and 1176. Over
8220-520: The Suharto-era restriction on political parties and ended censorship by dissolving the Information Ministry. He also quickly committed to holding democratic elections, albeit on an initially vague timetable. In December, he proposed political reform laws that were passed by the legislature and MPR. These laws set elections for December 1999, reduced the number of seats in parliament held by the military, and barred political activity by civil servants. However, political opponents criticized Habibie for allowing
8357-414: The city is best known is Aachener Printen , a type of gingerbread . The name Aachen is a modern descendant, like southern German Ach(e) , German: Aach , meaning "river" or "stream", from Old High German ahha , meaning "water" or "stream", which directly translates (and etymologically corresponds) to Latin Aquae , referring to the springs. The location has been inhabited by humans since
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#17327726807308494-449: The city. On Kristallnacht in 1938, the synagogue was destroyed. By the onset of World War II in 1939, many Jews had emigrated or were arrested, and only 782 remained in the city. At the end of the war in 1945, only 62 Jews lived in the city. As of 2003, 1,434 Jews were again living in Aachen. The city of Aachen has developed into a technology hub as a by-product of hosting one of the leading universities of technology in Germany with
8631-415: The city. The first killed 1,525, including 212 children, and bombed six hospitals. During the second, 442 aircraft hit two railway stations, killed 207, and left 15,000 homeless. The raids destroyed Aachen-Eilendorf and Aachen-Burtscheid . The city and its fortified surroundings were besieged from 12 September to 21 October 1944 by the US 1st Infantry Division with the 3rd Armored Division assisting from
8768-555: The country. Habibie initially served as a special assistant to Ibnu Sutowo , chief executive officer of the state oil company Pertamina and Chair of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology ( Indonesian : Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi , BPPT). Two years later, Habibie was made CEO of the new state-owned enterprise Industri Pesawat Terbang Nurtanio (IPTN; Nurtanio Aircraft Industry), which in 1985 changed its name to Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara (Nusantara Aircraft Industry; also abbreviated as IPTN) and
8905-418: The court library were also produced locally. During the reign of Louis the Pious (814–840), substantial quantities of ancient texts were produced at Aachen, including legal manuscripts such as the leges scriptorium group, patristic texts including the five manuscripts of the Bamberg Pliny Group . Finally, under Lothair I (840–855), texts of outstanding quality were still being produced. This however marked
9042-434: The court of Harun al-Rashid . He returned to Aachen in July 802, bearing an elephant called Abul-Abbas as a gift for the emperor. After Charlemagne's death, he was buried in the church which he had built; his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the Karlsschrein , the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never officially acknowledged by
9179-414: The document confirmed the president's role as the head of state, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a prime minister on the advice of formateurs. Despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial head of State, and grew increasingly disenchanted with western-style parliamentary democracy. In
9316-457: The early 1950s, he began calling for the implementation of " Guided Democracy ," in which decisions would be made after lengthy deliberation with a view toward achieving a consensus under presidential "guidance." The rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959 and suggested that Indonesia return to the 1945 Constitution. The People reacted enthusiastically and there
9453-432: The end of 2009, the foreign-born residents of Aachen made up 13.6 percent of the total population. A significant portion of foreign residents are students at the RWTH Aachen University . Aachen is at the western end of the Benrath line that divides High German to the south from the rest of the West Germanic speech area to the north. Aachen's local dialect is called Öcher Platt and belongs to Ripuarian . The city
9590-513: The end of his presidency. His 517-day presidency and 71-day vice presidency were each the shortest in Indonesian history. Before entering government, Habibie contributed to the making of Indonesia's first domestic airplane , the IPTN N-250 . As a result, he was granted the title "Father of Technology." Habibie was born in Parepare , South Sulawesi . His parents, Alwi Abdul Jalil Habibie, an agriculturist from ethnic Bugis - Gorontalese descent, from Gorontalo , and R. A. Tuti Marini Puspowardojo,
