63-965: Oat (plural: oats) is a cereal grain crop. Oat or Oats may also refer to: Oat The oat ( Avena sativa ), sometimes called the common oat , is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop , as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as wheat , barley , and rye , but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases. Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal , including as steel cut oats or rolled oats . Global production
126-439: A blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill , burr mill , or hammermill . Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage. Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer , or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed
189-403: A consequence, the percentage of land cultivated by Palestinian communities in the musha'a system declined from 70 percent in 1917 to 25 percent in 1940. The mandate period is also characterized by the side-by-side existence of the indigenous agricultural systems of Palestinians and the imported technology of Jewish farmers, the rise of capitalism in the agricultural sector, the rapid increase in
252-592: A green manure. Phylogenetic analysis using molecular DNA and morphological evidence places the oat genus Avena in the Pooideae subfamily. That subfamily includes the cereals wheat , barley , and rye ; they are in the Triticeae tribe, while Avena is in the Poeae , along with grasses such as Briza and Agrostis . The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the closely related minor crop – A. byzantina –
315-426: A height of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft). The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some 15 to 40 centimetres (5.9 to 15.7 in) in length, and around 5 to 15 millimetres (0.20 to 0.59 in) in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or panicle of spikelets . These contain the wind-pollinated flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains. Botanically
378-813: A lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than the other cereals mentioned, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe. Oats can grow in most fertile, drained soils, being tolerant of a wide variety of soil types. Although better yields are achieved at a soil pH of 5.3 to 5.7, oats can tolerate soils with a pH as low as 4.5. They are better able to grow in low-nutrient soils than wheat or maize , but generally are less tolerant of high soil salinity than other cereals. Oats can outcompete many weeds, as they grow thickly (with many leafy shoots) and vigorously, but are still subject to some broadleaf weeds . Control can be by herbicides, or by integrated pest management with measures such as sowing seed that
441-665: A new crop), olives, and fruit, especially citrus, were the most important commercial crops. As opposed to grain production in the highlands, most commercial agriculture was on the plains near the Mediterranean Sea and irrigation was commonly used to make up deficits in precipitation. Inland Galilee was an area of increase in growing olives and producing olive oil. During the mandate period, Palestinian vegetable production increased more than ten-fold, olive production more than doubled, and acreage planted in citrus increased more than seven-fold. Citrus comprised about 40 percent of
504-463: A percentage of oats, often 30%, is added to the barley for the wort . Oatmeal caudle , made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell . Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed (" rolled " or "crimped") to make them easier to digest, or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of
567-442: A poor plot of land might find himself with a better plot of land with the redistribution and vice versa. The musha'a system is often criticized as inefficient and hindering agricultural progress. Given the periodic redistribution of land, the peasant had no incentive to improve the land he was cultivating. The opposite view is that no evidence proves that the musha'a system was less efficient than individual land-holdings and that
630-471: A prevalence of about 1% in the developed world . Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley , requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains. For example, oat bread often contains only a small proportion of oats alongside wheat or other cereals. Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value, but remains controversial because
693-482: A rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins , and numerous dietary minerals , especially manganese (213% DV) (table). Regular consumption of oat products lowers blood levels of low-density lipoprotein and total cholesterol , reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease . The beneficial effect of oat consumption on lowering blood lipids
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#1732776502772756-804: A small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats. In his 1755 Dictionary of the English Language , Samuel Johnson defined oats as "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people." "Oats and Beans and Barley Grow" is the first line of a traditional folksong (1380 in the Roud Folk Song Index ), recorded in different forms from 1870. Similar songs are recorded from France, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy. In English , oats are associated with sexual intercourse , as in
819-520: A source for novel traits in oats. For example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis . To obtain Mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related, but
