This is an accepted version of this page
146-664: The Belt and Road Initiative ( BRI or B&R ), known in China as the One Belt One Road and sometimes referred to as the New Silk Road , is a global infrastructure development strategy adopted by the Chinese government in 2013 to invest in more than 150 countries and international organizations. The BRI is composed of six urban development land corridors linked by road, rail, energy, and digital infrastructure and
292-540: A better life to look towards the Western world where happiness and freedom are portrayed as desirable and achievable goals. Cultural diplomacy is a demonstration of national power because it demonstrates to foreign audiences every aspect of culture, including wealth, scientific and technological advances, competitiveness in everything from sports and industry to military power , and a nation's overall confidence. The perception of power has important implications for
438-472: A blessing and a curse to a nation. This may be the case if certain elements of a culture are offensive to the foreign audience. Certain cultural activities can also undermine national policy objectives. An example of this was the very public American dissent to the Iraq War while official government policy still supported it. Simultaneously the prevalence of the protest may have attracted some foreigners to
584-611: A borderline extending 5,600 km, giving it easy access to the Eurasian heartland." Some analysts have suggested that the CCP considers Xinjiang's local population, the Uyghurs , and their attachment to their traditional lands potential threats to the BRI's success, or it fears that developing Xinjiang may also open it up to radicalizing Islamic influences from other states which are participating in
730-481: A carbon-copy manner with little success. This isomorphic mimicry –adopting organizational forms that have been successful elsewhere but that only hide institutional dysfunction without solving it on the home country –can contribute to getting countries stuck in 'capability traps' where the country does not advance in its development goals. An example of this can be seen through some of the criticisms of foreign aid and its success rate at helping countries develop. Beyond
876-512: A community or region". Daphne Greenwood and Richard Holt distinguish economic development from economic growth on the basis that economic development is a "broadly based and sustainable increase in the overall standard of living for individuals within a community", and measures of growth such as per capita income do not necessarily correlate with improvements in quality of life. The United Nations Development Programme in 1997 defined development as increasing people‟s choices. Choices depend on
1022-524: A concern to the United States because they could be easily lost to Communism as predicted in Eisenhower's Domino Theory . The choreography mixed Asian aesthetics with American values, creating an innovative performance that showed what the United States and a capitalist society was capable of producing. Her performances were received with praise and repositioned the image of the United States in
1168-618: A cooperative relationship with the Music Advisory Panel of the American National Theatre and Academy (ANTA) to evaluate potential musical performers who could best represent America at performance venues throughout the world. Members of the advisory panel included such noted American composers and academics as: Virgil Thomson , Howard Hanson at the Eastman School of Music , William Schuman at
1314-426: A culture known and define the impact this organic growth will have on national policies. Cultural diplomacy attempts to manage the international environment by utilizing these sources and achievements and making them known abroad. An important aspect of this is listening- cultural diplomacy is meant to be a two-way exchange. This exchange is then intended to foster a mutual understanding and thereby win influence within
1460-403: A few times in your life." In terms of policy that supports national security goals, the information revolution has created an increasingly connected world in which public perceptions of values and motivations can create an enabling or disabling environment in the quest for international support of policies. The struggle to affect important international developments is increasingly about winning
1606-586: A few were overtly political serving to show the eclecticism and diversity of American culture, which is America's soft power foundation. The display was extremely popular and attracted large numbers of crowds, in short America "showed the world, the world and got credit for it". A similar effort was carried out by the United States Department of State in February 2002 entitled Images from Ground Zero. The display included 27 images, detailing
SECTION 10
#17327725552121752-684: A major contributor to development economics , asserted that economic development grew to concentrate on the poor regions of the world , primarily in Africa , Asia and Latin America yet on the outpouring of fundamental ideas and models. It has also been argued, notably by Asian and European proponents of infrastructure-based development , that systematic, long-term government investments in transportation , housing , education , and healthcare are necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth in emerging countries. During Robert McNamara's 13 years at
1898-705: A major role in the resurgence of jazz within the Soviet Union after the WWII. The effect The Beatles had in Russia during the Cold War is an example of how music artists and their songs can become political. During this time, rock music channelled liberal "Western" ideas as a progressive and modernized art form. The Beatles symbolized the Western culture in a way that introduced new ideas that many believe assisted in
2044-641: A motivation, while others note that the BRI also serves as signposts for Chinese provinces and ministries, guiding their policies and actions. Academic Keyu Jin writes that while the BRI does advance strategic interests for China, it also reflects the CCP's vision of a world order based on "building a global community of shared future ". China has already invested billions of dollars in several South Asian countries like Pakistan , Nepal , Sri Lanka , Bangladesh and Afghanistan to improve their basic infrastructure, with implications for China's trade regime as well as its military influence. This project can also become
2190-535: A nation better understand the foreign nation it is engaged with and it fosters mutual understanding. Cultural diplomacy is a way of conducting international relations without expecting anything in return in the way that traditional diplomacy typically expects. Cultural exchange programs work as a medium to relay a favourable impression of the foreign country in order to gain outsiders' understanding and approval in their cultural practices and naturalize their social norms among other cultures. Generally, cultural diplomacy