9727-402: The end of the period of manuscript production at Aachen. In 1598, following the invasion of Spanish troops from the Netherlands , Rudolf deposed all Protestant office holders in Aachen and went as far as expelling them from the city. From the early 16th century, Aachen started to lose its power and influence. First the coronations of emperors were moved from Aachen to Frankfurt . This
9864-636: The first president of Indonesia to be buried at the Kalibata Heroes' Cemetery , next to his wife's grave. In response to his death, the Government of Indonesia announced a three-day national mourning period starting on 12 September, and announced that the Indonesian flag is to be flown at half-staff during the period. Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad was saddened by the loss of his old friend, Habibie. He described his demise as
10001-409: The first president who had to beat another candidate to be elected, as Sukarno and Suharto had been sole candidates. As a result of this, Wahid was also the first president to be elected through counting votes instead of by acclamation. However, Wahid was impeached and removed from office by the MPR. This was a clear sign that while the presidency is the key institution, the MPR was now truly a check on
10138-702: The following extreme values: The geology of Aachen is very structurally heterogeneous. The oldest occurring rocks in the area surrounding the city originate from the Devonian period and include carboniferous sandstone , greywacke , claystone and limestone . These formations are part of the Rhenish Massif , north of the High Fens. In the Pennsylvanian subperiod of the Carboniferous geological period, these rock layers were narrowed and folded as
10275-513: The government and has the power to name and remove ministers. The president has the right to propose bills to DPR , to discuss bills with the DPR to reach an agreement, make government regulations in accordance with laws, and in the case of emergencies has the power to make Government regulations in lieu of law. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over the Indonesian National Armed Forces . Diplomatically,
10412-408: The government, under pressure from Tommy, allegedly gave him a desirable parcel and below-market loan for the construction of a Goro supermarket. However, Tommy was found innocent in the case after several key witnesses, including Habibie aide Rahardi Ramelan, changed their testimony and declared that the deal did not cause losses to the state. Habibie's government stabilized the economy in the face of
10549-522: The grade of "very good," giving him the title Doktoringenieur (Dr.-Ing.). The same year, he accepted Hans Ebner's offer to continue his research on Thermoelastisitas and work toward his habilitation , but he declined the offer to join RWTH as a professor. His thesis about light construction for supersonic or hypersonic states also attracted offers of employment from companies such as Boeing and Airbus , which Habibie again declined. Habibie did accept
10686-666: The highest class of all civilian and military Star Decorations. Currently there are 14 decorations which will be bestowed upon them soon after taking office, namely: The most recent presidential election was held in 2024 where Prabowo Subianto and his running mate Gibran Rakabuming Raka defeated Anies Baswedan and Ganjar Pranowo with 58.6% of the vote. Aachen Aachen ( / ˈ ɑː k ən / AH -kən , German: [ˈaːxn̩] ; Aachen dialect : Oche [ˈɔːxə] ; Dutch : Aken [ˈaːkə(n)] ; French: Aix-la-Chapelle ; Latin: Aquae Granni or Aquisgranum )
10823-604: The late 18th century the Abbess of Burtscheid was still prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the duke of Jülich ; the city of Aachen deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away road-diggers. On 9 February 1801, the Peace of Lunéville removed the ownership of Aachen and the entire "left bank" of the Rhine from Germany (the Holy Roman Empire ) and granted it to France. In 1815, control of
10960-402: The late 8th century and then made the city his empire's capital. The city is known by a variety of different names in other languages: Flint quarries on the Lousberg , Schneeberg, and Königshügel, first used during Neolithic times (3000–2500 BC), attest to the long occupation of the site of Aachen, as do recent finds under the modern city's Elisengarten pointing to a former settlement from
11097-534: The loss of Big Brother President B.J. Habibie - Timorese people will remember you forever - Rest in Peace - Xanana Gusmão." Habibie was married to Hasri Ainun Besari , a medical doctor , from 12 May 1962 until her death on 22 May 2010. Their wedding was held in Javanese and Gorontalese culture. The couple had two sons, Ilham Akbar Habibie and Thareq Kemal Habibie. B. J. Habibie's brother, Junus Effendi Habibie ,