882-595: A war in which most Palestinian farmers living in Israel were dispossessed of their land which was subsequently farmed by Israelis. More land farmed by Palestinians in the Palestinian territories (and subsequent State of Palestine ) has since been gained by Israel as a result of wars and uprisings and Israeli settlements . Israeli policies limiting the supply of water, access to farmland, and other factors of production have impacted Palestinian agriculture. Jericho , near
945-518: A while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready. Oat straw is used as animal bedding; it absorbs liquids better than wheat straw. The straw can be used for making corn dollies , small decorative woven figures. Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw has been used to soften bath water. Celiac (or coeliac) disease is a permanent autoimmune disease triggered by gluten proteins. It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having
1008-575: Is A. sterilis , a naturally hexaploid wild oat, one that has its DNA in six sets of chromosomes . Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Analysis of maternal lineages of 25 Avena species using chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA showed that A. sativa 's hexaploid genome derives from three diploid oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes);
1071-468: Is attributed to oat beta-glucan . Oat consumption can help to reduce body mass index in obese people. The United States Food and Drug Administration allows companies to make health claims on labels of food products that contain soluble fiber from whole oats, as long as the food provides 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving. When used in foods, oats are most commonly rolled or crushed into oatmeal or ground into fine oat flour . Oatmeal
1134-506: Is chiefly eaten as porridge , but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes (which may be made with coarse steel-cut oats for a rougher texture), oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola ; the Quaker Oats Company introduced instant oatmeal in 1966. Oats are also used to produce milk substitutes (" oat milk "). As of late 2020,
1197-430: Is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or " groat ". Heating denatures enzymes in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product
1260-405: Is dominated by Canada and Russia; global trade is a small part of production, most of the grain being consumed within the producing countries. Oats are a nutrient -rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as
1323-676: Is free of weeds. Oats are relatively free from diseases. Nonetheless, they suffer from some leaf diseases, such as stem rust ( Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae ) and crown rust ( P. coronata var. avenae ). Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield. Oats are attacked by nematodes and by insects including aphids, armyworms, cockchafers, grasshoppers, thrips, and wireworms. Most of these pests are not specific to oats, and only occasionally cause significant damage to oat crops. Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage
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#17327765027721386-426: Is not considered a GMO technique. A 2013 study applied simple sequence repeat and found five major groupings, namely commercial cultivars and four landrace groups. Uncooked oats are 66% carbohydrates , including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans , 7% fat , 17% protein , and 8% water (table). In a reference serving of 100 g (3.5 oz), oats provide 389 kilocalories (1,630 kJ ) and are
1449-409: Is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified fineness. For home use such as making porridge , oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook. Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing rolled oats or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a food processor or spice mill. In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of
1512-515: The Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December. Avena sativa is an allohexaploid species with three ancestral genomes (2 n =6 x =42; AACCDD). As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex. Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between
1575-555: The Jordan River in Palestine, is one of the oldest agricultural settlements in the world dating to 8,000 BCE or earlier. Eight founder crops were grown at that time or shortly thereafter: three cereals ( Einkorn and emmer wheat and barley ); four pulses ( lentils , peas , chickpeas , and bitter vetch ), and flax The fig tree may have been domesticated even earlier, possibly around 9000 BCE. The olive tree
1638-656: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic , about 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the Jordan Valley in the Middle East contained a large number of wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of A. sterilis ). The find implies intentional cultivation . Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe around 3000 years ago. The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the family Poaceae ; it can grow to
1701-521: The musha'a peasants in the hills and mountains in the interior. The first Jewish settlements utilized Palestinian labor, but soon the standard was to employ only Jews on Jewish-owned land even although the cost was higher than when Palestinian labor was used. The Jews claimed that the money they spent for land stimulated the former landowners to invest in modernizing Palestinian agriculture. Charles S. Kamen doubts that view as many land owners were urban dwellers or not residents of Palestine, although some of