2336-423: A nation does to explain itself to the world, and cultural diplomacy – the use of creative expression and exchanges of ideas, information, and people to increase mutual understanding – supplies much of its content." Culture is a set of values and practices that creates meaning for society. This includes both high culture (literature, art, and education, which appeals to elites ) and popular culture (appeals to
2482-473: A nation's ability to ensure its security. Furthermore, because cultural diplomacy includes political and ideological arguments, and uses the language of persuasion and advocacy, it can be used as an instrument of political warfare and be useful in achieving traditional goals of war. A Chinese activist was quoted as saying "We've seen a lot of Hollywood movies – they feature weddings, funerals and going to court. So now we think it's only natural to go to court
2628-523: A new economic corridor for different regions. For example, in the Caucasus region, China considered cooperation with Armenia from May 2019. Chinese and Armenian sides had multiple meetings, signed contracts, initiated a north–south road program to solve even infrastructure-related aspects. The BRI has been viewed as part of a strategy to lessen the effect of choke points such as the Strait of Malacca in
2774-484: A new style of music with a loose structure and improvisation. In November 1955, The New York Times declared Louis Armstrong as America's most effective ambassador. What American diplomats could not do, Armstrong and his jazz music did. This article claimed that musicians, such as Armstrong, created a universal language to communicate. Jazz originally surfaced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s, but quickly faded. After World War II, jazz began to reemerge, but
2920-421: A panel dataset for each 50 states with unemployment, labor force participation by race, and annual labor market statistics. In addition, for contractionary monetary policy, they utilize the federal funds rate, the short-term interest rates charged to banks. Seguino and Heintz Seguino concludes that the impact of a one percentage point increase in the federal funds rate relative to white and black women's unemployment
3066-731: A press release whenever a memorandum of understanding related to the Belt and Road Initiative is signed with a new country. Not counting China, there were 154 countries formally affiliated with the Belt and Road Initiative As of August 2023 according to observers at Fudan University 's Green Finance and Development Center, and an independent analysis from Germany from the same time also found 148 member states out of 249 political entities surveyed. The Council on Foreign Relations additionally found 139 member countries as of March 2021; countries that are documented as joining since then include Syria and Argentina. The full list of current members according to
SECTION 20
#17327725552123212-548: A private citizen can unintentionally become a cultural ambassador of sorts. In September 2023, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken launched the Global Music Diplomacy Initiative in partnership with The Recording Academy at the U.S. Department of State . There are growing calls for Australia to strengthen its music diplomacy activities. The US Embassy in Beijing leveraged food as
3358-587: A professional industry of highly specialized practitioners. The practitioners have two key roles: one is to provide leadership in policy-making , and the other is to administer policy, programs, and projects. Economic development practitioners generally work in public offices on the state, regional, or municipal level, or in public-private partnerships organizations that may be partially funded by local, regional, state, or federal tax money. These economic development organizations function as individual entities and in some cases as departments of local governments. Their role
3504-511: A set of policies for Chinese engagement with the global South , including diversifying resource and energy supplies, building loan-funded infrastructure using Chinese companies, creating new markets for Chinese companies, and engaging global South countries simultaneously at bilateral and regional levels. With regard to China and the African countries, the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC)
3650-486: A significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources. Just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil, countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions. This in turn can undermine
3796-571: A significant indicator of a country's economic advancement: this perspective is illustrated notably through the Basic Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (known as BRTI Index) and related models such as the (Modified) Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (RTI). In an effort to create an indicator that would help measure gender equality , the United Nations has created two measures:
3942-499: A steady pace. As of 2023, Maritime Silk Road investments were 60% of the BRI's total investment volume. The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , first proposed in October 2013, is a development bank dedicated to lending for infrastructure projects. As of 2015, China announced that over one trillion yuan (US$ 160 billion) of infrastructure-related projects were in planning or construction. The primary goals of AIIB are to address
4088-411: A tool of diplomacy in 2023, when its public affairs section collected lunch photos from officers posted across the country and created a "photo montage video titled "What American Diplomats Have for Lunch," which became one of the most-viewed and most-engaged posts on its WeChat and Weibo accounts. This Image and reputation has become an essential part of a "state's strategic equity". Place branding
4234-634: A way of "reminding" the place and government visited of a friendship previously established or assumed. Notable goodwill tours include the Latin America goodwill tour by President-elect Herbert Hoover in November–December 1928, the goodwill tour to Japan by the San Francisco Seals (baseball) in 1949, Jacqueline Kennedy's 1962 goodwill tour of India and Pakistan , and the worldwide GIANTSTEP-APOLLO 11 Presidential Goodwill Tour by
4380-403: Is "the totality of the thoughts, feelings, associations and expectations that come to mind when a prospect or consumer is exposed to an entity's name, logo, products, services, events, or any design or symbol representing them." Place branding is required to make a country's image acceptable for investment, tourism, political power, etc. As Joseph Nye commented, "in an information age, it is often
4526-465: Is 0.015 and 0.043, respectively One growing understanding in economic development is the promotion of regional clusters and a thriving metropolitan economy . In today's global landscape, location is vitally important and becomes a key in competitive advantage . International trade and exchange rates are key issues in economic development. Currencies are often either under-valued or over-valued , resulting in trade surpluses or deficits. Furthermore,
Belt and Road Initiative - Misplaced Pages Continue
4672-414: Is a cross between total discipline and anarchy," for the way the musicians agree on tempo, key, and chord, but is distinguishable by its freedom of expression. As many as thirty million listeners worldwide, including millions in the Soviet Union, listened to the forty-five minutes of pop music and forty-five minutes of jazz with a newscast preceding each. Many critics have stated that Conover's program played