11234-753: The main gate of Djalaluddin Airport in Gorontalo Regency . In addition, it was proposed that State University of Gorontalo be renamed in honour of Habibie although in the end, the suggestion was not adopted. Habibie went to Delft , the Netherlands , to study aviation and aerospace at the Technische Hogeschool Delft ( Delft University of Technology ), but for political reasons (the West New Guinea dispute between
11371-475: The medieval fortifications were abandoned as a limit to building and new, better housing was built in the east of the city, where sanitary drainage was easiest. In December 1880, the Aachen tramway network was opened, and in 1895 it was electrified. In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important in the production of railway locomotives and carriages, iron, pins, needles , buttons, tobacco, woollen goods, and silk goods. After World War I , Aachen
11508-517: The members of the MPR who are present at the session which is attended by at least 3/4 of all members of the MPR (at least 50% of the total members of the MPR). The Original 1945 Constitution : If the president dies, resigns, or is unable to perform their duties for any reason, they are replaced by the vice president. The 1950 Provisional Constitution : If the president dies, resigns, or is unable to perform their duties for any reason, they are replaced by
11645-427: The middle of the 17th century, the city had developed a considerable reputation as a spa, although this was in part because Aachen was then – and remained well into the 19th and early 20th century – a place of high-level prostitution. Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history are found in the 18th-century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to the other spas. The main indication for visiting patients, ironically,
11782-647: The midst of the Asian Financial Crisis , this suggestion was received badly, causing the rupiah to fall. Despite this, Habibie was elected as vice president in March 1998. On 21 May 1998, just two months into Habibie's vice presidency, Suharto announced his resignation. Habibie, as the Constitution says, succeeded him as president. The following day, Habibie announced the Development Reform Cabinet , which removed some of
11919-484: The military to retain some seats in parliament, and taking little action on other military and judicial reforms. Habibie's government also passed laws which granted significant autonomy to regional governments, namely at the regency and city level. The laws resulted in indirect elections for mayors and regents, and allowed local legislatures to hold said executives accountable, though it was not implemented until after his presidency. Although he had been viewed as leading
12056-457: The most controversial ministers in Suharto's last cabinet while maintaining others, with no major figures from the opposition. Within days of his appointment, he asked his relatives to resign from government positions, promised an early election, repealed some legislation, and ordered the release of political prisoners. Habibie was opposed to East Timorese independence but did offer East Timor special autonomy. Timorese independence forces led by
12193-577: The near-total dominance of the pro-government political grouping, Golkar , such approval was a mere formality. Thus, for all intents and purposes, Suharto ruled by decree for most of his tenure. For the better part of Suharto's rule, he effectively held all governing power in the nation. Suharto fell from power in 21 May 1998 and the presidency experienced changes as a result of the reform movement. Compared to Suharto, who had all of his accountability speeches accepted, B. J. Habibie had his only accountability speech rejected. Abdurrahman Wahid then became
12330-584: The next 500 years, most kings of Germany who ruled the Holy Roman Empire were crowned in Aachen. The original audience hall built by Charlemagne was torn down and replaced by the current city hall in 1330. During the 13th century, many Jews converted to Christianity, as shown in the records of the Aachen Minster (today's Cathedral). In 1486, the Jews of Aachen offered gifts to Maximilian I during his coronation ceremony. The last king to be crowned here
12467-648: The northwest: Herzogenrath , Würselen , Eschweiler , Stolberg and Roetgen (which are all in the district of Aachen ); Raeren , Kelmis and Plombières ( Liège Province in Belgium) as well as Vaals , Gulpen-Wittem , Simpelveld , Heerlen and Kerkrade (all in Limburg Province in the Netherlands). The current mayor of Aachen is Sibylle Keupen , an independent endorsed by Alliance 90/The Greens , since 2020. The most recent mayoral election
12604-545: The only Vice President to assume the presidency in such a manner. Originating from Sulawesi with Bugis - Gorontalese and Javanese ancestry, his presidency was seen as a landmark and transition to the Reform era . Upon becoming president, he liberalized Indonesia's press and political party laws; ended Indonesian occupation of East Timor , which led to that country's independence ; and held an early democratic election three years sooner than scheduled, which resulted in