1764-475: The musha'a system reduced risks to peasant communities and encouraged communal cooperation and responsibility. In the late 19th century, the growing dependence of some farmers on selling to local and foreign markets for agricultural products and encouraged the increase in individual entrepreneurs who operated in a monetary economy rather than the collective and traditional nature of the musha'a . The Ottoman government attempted, without much success, to eliminate
1827-430: The musha'a with its land law of 1858 . The Ottomans aimed to increase its revenue from taxation and to exert more control over land. Jewish settlers who wished to buy land in Palestine beginning about 1880 found the musha'a system inconsistent with their preference for clear titles and boundaries to land. The British continued the effort to eliminate musha'a after they overthrew Ottoman rule during World War I. By
1890-471: The 6.4 percent of cultivated land owned by the "European sector" (predominately Jews) increased in 1941 to 160,480 ha (396,600 acres) of land, 24.5 percent of cultivated land. Agriculture and the acquisition of agricultural land served the Zionist objective of creating a Jewish state. The Jews mostly purchased land from large landowners on the plains near the fertile Mediterranean coast rather than from
1953-503: The CCDD from the tetraploid Avena insularis . Species of Avena can hybridize , and genes introgressed (brought in) from other "A" genome species have contributed many valuable traits, like resistance to oat crown rust . Pc98 is one such trait, introgressed from A. sterilis CAV 1979 , conferring all stage resistance (ASR) against Pca . It is possible to hybridize oats with grasses in other genera, allowing plant breeders
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2016-684: The Citrus Board to return and reclaim their property. The Israeli government turned down the request and the former Palestinian citrus orchards remained in Israeli hands. The value of the agricultural land of the Palestinians lost to the Israelis was valued in 1996 at between 2.2 and 2.6 billion dollars (1993 dollars), about $ 5 billion in 2023. Eighty percent of the 2,185,000 dunums (221,000 ha (550,000 acres)) Israel claimed
2079-494: The Jewish population due to immigration, and the progress in growing and marketing cash crops by both Jewish and Palestinian farmers. During the mandate period, the typical Palestinian farmer in the highlands continued to practice subsistence farming of wheat, barley, and millet and continued to have problems of too-small holdings, debt, and uncertain tenancy. "They devoted their energies into holding on to what they had." Yields of
2142-561: The Mediterranean Coast on the west and the Dead Sea and Jordan River on the east. The years after 1856 were a period of economic growth for Palestine, especially for agricultural exports to Europe and regional markets. Wheat and barley were the most important crops, grown on 75 percent of cultivated land. Yields were best in the northern Jordan valley and the lowland coast with many highland areas having poor yields. Most of
2205-574: The Ottomans attempted a modernization and reform of their society during the Tanzimat period beginning in 1839. Among the reforms was a 1867 law which permitted foreigners to own land in the Ottoman empire. In the mid 19th century most Palestinians lived in the hills and mountains that run down the center of the region. This was due to the prevalence of malaria and the danger of Bedouin raids in
2268-523: The coastal area of the Holy Land. Jewish farmers focused on producing commercial and export crops such as vegetables and citrus. By 1941, Jews owned 24.5 percent of the cultivated land in Palestine. Most Palestinians continued to live in the highlands and practice subsistence agriculture. The partition of Palestine into the country of Israel and the Palestinian territories in 1947–1948 resulted in
2331-413: The crops of the region. In the 16th century, Franciscan priest Francesco Suriano added apples, citrus, and sesame to the list of important Palestinian crops. Cotton and sesame were exported to Europe from the 16th century onward. The Ottoman empire conquered the Palestinian region in 1516 and ruled until World War I (1914–1918). Under pressure from European rivals and steeped in a traditional system,
2394-685: The end of the Ottoman period, the small farmers of the musha'a system were impoverished by government policy hostile to the continuation of collective land tenure, higher taxes, indebtedness, and increased pressure on the land due to population growth. Land was increasingly owned by large investors, many of whom were not resident in Palestine. The first Jewish agricultural settlements were established in 1882 after purchasing land from Palestinians. Their inhabitants were eastern European Jews who had little knowledge of agriculture and adopted local practices. The first settlements were in danger of failing, but were saved when banker Edmond de Rothschild invested in
2457-446: The grain crops varied greatly from year to year and imports were necessary to make up deficits in the demand for grain for local consumption. However, the share of farmland devoted to growing grain declined (as did the musha'a system of land tenancy in favor of privately owned land) as Palestinian agriculture increased in diversity. Palestinian production of export and commercial crops increased rapidly. Vegetables (including potatoes,