4818-552: Is a significant multi-lateral cooperation mechanism for facilitating BRI projects. The China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF) serves a similar coordinating role with regard to BRI projects in the Arab states. Countries join the Belt and Road Initiative by signing a memorandum of understanding with China regarding their participation in it. The Government of China maintains a listing of all involved countries on its Belt and Road Portal, and state media outlet Xinhua News Agency puts out
4964-444: Is also a component of public diplomacy . Public diplomacy is enhanced by a larger society and culture, but simultaneously public diplomacy helps to "amplify and advertise that society and culture to the world at large". It could be argued that the information component of public diplomacy can only be fully effective where there is already a relationship that gives credibility to the information being relayed. This comes from knowledge of
5110-407: Is based on two assumptions- some form of political intent lies behind the exchange and the result will have some sort of political effect. The idea is that exchanges will create a network of influential people abroad that will tie them to their host country and will appreciate their host country more due to their time spent there. Exchanges generally take place at a young age, giving the host country
5256-427: Is correct, cultural diplomacy can only be said to take place when formal diplomats, serving national governments, try to shape and channel this natural flow to advance national interests." It is important to note that, while cultural diplomacy is, as indicated above, a government activity, the private sector has a very real role to play because the government does not create culture, therefore, it can only attempt to make
5402-562: Is for the people of a foreign nation to develop an understanding of the nation's ideals and institutions in an effort to build broad support for economic and political objectives. In essence "cultural diplomacy reveals the soul of a nation", which in turn creates influence. Public diplomacy has played an important role in advancing national security objectives. In a 2006 article in the Brown Journal of World Affairs , Cynthia P. Schneider wrote: "Public diplomacy consists of all
5548-400: Is important to not expect that particular economic development programs be able to fix many problems at once as that would be establishing unsurmountable goals for them that are highly unlikely they can achieved. Any development policy should set limited goals and a gradual approach to avoid falling victim to something Prittchet, Woolcock and Andrews call 'premature load bearing'. Many times
5694-399: Is its ability to reach youth, non-elites and other audiences outside of the traditional embassy circuit. In short, cultural diplomacy plants the seeds of ideals, ideas, political arguments, spiritual perceptions and a general view point of the world that may or may not flourish in a foreign nation. Therefore, ideologies spread by cultural diplomacy about American values enables those that seek
5840-401: Is likely to increase the world GDP by $ 7.1 trillion per annum by 2040, and that benefits will be "widespread" as improved infrastructure reduces "frictions that hold back world trade". CEBR also concludes that the project will be likely to attract further countries to join, if the global infrastructure initiative progresses and gains momentum. Supporters praise the BRI for its potential to boost
5986-498: Is more focused on the longer term and less on specific policy matters. The intent is to build up influence over the long term for when it is needed by engaging people directly. This influence has implications ranging from national security to increasing tourism and commercial opportunities. It allows the government to create a "foundation of trust" and a mutual understanding that is neutral and built on people-to-people contact. Another unique and important element of cultural diplomacy
Belt and Road Initiative - Misplaced Pages Continue
6132-487: Is no evidence to prove that China is deliberately aiming to do debt-trap diplomacy. Research from Deborah Brautigam , an international political economy professor at Johns Hopkins University , and Meg Rithmire, an associate professor at Harvard Business School , have disputed the allegations of debt-trap diplomacy by China and pointed out that "Chinese banks are willing to restructure the terms of existing loans and have never actually seized an asset from any country, much less
6278-526: Is no reason to believe the BRI framework is worse for developing countries' debt than Western lending frameworks. For China itself, a report from Fitch Ratings doubts Chinese banks' ability to control risks, as they do not have a good record of allocating resources efficiently at home. This may lead to new asset quality problems for Chinese banks where most funding is likely to originate. It has been suggested by some scholars that critical discussions about an evolving BRI and its financing needs to transcend
6424-584: Is not motivated to repeat the model of the People's Liberation Army Support Base in Djibouti . Economic development of China's less developed western regions, particularly Xinjiang , is one of the government's stated goals in pursuing the BRI. The strategic location of Xinjiang has also been recognized as central. In 2014, state media outlet Xinhua News Agency stated Xinjiang "connects Pakistan, Mongolia, Russia, India, and four other central Asian countries with
6570-495: Is still the reference term in Chinese-language media. The Belt and Road Initiative is believed by some analysts to be a way to extend Chinese economic and political influence. Some geopolitical analysts have couched the Belt and Road Initiative in the context of Halford Mackinder 's heartland theory . Scholars have noted that official PRC media attempts to mask any strategic dimensions of the Belt and Road Initiative as
6716-547: Is to seek out new economic opportunities and retain their existing business wealth. There are numerous other organizations whose primary function is not economic development that work in partnership with economic developers. They include the news media, foundations, utilities, schools, health care providers, faith-based organizations, and colleges, universities, and other education or research institutions. There are various types of macroeconomic and sociocultural indicators or "metrics" used by economists and geographers to assess
6862-414: Is try to work to create openings so the message can get through to mass audiences abroad. To be cultural relevant in the age of globalization , a government must exercise control over the flows of information and communication technologies, including trade. This is also difficult for governments that operate in a free market society where the government does not control the bulk of information flows. What