12741-424: The planes was placed as the first objective. By 1991, Habibie oversaw ten state-owned industries including ship- and train-building, steel, arms, communications, and energy. A 1993 estimate determined that the estimates used nearly $ 2 billion a year in state funding, although the government's opaque accounting practices meant that the size of the industries was not completely known. As minister, Habibie created
12878-458: The power to name cabinets and appoint the prime minister with the advice of formateurs. The president is able to remove ministers from office and has the right to be informed of important matters by the Council of Ministers. As the head of state, the president has the power to dissolve the DPR and order for an election to be held within 30 days. Militarily, the president holds supreme authority over
13015-477: The preferred place of coronation. One of Germany's leading institutes of higher education in technology, the RWTH Aachen University ( Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule Aachen ), is located in the city. Its university hospital Uniklinikum Aachen is Europe's largest single-building hospital. Aachen's industries include science, engineering and information technology. In 2009, Aachen
13152-421: The presidency about with numerous checks and balances to prevent another president from completely dominating the system. For example, the president was limited to two terms, whether successive or separated. He also lost the right to legislate, but could propose legislation. In 2004 election , Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono became Indonesia's first directly elected president, beating incumbent Megawati Sukarnoputri in
13289-478: The presidency. In the book, he controversially accused Lieutenant General Prabowo Subianto , Suharto's son-in-law (at that time) and the Kostrad Commander, of planning a coup d'état against him in May 1998. In early September 2019, he was admitted to Gatot Soebroto Army Hospital , where he was undergoing treatments for heart problems, namely cardiomyopathy , and died on 11 September 2019. He became
13426-574: The president can only sign treaties, rehabilitate prisoners, and appoint Judicial Committee members with the DPR's agreement. The President can only appoint ambassadors and accept ambassadors from other countries by taking into account the DPR's considerations. The president has the power to grant pardons but must consider the advice of the Supreme Court . The president also has the final say over chief justice candidates. The Original 1945 Constitution : The president has constitutional authority over
13563-456: The president has the power to declare a State of Emergency. Diplomatically, the president, with the agreement of the DPR, has the power to declare war, peace, and to sign treaties. In addition, the president appoints ambassadors and consuls as well as accepting ambassadors from other countries. Finally, the president has power to give amnesties and pardons as well as awarding titles and honours. The 1950 Provisional Constitution : The president has
13700-495: The president's power. Wahid was replaced by his vice president, Megawati Sukarnoputri , daughter of Sukarno and former opposition leader during Suharto's presidency. Megawati is the first and, so far, only female ever to become President of Indonesia. During the 2001 MPR Annual Session, it was finally decided that from 2004 onwards, the president will directly be elected by the people. In response to Sukarno and Suharto's abuses of power, other amendments passed at that session hedged
13837-535: The promise of a referendum in the long run, following the method used by France to settle New Caledonian demands for independence . Wishing to avoid the impression that Indonesia ruled East Timor as a colony, Habibie surprised some by announcing that a referendum , offering a choice between special autonomy and independence, would be held immediately in East Timor. Leaders of the Indonesian armed forces ( ABRI ) were not consulted on this decision. On 30 August 1999,
13974-407: The referendum was held and the East Timorese people overwhelmingly chose independence. Subsequently, pro-Indonesian militias killed and displaced large numbers of people during the 1999 East Timorese crisis . On 10 September, General Wiranto allegedly threatened to stage a military coup if Habibie allowed in peacekeeping forces, causing Habibie to back down. On 12 September, however, Habibie accepted
14111-471: The requirements to be president, the DPR can ask the Constitutional Court to look into the matter, during which it has 90 days to make a decision. The DPR's request to the Constitutional Court can only be made with the support of 2/3 of the total number of DPR members who are present at the session which is attended by at least 2/3 of the DPR's members (At least 44.44% of the total members of