2520-517: The grain is a caryopsis , as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or bran , the starchy food store or endosperm which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich germ which if planted in soil can grow into a new plant. Oats are annual plants best grown in temperate regions. They tolerate cold winters less well than wheat, rye , or barley; they are harmed by sustained cold below −7 °C (20 °F). They have
2583-479: The idioms "sowing one's (wild) oats", meaning having many sexual partners in one's youth, and "getting your oats", meaning having sex regularly. History of agriculture in Palestine The history of agriculture in Palestine dates back to 8000 BCE and some of the earliest agricultural settlements in the world. Several of the crops grown by the earliest farmers continued to be important throughout
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2646-618: The incompatible goals" of encouraging settlement of Jews while protecting the rights of the Palestinian Arabs and a small population of European Christians. According to 1922 census, Jews made up 11 percent of the population of 750,000 in the British mandate with Palestinians, both Muslims and Christians, making up almost all of the remainder. The British conducted surveys and implemented policies to convert land cultivated in common by Palestinian communities into private property. As
2709-471: The late 19th century Palestinians began to grow commercial and export crops such as citrus in the lowlands near the Mediterranean Sea coast. Large landowners, both resident and non-resident, owned a large part of the land, especially near the coast. In 1882, Jewish immigrants, with financing and technical assistance from abroad, began to purchase land and establish agricultural settlements in
2772-554: The long history of Palestinian agriculture. In the 19th century CE the Ottoman Empire discouraged, with limited success, the long-standing communal land system called musha'a practiced by the Palestinian Arab farmers living in the highlands. Wheat and barley were their most important crops and were grown primarily for subsistence rather than the commercial market. Olives are an important traditional crop. In
2835-609: The lowlands. The highlands were densely populated compared to the lowlands. Many highland villages also owned land in the lowlands and established satellite settlements there. The population in the lowlands increased towards the end of the 19th century as population pressure forced highland farmers to migrate and the Ottomans pushed the Bedouin tribes eastward beyond the Jordan River. Opportunities to profit from commercial agriculture for export also motivated highlanders to move toward
2898-481: The mandate period the Jewish population in Palestine increased much more rapidly than the Arab Palestinians. In 1918, the population of Palestine consisted of about 60,000 Jews and 630,000 non-Jews. By 1947, the population was 630,000 Jews as compared to 1,324,000 non-Jews. The increase in the Jewish population was mostly due to immigration. Jewish agriculture increased as the Jewish population did. In 1914,
2961-557: The money may have been invested in Palestinian citrus plantations. Palestinians claim that the Jewish land purchases displaced many farmers. Kamen estimates that the displacement amounted to between 10,000 and 30,000 Palestinians. In 1943, 91.7 percent of crop land was rainfed and 8.3 percent was irrigated. Most of the Jewish land was cultivated in commercial and export crops while most Palestinians continued to practice subsistence farming growing wheat, barley, and olives. The acreage devoted to crops (including both Palestinian and Jewish land)
3024-537: The oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following almond milk , but exceeding the sales of soy milk . As a mainstay of West Wales for centuries, until changes in farming practices in the 1960s, oats were used in many traditional Welsh dishes , including laverbread , a Welsh breakfast , and " cockles and eggs" served with oatbread. In Britain, oats are sometimes used for brewing beer, such as oatmeal stout where
3087-438: The ready introgression of traits. In contrast to wheat , oats sometimes retain chromosomes from maize or pearl millet after such crosses. These wide crosses are typically made to generate doubled haploid breeding material; the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a haploid ). The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as
3150-706: The sets are dubbed A, B, C, and D. The diploid species are the CC A. ventricosa , the AA A. canariensis , and the AA A. longiglumis , along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets), namely the AACC A. insularis and the AABB A. agadiriana . Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 mya , and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya. Genomic study suggests that the hulled variety and the naked variety A. sativa var. nuda diverged around 51,200 years ago, long before domestication . This implies that
3213-478: The settlements, encouraging and financing commercial rather than subsistence agriculture and the adoption of modern European technology. By the year 1900, more than 5,000 Jews were engaged in agriculture and they cultivated 5,500 ha (14,000 acres) of land mostly devoted to grains and vineyards. The settlements were located in the plains near the Mediterranean coast where Palestinian commercial agriculture