7008-429: Is typically associated with improvements in a variety of areas or indicators (such as literacy rates , life expectancy , and poverty rates) , that may be causes of economic development rather than consequences of specific economic development programs. For example, health and education improvements have been closely related to economic growth, but the causality with economic development may not be obvious. In any case, it
7154-654: The Adriatic ports and Piraeus . All in all, the ship connections for container transports between Asia and Europe will be reorganized. In contrast to the longer East Asian traffic via north-west Europe, the southern sea route through the Suez Canal towards the junction Trieste shortens the goods transport by at least four days. In connection with the Silk Road project, China is also trying to network worldwide research activities. Simon Shen and Wilson Chan have compared
7300-544: The American National Exhibition was held on Sokolniki Park in Moscow. The exhibition was opened by Vice President Richard Nixon and attended by Walt Disney , Buckminster Fuller , William Randolph Hearst , and senior executives from Pepsi, Kodak and Macy's. It featured American consumer goods, cars, boats, RCA color TVs, food, clothing, etc., and samples of American products such as Pepsi. There
7446-691: The Bank of China lent over US$ 185.1 for BRI projects. As of April 2019, the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China had lent over US$ 100 billion for BRI projects. In 2017, China joined the G20 Operational Guidelines for Sustainable Financing and in 2019 to the G20 Principles for Quality Infrastructure Investment. The Center for Global Development described China's New Debt Sustainability Framework as "virtually identical" to
SECTION 50
#17327725552127592-602: The Cold War , the plot and choreography choices used in dance demonstrated Socialist vs. Capitalist values. Through this, countries were able to share their ideas. In 1955, the United States state department sent the Martha Graham Dance Company to many countries affected by the Cold War. Some of these countries included Burma, India, Pakistan, Japan, the Philippines, and Thailand which were all
7738-669: The Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). These indicators were first introduced in the 1995 UNDP Human Development Report. Other factors include the inflation rate, investment level and national debt , birth and death rates, life expectancy , morbidity , education levels (measured through literacy and numeracy rates), housing , social services like hospitals , health facilities , clean and safe drinking water , schools (measured by
7884-648: The Juilliard School , Milton Katims , and the music critic Alfred Frankenstein . In addition, the State Department selected Hanson's Eastman Philharmonia Orchestra to perform during a sweeping international cultural exchange tour in 1961. Concert performances by this elite group of students from the Eastman School of Music were received to critical acclaim by enthusiastic audiences in thirty four cities in sixteen countries throughout Europe,
8030-544: The National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. during the Cold War . This exhibition, showcasing 385 artifacts, was a strategic act of cultural diplomacy, aimed at improving China–United States relations while also promoting China's state ideology. China has been using panda diplomacy to advance its national interests. A goodwill tour is a tour by someone or something famous to a series of places, with
8176-485: The September 11 attacks by Joel Meyerowitz that circulated, with the backing of embassies and consulates, to 60 nations. The display was intended to shape and maintain the public memory of the attack and its aftermath. The display sought to show the human side of the tragedy, and not just the destruction of buildings. The display was also intended to show a story of recovery and resolution through documenting not only
8322-749: The Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, thereby linking Haifa , Istanbul , and Athens , to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste , with its international free port and its rail connections to Central Europe and the North Sea . As a result, Poland , the Baltic States , Northern Europe, and Central Europe are also connected to the maritime silk road and logistically linked to East Africa, India and China via
8468-705: The Western Regions ; "road" is short for the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road , which refers to the Indo-Pacific sea routes through Southeast Asia to South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. It is considered a centerpiece of Xi Jinping's foreign policy . The BRI forms a central component of Xi's "Major Country Diplomacy" strategy, which calls for China to assume a greater leadership role in global affairs in accordance with its rising power and status. As of early 2024, more than 140 countries were part of
8614-477: The post-war period of reconstruction initiated by the United States. In 1949, during his inaugural speech, President Harry Truman identified the development of undeveloped areas as a priority for the West: There have been several major phases of development theory since 1945. Alexander Gerschenkron argued that the less developed the country is at the outset of economic development (relative to others),
8760-627: The 1950s the Soviet Union had a reputation that was associated with peace, international class solidarity and progress due to its sponsorship of local revolutionary movements for liberation. The United States was known for its involvement in the Korean War and for preserving the status quo. In an effort to change this perception, the United States Information Agency (USIA) sponsored a photographic exhibition titled The Family of Man . The display originally showed in
8906-539: The 1980s pushing an agenda of free trade and removal of import substitution industrialization policies. In economics, the study of economic development was born out of an extension to traditional economics that focused entirely on the national product , or the aggregate output of goods and services. Economic development was concerned with the expansion of people's entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, such as morbidity , nourishment , literacy , education , and other socio-economic indicators. Borne out of
SECTION 60
#17327725552129052-763: The Americas through shared musical performances (See Viva América ) . In the post World War II era, the United States Army also acknowledged the importance of cultural programming as a valuable diplomatic tool amidst the ruins in Europe. In 1952 the U.S. Seventh Army enlisted the expertise of the young conductor Samuel Adler to establish the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra in Stuttgart, Germany in order to demonstrate
9198-462: The Apollo 11 astronauts in 1969. Cultural diplomacy presents a number of unique challenges to any government attempting to carry out cultural diplomacy programs. Most ideas that a foreign population observes are not in the government's control. The government does not usually produce the books, music, films, TV programs, consumer products, etc. that reaches an audience. The most the government can do