14248-518: The royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as king of the Franks , 768, Charlemagne came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He remained there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting to any significant building activity at Aachen in his time, apart from the building of the Palatine Chapel (since 1930, cathedral) and
14385-578: The runoff election. He was re-elected in 2009 . In 2014, Yudhoyono finished his second presidential term and was barred from seeking re-election. The 3rd Indonesian presidential election was held on 9 July 2014 and matched former general and Suharto's ex-son in law Prabowo Subianto against the governor of Jakarta, Joko Widodo . On 22 July the General Elections Commission announced Joko Widodo's victory. He and his vice president, Jusuf Kalla , were sworn in on 20 October 2014, for
14522-607: The same period. Bronze Age (around 1600 BC) settlement is evidenced by the remains of barrows (burial mounds) found, for example, on the Klausberg. During the Iron Age , the area was settled by Celtic peoples who were perhaps drawn by the marshy Aachen basin's hot sulphur springs where they worshipped Grannus , god of light and healing. The 25-hectare Roman spa resort town of Aquae Granni was, according to legend, founded by Grenus, under Hadrian , around 124 AD. Grenus refers to
14659-520: The south. Around 13 October the US 2nd Armored Division, coming from the north, and got as close as Würselen , while the 30th Infantry Division completed the encirclement of Aachen on 16 October 1944. With reinforcements from the US 28th Infantry Division the battle continued involving direct assaults through the heavily defended city, which forced the German garrison to surrender on 21 October 1944. Aachen
14796-403: The southwest, and the Netherlands in the northwest. The city lies in the Meuse–Rhine Euroregion and is the seat of the district of Aachen ( Städteregion Aachen ). The once Celtic settlement was equipped with several thermae in the course of colonization by Roman pioneers settling at the warm Aachen thermal springs around the 1st century. After the withdrawal of the Roman troops,
14933-492: The subsurface of Aachen is traversed by numerous active faults that belong to the Rurgraben fault system, which has been responsible for numerous earthquakes in the past, including the 1756 Düren earthquake and the 1992 Roermond earthquake , which was the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the Netherlands . Aachen has 245,885 inhabitants (as of 31 December 2015), of whom 118,272 are female, and 127,613 are male. At
15070-423: The support of the military by offering the vice presidency to General Wiranto, but his offer was declined. Tandjung's Golkar faction broke ranks and voted against him, so his accountability speech was rejected by 355 votes to 322 and Habibie withdrew his nomination as president. He was succeeded by Abdurrahman Wahid . After relinquishing the presidency, Habibie spent more time in Germany than in Indonesia, though he
15207-494: The town was passed to the Kingdom of Prussia through an agreement reached by the Congress of Vienna . The third congress took place in 1818, to decide the fate of occupied Napoleonic France. By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation had swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the remains of the city's medieval constitution were kept in place until 1801, when Aachen became
15344-620: The town, due to the proximity of the hot springs and also for strategic reasons as it is located between the Rhineland and northern France. Einhard mentions that in 765–766 Pepin spent both Christmas and Easter at Aquis villa ( Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter ) ("and [he] celebrated the birth of the Lord [Christmas] in the town Aquis, and similarly Easter"), which must have been sufficiently equipped to support
15481-482: The two pairs of candidates nominated by the political party or coalition of political parties whose candidates were the winner and the runner-up in the previous presidential election. Under the amended constitution, the president (also vice president) can now be impeached and removed from office. If the president is viewed to have violated the law in the form of treason against the state, corruption, bribery, other serious crimes, or disgraceful acts, and/or no longer meets
15618-434: The urban climate of Aachen. The January average is 3.0 °C (37 °F), while the July average is 18.5 °C (65 °F). Precipitation is almost evenly spread throughout the year. The city's oceanic climate provides comparably mild winters: While Aachen falls within the coldest extents covered by USDA plant hardiness zone 8b in the 1991–2020 period, having an average yearly minimum of -9.22 °C (15.4 °F),