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#17327765027723276-438: The three subgenomes. These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of Avena sativa was reported. The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from Avena longiglumis and
3339-455: The total and Russia with 17% (table). This compares to over 100 million tonnes for wheat , for example. Global trade represents a modest percentage of production, less than 10%, most of the grain being consumed within producing countries. The main exporter is Canada, followed by Sweden and Finland; the US is the main importer. Oats futures are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on
3402-453: The two varieties were domesticated independently. Oats are thought to have emerged as a secondary crop . This means that they are derived from what was considered a weed of the primary cereal domesticates such as wheat. They survived as a Vavilovian mimic by having grains that Neolithic people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop. Oats were cultivated for some thousands of years before they were domesticated. A granary from
3465-404: The value of the agricultural exports of the Palestinian Arabs. Despite the rapid increase in Palestinian citrus cultivation, by 1945, the acreage of Jewish-grown citrus had risen to slightly exceed Palestinian acreage. Palestinian vegetable production continued to be almost triple than of Jewish production. The production of wheat, barley, and olives was dominated by Palestinian farmers. During
3528-403: The war about one-half of the commercially-important citrus orchards near the Mediterranean coast were owned by Palestinians. Palestinian and Israeli citrus-growers cooperated as members of a Citrus Board. In 1950, after the Palestinian owners had been expelled from their lands, several prominent Jewish citrus growers requested the Israeli government to allow four Palestinians who had been members of
3591-399: The wheat and barley was consumed by the farmers rather than sold. Olive cultivation was common or poorer lands in the highlands both for home use and as a cash crop. Grapes were grown in the vicinity of Hebron . Citrus production expanded in the latter decades of the 19th century near the Mediterranean and was an important export. Theoretically, almost all the agricultural land in the empire
3654-448: Was allocated and utilized in common by a village or community and parceled out to individuals and peasant families. At intervals of one to five years the peasants redistributed the land usually by lot. Thus, a village farmer did not have rights to a single plot of land, but rather the plot of land he cultivated changed every few years. The redistribution process tended to equalize the economic possibilities of each peasant. A peasant allocated
3717-606: Was also expanding. This was the most fertile area of Palestine. The emphasis was on citrus production for export to Europe. By 1914, near the end of the Ottoman empire, Jews owned an area of 42,000 ha (100,000 acres) of land, 6.4 percent of cultivated land in Palestine. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after World War I led to the League of Nations giving Great Britain a mandate to administer Palestine. The mandate lasted from 1920 to 1948. The mandate "included
3780-719: Was brought into cultivation after the 1948 war was agricultural land that belonged to and had been cultivated by the Palestinians before their displacement from the land during the war. This displacement and disruption caused the near disappearance of Palestinian agriculture in Israel and the replacement of Palestinian farmers by Israelis. In the Palestinian territories (and since 1988 the State of Palestine), much farmland has been occupied by Israeli settlers. Concurrently, Israeli policies limiting Palestinian access to land, water, markets, and technology have been detrimental to Palestinian Arab farmers and favorable to Israeli settlers in Palestine,
3843-502: Was domesticated about 6000 BCE. Citrus trees originated in Southeast Asia but were introduced into Palestine during the first millennium BCE. The early farmers of Palestine had four important domesticated animals: goats , sheep, oxen , and camels . The importance of Palestinian agriculture was attested in the 10th century by the Palestinian geographer Al-Maqdisi who cited olives, cotton, grapes, and sugar cane among
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#17327765027723906-491: Was owned by the Ottoman state, but inheritable rights to use the land was granted to individuals and villages. The most important systems of land tenure for agriculture in Palestine were musha'a (also masha'a ) and mafrouz, a land tenure system that roughly corresponds to the European concept of private property. Mafrouz land made up only a small percentage of agricultural land. The larger percentage of land called musha'a
3969-550: Was the following. The post-World War II civil war in Palestine and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War resulted in the partition of Palestine into the independent state of Israel, inhabited primarily by Jews, and the Palestinian territories, inhabited primarily by Palestinian Arabs. The wars resulted in 700,000 Palestinians (85 percent of the Palestinian population living within the borders of Israel ), mostly farmers, being forced off or abandoning their land in what became Israel—and few of them have been able to return. For example, prior to
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