9344-897: The BRI concept as the "Silk Road Economic Belt" on 7 September 2013 at Nazarbayev University in Astana , Kazakhstan In October 2013 during a speech delivered in Indonesia, Xi stated that China planned to build a "twenty-first century Maritime Silk Road" to enhance cooperation in Southeast Asia and beyond. The BRI's stated objectives are "to construct a unified large market and make full use of both international and domestic markets, through cultural exchange and integration, to enhance mutual understanding and trust of member nations, resulting in an innovative pattern of capital inflows, talent pools , and technology databases." The Belt and Road Initiative addresses an "infrastructure gap" and thus has
9490-428: The BRI, China seeks to strengthen its position and diminish American military influence, but that China's BRI activity is likely not a prelude to American-style military bases or American-style global military presence. Other analysts characterize China's construction of ports which could have dual-uses as an attempt to avoid the necessity of establishing strictly military bases. According to academic Xue Guifang, China
9636-473: The BRI. A leading group was formed sometime in late 2014, and its leadership line-up publicized on 1 February 2015. This steering committee reports directly into the State Council of China and is composed of several political heavyweights, evidence of the importance of the program to the government. Then Vice-Premier Zhang Gaoli , who was also a member of the 7-man CCP Politburo Standing Committee ,
9782-720: The BRI. On 29 December 2014, China established the Silk Road Fund with total capital of US$ 40 billion and ¥100 billion. The Silk Road Fund invests in BRI infrastructure, resource development, energy development, industrial cooperation, and financial cooperation. The Karot Hydropower Project in Pakistan was its first project. China Investment Corporation supports the BRI by investing in its infrastructure projects, participating in other BRI-related development funds, and assisting Chinese corporations with foreign mergers and acquisitions. China Investment Corporation also invested in
9928-477: The BRI. Generally, the United States and EU have not offered global South countries with investment comparable to what China offers through the BRI. China is the largest bilateral lender in the world. Loans are backed by collateral such as rights to a mine, a port or money. This policy has been alleged by the U.S. Government to be a form of debt-trap diplomacy ; however, the term itself has come under scrutiny as analysts and researchers have pointed out that there
10074-513: The BRI. The participating countries include almost 75% of the world's population and account for more than half of the world's GDP. The initiative was incorporated into the constitution of the Chinese Communist Party in 2017. The Xi Jinping Administration describes the initiative as "a bid to enhance regional connectivity and embrace a brighter future." The project has a target completion date of 2049, which will coincide with
10220-443: The Belt and Road Initiative as one of the largest infrastructure and investment projects in history, covering more than 68 countries, including 65% of the world's population and 40% of the global gross domestic product as of 2017. The project builds on the old trade routes that once connected China to the west, Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta 's routes in the north and the maritime expedition routes of Ming dynasty admiral Zheng He in
10366-594: The Chinese government is below: China's investment in the BRI began at a moderate level in 2013 and increased significantly over 2014 and 2015. Investment volume peaked in 2016 and 2017. Afterwards, investments decreased gradually, and then significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The BRI's lowest investment volume was in 2023. China's investment in the Maritime Silk Road portion of the BRI has grown at
10512-472: The Cold War and reinforced by their current political system. In this way the music of The Beatles struck a political chord in the Soviet Union, even when the songs were not meant to be political. This contact went both ways. In 1968, when the song "Back in the USSR" was released, the album included a quote on the cover from Paul McCartney that read "In releasing this record, made especially and exclusively for
10658-476: The Communist repertoire. Other classic ballets were redesigned to demonstrate this ideology. While Americans were extremely excited to see the ballets and praised the ballerinas, the repertoire was not received as well. This was a tool critics used to express the joy of seeing the ballet company while critiquing Soviet politics. The complaint that Communism was an old-fashioned ideology was given life as most of
10804-623: The HSR seeks to improve healthcare facilities, enhance disease prevention, and strengthen healthcare cooperation across participating countries. The initiative includes the construction of healthcare facilities, such as hospitals in Pakistan and Laos, and collaborative programs with global organizations like the World Health Organization. Academic Shaoyu Yuan finds that while the HSR contributes to health sector improvements in participating nations, it also prompts discussions regarding
10950-475: The Maritime Silk Road linked by the development of ports. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) general secretary Xi Jinping originally announced the strategy as the "Silk Road Economic Belt" during an official visit to Kazakhstan in September 2013. "Belt" refers to the proposed overland routes for road and rail transportation through landlocked Central Asia along the famed historical trade routes of
11096-500: The Middle East and Russia. Similarly, the bass-baritone William Warfield was recruited by the Department of State to perform in six separate European tours during the 1950s which featured productions of the opera Porgy and Bess Jazz played a critical role during the Cold War in establishing political ties. Producer Willis Conover explained jazz as an embodiment of an anti-ideology or an alternative way of living by introducing
11242-639: The Museum of Modern Art in New York City, but then USIA helped the display to be seen in 91 locations in 39 countries. The 503 photographs by 237 professional and amateur photographers were curated and put together by Edward Steichen . The images showed glimpses of everyday human life in its various stages; courtship, birth, parenting, work, self-expression, etc., including images from the Great Depression . The images were multi-cultured and only
11388-550: The Silk Road Fund. CIC's domestic subsidiary Central Huijin indirectly supports the BRI through its support of domestic financial institutions, such as policy banks or state-owned commercial banks, which in turn fund BRI projects. Policy banks, including the Chinese Development Bank and the Export-Import Bank of China , have important roles in funding BRI projects. Between 2015 and 2020,
11534-429: The Soviet Union was questionable because reviews of Balanchine's ballets had been censored. Instead of feelings of hostility, the company received a warm welcome. Both the United States and the Soviet Union agreed with Balanchine's decision to emphasize music throughout his choreography. There was still a fundamental disagreement to this as Balanchine often declared that music has no meaning and Soviet society did not have