15755-498: The vice president. Although there is no article about president (and vice president) impeachment in the original 1945 Constitution, Sukarno and Abdurrahman Wahid were still impeached in 1967 and 2001. Article on the impeachment of the president and vice president were made after the impeachment of Abdurrahman Wahid in the 3rd amendment to the Constitution. Law No.7 of 1978 stipulates that former presidents are entitled to
15892-476: Was Ferdinand I in 1531. During the Middle Ages , Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to Flanders ; it achieved a modest position in the trade in woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a free imperial city , subject to the emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbours. The only dominion it had
16029-573: Was syphilis ; only by the end of the 19th century had rheumatism become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid. Aachen was chosen as the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the first congress of Aachen (often referred to as the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English) on 2 May 1668, leading to the First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended
16166-504: Was Indonesian ambassador to the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. After his wife's death, Habibie published a book titled Habibie & Ainun which recounts his relationship with Hasri Ainun from their courtship until her death. The book was adapted into a film of the same name which was released on 20 December 2012. Habibie received several honorary degrees for his contributions in the fields of technology and science, e.g. he
16303-478: Was active during Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 's presidency as a presidential adviser. During this time, he established the Habibie Centre, an independent think tank. In September 2006, he released a book called Detik-Detik Yang Menentukan: Jalan Panjang Indonesia Menuju Demokrasi (Decisive Moments: Indonesia's Long Road Towards Democracy). The book recalled the events of May 1998, which led to his rise to
16440-584: Was also the site of many important church councils, including the Council of 837 and the Council of 1166 , a council convened by the antipope Paschal III . Aachen was an important site for the production of historical manuscripts. Under Charlemagne's purview, both the Ada Gospels and the Coronation Gospels may have been produced in Aachen. In addition, quantities of the other texts in
16577-481: Was appointed as acting president. Suharto was appointed president in his own right in 1968. During his rise to power, Suharto seemed determined to observe at least the forms of the constitution, and this continued when he became president. Under the constitution, the MPR was responsible for formulating the Outlines of State Policy (GBHN); as president, Suharto was responsible for implementing them. Suharto also made it
16714-598: Was awarded an Honorary DSc degree from the Cranfield Institute of Technology ( United Kingdom ) and Dr.h.c. degrees from Chungbuk National University and Hankuk University of Foreign Studies ( South Korea ) for his services to aircraft technology. In 2010, Habibie was honored with an Honorary PhD degree in Technology by the University of Indonesia for his contribution to science in practice as
16851-463: Was built near the modern Kornelimünster/Walheim . Today, remains have been found of three bathhouses, including two fountains in the Elisenbrunnen and the Burtscheid bathhouse. Roman civil administration in Aachen eventually broke down as the baths and other public buildings (along with most of the villae rusticae of the surrounding countryside) were destroyed around AD 375 at the start of
16988-641: Was elected by acclamation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) because according to the Transitional Provisions of the Constitution, "the President and the Vice President for the first time shall be elected by the PPKI." Also, the body responsible for the presidential elections, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), had not yet been formed. On 16 October 1945, Vice President Mohammad Hatta announced
17125-618: Was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia (RIS) and presidential mandate passed to Assaat . When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a unitary state , Asaat stepped down from the presidency and Sukarno once again became president on 15 August 1950. Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS. Officially known as the Provisional Constitution ,
17262-577: Was expected of senior government executives, Habibie became a member of the Golkar organisation. Suharto appointed him as deputy daily coordinator for the chairman of the executive board in 1992, and the following year he became the daily coordinator. While serving in cabinet, Habibie was also elected as the first Chair of the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) in 1990. This modernist Muslim organization provided him with