11680-511: The Soviet Union. In New York City, the Bolshoi was performing Spartacus by Aram Khachaturian . This ballet was meant to excite American audiences and prove that the Soviet Union could produce new, action-packed performances. The Soviet Union's creation was still not considered innovative because the Hollywood film Spartacus by Stanley Kubrick had been released prior to this performance. At
11826-622: The Soviet citizens' access to their music. Leslie Woodland, a documentary film maker, commented regarding what the Russian people were told about the West – "Once people heard the Beatles' wonderful music, it just didn't fit. The authorities' prognosis didn't correspond to what they were listening to. The system was built on fear and lies, and in this way, the Beatles put an end to the fear, and exposed
11972-516: The USSR, I am extending a hand of peace and friendship to the Soviet people." During Paul McCartney's first trip to Russia in May 2003, nearly half a million fans greeted him. One Russian critic reported, "The only person in Red Square who wasn't moved was Lenin". This is an example of how products of culture can have an influence on the people they reach outside of their own country. It also shows how
12118-400: The United States government sent a jazz band composed of African American musicians abroad to tour places, including the Middle East and Africa, with the goal of the black musicians establishing connections with their African heritage. Duke Ellington, B.B. King, and Dizzy Gillespie all made trips to Africa that fostered connections with the African diaspora. In 1956, Dizzy Gillespie took on
12264-442: The United States, view the project critically because of possible Chinese government influence, others point to the creation of a new global growth engine by connecting and moving Asia, Europe and Africa closer together. In the maritime silk road, which is already the route for more than half of all containers in the world, deep-water ports are being expanded, logistical hubs are being built, and new traffic routes are being created in
12410-421: The United States. Their goal was to demonstrate the artistic and physical abilities of their citizens. The repertoire included Romeo and Juliet, Sawn Lake, Giselle, and The Stone Flower. There were also two mixed bills that included both pre and post-revolutionary content. Swan Lake and its composer, P. I. Tchaikovsky , were considered Russian classics that fit into Marxist ideology and were therefore accepted in
12556-408: The West for far longer. " Modernization ", " Westernization ", and especially " industrialization " are other terms often used while discussing economic development. Historically, economic development policies focused on industrialization and infrastructure ; since the 1960s, it has increasingly focused on poverty reduction . Whereas economic development is a policy intervention aiming to improve
12702-468: The World Bank under McNamara's tenure "sold" states poverty reduction "through a mixture of persuasion and coercion." The development of a country has been associated with different concepts but generally encompasses economic growth through higher productivity, political systems that represent as accurately as possible the preferences of its citizens, The extension of rights to all social groups and
12848-403: The World Bank's and IMF's own debt sustainability framework. According to academic Jeremy Garlick, for many impoverished countries, China is the best available option for development finance and practical assistance. Western investors and the World Bank have been reluctant to invest in troubled countries like Pakistan, Cambodia, Tajikistan, and Montenegro, which China is willing to invest in through
12994-532: The World Bank, he introduced key changes, most notably, shifting the Bank's economic development policies toward targeted poverty reduction. Before his tenure at the World Bank, poverty did not receive substantial attention as part of international and national economic development; the focus of development had been on industrialization and infrastructure. Poverty also came to be redefined as a condition faced by people rather than countries. According to Martha Finnemore,
13140-434: The attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries . Economic development can also be considered as a static theory that documents the state of an economy at a certain place. According to Schumpeter and Backhaus (2003), the changes in this equilibrium state documented in economic theory can only be caused by intervening factors coming from the outside. Economic development originated in
13286-480: The backdrop of Keynesian economics (advocating government intervention), and neoclassical economics (stressing reduced intervention), with the rise of high-growth countries ( Singapore , South Korea , Hong Kong ) and planned governments ( Argentina , Chile , Sudan , Uganda ), economic development and more generally development economics emerged amidst these mid-20th century theoretical interpretations of how economies prosper. Also, economist Albert O. Hirschman ,
13432-473: The ballets performed were classical pieces. Dance produced in the United States, for example Balanchine and Martha Graham, was seen as modern with an individualistic style. A later example of dance during the Cold War was the Soviet Union and the United States exchanging ballet companies for a time in order to improve cultural relations. In October 1962, the New York City Ballet (NYCB) toured
13578-634: The centennial of the People's Republic of China (PRC)'s founding . Numerous studies conducted by the World Bank have estimated that BRI can boost trade flows in 155 participating countries by 4.1 percent, as well as cutting the cost of global trade by 1.1 percent to 2.2 percent, and grow the GDP of East Asian and Pacific developing countries by an average of 2.6 to 3.9 percent. According to London-based consultants Centre for Economics and Business Research , BRI
13724-567: The collapse of communism. As a result, the Beatles served as cultural diplomats through their popularity in the Soviet Union. Their music fostered youth communication and united people with a common spirit of popular culture. Kolya Vasin , the founder of The Beatles museum and the Temple of Love, Peace and Music in St. Petersburg, commented that The Beatles "were like an integrity test. When anyone said anything against them, we knew just what that person
13870-443: The collection of open-source intelligence . Cultural diplomacy relies on a variety of mediums, including: All of these tools seek to bring understanding of a nation's culture to foreign audiences. They work best when they are proven to be relevant to the target audience. The tools can be utilized by working through NGOs, diasporas and political parties abroad, which may help with the challenge of relevance and understanding. In