17399-478: Was followed by the religious wars and the great fire of 1656. After the destruction of most of the city in 1656, the rebuilding was mostly in the Baroque style. The decline of Aachen culminated in 1794, when the French, led by General Charles Dumouriez , occupied Aachen. In 1542, the Dutch humanist and physician Francis Fabricius published his study of the health benefits of the hot springs in Aachen. By
17536-638: Was largely unscathed. 4,000 inhabitants remained in the city; the rest had followed evacuation orders. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, Franz Oppenhoff , was assassinated by an SS commando unit. On 16 May 1815, the Jewish community of the city offered an homage in its synagogue to the Prussian king, Friedrich Wilhelm III . In 1862, a large synagogue was built, later called the Old Synagogue [ de ; fr ; id ] . By 1933, 1,345 Jews lived in
17673-520: Was made public. It raised concerns about the veracity of the investigation by suggesting that the interrogation of Suharto was intended only for public appearances. Under Habibie, the Indonesian government also began investigating and prosecuting Suharto's youngest son, Hutomo Mandala Putra (commonly known as Tommy Suharto ). Ghalib charged Tommy in December 1998 in conjunction with the Goro scandal, where
17810-750: Was occupied by the Allies until 1930, along with the rest of German territory west of the Rhine. Aachen was one of the locations involved in the Rhenish Republic . On 21 October 1923, an armed mob took over the city hall. Similar actions took place in Mönchengladbach , Duisburg , and Krefeld . This republic lasted about a year. Aachen was heavily damaged during World War II . According to Jörg Friedrich in The Fire (2008), two Allied air raids on 11 April and 24 May 1944 "radically destroyed"
17947-539: Was over Burtscheid , a neighbouring territory ruled by a Benedictine abbess , which was forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich". As an imperial city, Aachen held certain political privileges that allowed it to remain independent of the troubles of Europe for many years. It remained a direct vassal of the Holy Roman Empire throughout most of the Middle Ages. It
18084-400: Was ranked eighth among cities in Germany for innovation. The regional dialect spoken in the city is a Central Franconian , Ripuarian variant with strong Limburgish influences from the dialects in the neighbouring Netherlands. As a Rhenish city, Aachen is one of the main centres of carnival celebrations in Germany , along with Cologne and Mainz . The culinary specialty for which
18221-414: Was reacquainted with Hasri Ainun , the daughter of R. Mohamad Besari. Habibie had known Hasri Ainun in childhood, junior high school and in senior high school at SMA Kristen Dago (Dago Christian Senior High School), Bandung . The two married on 12 May 1962, returning to Germany shortly afterwards. Habibie and his wife settled in Aachen for a short period before moving to Oberforstbach. In May 1963 they had
18358-628: Was strong pressure on the Constitutional Assembly , the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the assembly did not budge, Sukarno issued a presidential decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution. That document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In May 1963, the People's Consultative Assembly appointed Sukarno president for life . Although Indonesia had re-adopted
18495-485: Was sufficient proof of Indonesian citizenship, revoking the previous requirement for a ' Letter of Evidence of Republic of Indonesia Citizenship' (SBKRI) . Additionally, he lifted restrictions on the teaching of Mandarin Chinese . Under Habibie, Indonesia made significant changes to its political system that expanded competition and freedom of speech . Shortly after taking office, in June 1998, Habibie's government lifted
18632-580: Was the first German city to be captured by the Western Allies, and its residents welcomed the soldiers as liberators. What remained of the city was destroyed—in some areas completely—during the fighting, mostly by American artillery fire and demolitions carried out by the Waffen-SS defenders. Damaged buildings included medieval churches of and the Rathaus (city hall), although Aachen Cathedral
18769-926: Was to ask the prime minister as the Head of the Government to form a new Cabinet. During the Indonesian National Revolution , both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency government. This was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI) was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949. On 17 December 1949, Sukarno
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