14016-416: The country's efforts to develop. In its broadest sense, policies of economic development encompass three major areas: Contractionary monetary policy is a tool used by central banks to slow down a country's economic growth. An example would be raising interest rates to decrease lending. In the United States, the use of contractionary monetary policy has increased women's unemployment. Seguino and Heintz uses
14162-491: The debt-trap diplomacy debate. This concerns the networked nature of financial centers and the vital role of advanced business services (e.g. law and accounting) that bring agents and sites into view (such as law firms, financial regulators, and offshore centers) that are generally less visible in geopolitical analysis, but vital in the financing of BRI. In August 2022, China announced that it would forgive 23 of its interest-free loans to 17 African nations. The loans had matured at
14308-629: The distance learners must travel to reach them), ability to use hard infrastructure (railways, roads, ports, airports, harbours, etc.), and telecommunications and other soft infrastructure like the Internet . The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) focuses on aggregating various indicators that focus on capturing the economic, political, and professional gains made by women. The GEM is composed of just three variables: income earning power, share in professional and managerial jobs, and share of parliamentary seats. The Gender Development Index (GDI) measures
14454-663: The economic development goals of specific countries cannot be reached because they lack the State's capabilities to do so. For example, if a nation has little capacity to carry out basic functions like security and policing or core service delivery it is unlikely that a program that wants to foster a free-trade zone (special economic zones) or distribute vaccinations to vulnerable populations can accomplish their goals. This has been something overlooked by multiple international organizations, aid programs and even participating governments who attempt to carry out 'best practices' from other places in
14600-415: The end of 2021. Economic development In the economics study of the public sector , economic and social development is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are improved according to targeted goals and objectives. The term has been used frequently in the 20th and 21st centuries, but the concept has existed in
14746-473: The end of the performance, Gillespie said the audience loved the music and threw him up on their shoulders after the performance. Diplomats emphasized the positive effects of musical diplomacy on the public. From 1955 to 1996, jazz producer Willis Conover hosted a music program called "Music USA," for the Voice of America to assist in the emergence of jazz musicians as U.S. ambassadors. Conover explained: "Jazz
14892-455: The event of a military conflict and to blunt the U.S. island chain strategy . A 2023 study by AidData of the College of William & Mary determined that overseas port locations subject to significant BRI investment raise questions of dual military and civilian use and may be favorable for future naval bases. Writing in 2023, David H. Shinn and academic Joshua Eisenman state that through
15038-476: The expanding infrastructure needs across Asia, enhance regional integration, promote economic development and improve public access to social services. At inception, the AIIB was explicitly linked to the BRI. The AIIB was subsequently broadened to include investments with states that are not involved with the BRI. Loans through AIIB are accessible on AIIB's website, unlike many other forms of Chinese investment through
15184-472: The eyes of the international community. Cultural diplomacy through the arts was also used by the Soviet Union due to the high value they placed on culture and the belief it could unite people. The " New Soviet Man " was expected to have an understanding of the arts and be able to contribute to society. In 1959, the Soviet Union decided to send one of its highly regarded ballet companies, the Bolshoi , to tour
15330-1102: The films, but they nonetheless carried them. Cultural programming featuring Latin Jazz music and the Bolero was already recognized by the United States Department of State as an important diplomatic tool during the World War II period. In the early 1940s, Nelson Rockefeller at the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs collaborated with Edmund A. Chester of the CBS to showcase leading musicians from both North and South America for audiences on both continents. Musical artists such as Alfredo Antonini , Terig Tucci , John Serry Sr. , Miguel Sandoval , Juan Arvizu , Elsa Miranda , Eva Garza , Manuolita Arriola , Kate Smith and Nestor Mesta Chayres participated in this truly international effort to foster peace throughout
15476-495: The form of building/supporting museums, gifting art/antiquities, and travelling exhibitions . France has led the way in using the return on art and artifacts looted during their colonial past to its home country for diplomatic means. In 1974, People's Republic of China organized its first archaeological exhibition in the United States , The Exhibition of Archaeological Finds of the People's Republic of China , held at
15622-575: The gender gap in human development achievements. It takes the disparity between men and women into account through three variables, health, knowledge, and living standards. *Top country subdivisions by GDP *Top country subdivisions by GDP per capita *Top country metropolitan by GDP Cultural exchange Cultural diplomacy is a type of soft power that includes the "exchange of ideas, information, art, language and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding". The purpose of cultural diplomacy
15768-550: The global GDP, particularly in developing countries. However, there has also been criticism over human rights violations and environmental impact, as well as concerns of debt-trap diplomacy resulting in neocolonialism and economic imperialism. These differing perspectives are the subject of active debate. China's policy of channeling its construction companies abroad began with Jiang Zemin's Go Out policy . Xi Jinping 's BRI built on and expanded this policy as well as built on Jiang's China Western Development policy. Xi announced
15914-401: The government can do is work to protect cultural exports where they flourish, by utilizing trade agreements or gaining access for foreign telecommunication networks. It is also possible that foreign government officials may oppose or resist certain cultural exports while the people cheer them on. This can make support for official policies difficult to obtain. Cultural activities may be both
16060-472: The grief and pain, but also the recovery efforts. In many countries where the display was run, it was personalized for the population. For example, relatives of those who died in the Towers were often invited to the event openings. The positioning of the performing arts throughout history shows that dance was a tool for showing power, promoting national pride, and maintaining international relations. During
16206-543: The growth of globalization has linked economic development with trends on international trade and participation in global value chains (GVCs) and international financial markets. The last financial crisis had a huge effect on economies in developing countries. Economist Jayati Ghosh states that it is necessary to make financial markets in developing countries more resilient by providing a variety of financial institutions . This could also add to financial security for small-scale producers. Economic development has evolved into
16352-627: The hinterland. The maritime silk road runs with its connections from the Chinese coast to the south, linking Hanoi , Kuala Lumpur , Singapore , and Jakarta , then westward linking the Sri Lankan capital city of Colombo , and Malé , capital of the Maldives, and onward to East Africa, and the city of Mombasa , in Kenya. From there the linkage moves northward to Djibouti , through the Red Sea and
16498-545: The imbalance between its more developed eastern regions and its less developed western regions . For developing countries, the BRI is appealing because of the opportunities it offers to alleviate their economic disadvantages relative to Western countries. The BRI offers them infrastructure development, financial assistance, and technical assistance from China. The increase in foreign direct investment and increased trade linkages also increases employment and poverty alleviation for these countries. While some countries, especially
16644-417: The importance of society. These exchanges were also seen as a battle between Capitalism and Communism , with each showing off its values and power. These are only a few examples of dance being used to showcase artistry and power while bettering international affairs. Exhibitions were often used during the Cold War to demonstrate culture and progress by both the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1959,
16790-448: The incentive compatibility problems that can happen to foreign aid donations –that foreign aid granting countries continue to give it to countries with little results of economic growth but with corrupt leaders that are aligned with the granting countries' geopolitical interests and agenda –there are problems of fiscal fragility associated to receiving an important amount of government revenues through foreign aid. Governments that can raise
16936-452: The information struggle to define the interpretation of states' actions. If an action is not interpreted abroad as the nation meant to it be, then the action itself can become meaningless. Participants in cultural diplomacy often have insights into foreign attitudes that official embassy employees do not. This can be used to better understand a foreign nation's intentions and capabilities. It can also be used to counter hostile propaganda and
17082-644: The initiative to the post-World War II Marshall Plan. It is the largest infrastructure investment by a great power since the Marshall Plan. China intentionally frames the BRI flexibly in order to adapt it to changing needs or policies, such as the addition of a "Health Silk Road" during the COVID-19. The Health Silk Road (HSR) is an initiative under China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aimed at enhancing public health infrastructure and fostering international cooperation in healthcare. Initiated as part of China's broader strategy to engage in global health governance,
17228-413: The lies." Pavel Palazchenko, Mikhail Gorbachev 's conference interpreter, stated that the Beatles' music was a "source of musical relief. They helped us create a world of our own, a world different from the dull and senseless ideological liturgy that increasingly reminded me of Stalinism...". Like Gorbachev, many Russian youth agreed that the Beatles were a way to overcome the cultural isolation imposed by
17374-474: The long-term debt sustainability and the transparency of project execution. As the HSR expands, it exemplifies China's role in global health diplomacy, reflecting a complex interplay between development goals and geopolitical strategy. The official name for the initiative is the Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road Development Strategy ( 丝绸之路经济带和21世纪海上丝绸之路发展战略 ), which
17520-412: The masses). This is what governments seek to show foreign audiences when engaging in cultural diplomacy. It is a type of soft power , which is the "ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments. It arises from a country's culture, political ideals and policies." This indicates that the value of culture is its ability to attract foreigners to a nation. Cultural diplomacy
17666-428: The more likely certain conditions are to occur. Hence, all countries do not progress similarly. From the 1940s to the 1960s the state played a large role in promoting industrialization in developing countries, following the idea of modernization theory . This period was followed by a brief period of basic needs development focusing on human capital development and redistribution in the 1970s. Neoliberalism emerged in
17812-448: The opportunities to get them and the proper functionality of institutions and organizations that can attend more technically and logistically complex tasks (i.e. raise taxes and deliver public services). These processes describe the State's capabilities to manage its economy, polity, society and public administration. Generally, economic development policies attempt to solve issues in these topics. With this in mind, economic development
17958-737: The opportunity to create an attachment and gain influence at a young impressionable age. An example of exchanges is the United States' Fulbright Program . The US and Soviet Union hosted a range of educational exchange programs during the Cold War . Popular entertainment is a statement about the society which it is portraying. These cultural displays can carry important messages regarding individualism, consumer choices and other values. For example, Soviet audiences watching American films learned that Americans owned their own cars, did not have to stand in long lines to purchase food, and did not live in communal apartments. These observations were not intended to be political messages when Hollywood created
18104-538: The other's culture. Cultural diplomacy has been called the "linchpin of public diplomacy" because cultural activities have the potential to demonstrate the best of a nation. Richard T. Arndt, a former State Department cultural diplomacy practitioner, said: "Cultural relations grow naturally and organically, without government intervention – the transactions of trade and tourism , student flows, communications, book circulation, migration , media access, inter-marriage – millions of daily cross-cultural encounters. If that
18250-407: The people in question and their nation. The UNDP indicates four chief factors in development, especially human development, which are empowerment, equity, productivity, and sustainability. Mansell and Wehn state that economic development has been understood by non-practitioners since the World War II to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capita income , and (if currently absent)
18396-402: The performance of classical music as an indispensable diplomatic tool. With this in mind, President Dwight D. Eisenhower established an Emergency Fund for International Affairs in 1954 to stimulate the presentation of America's cultural achievements to international audiences in the realms of dance, theatre and music. In 1954, the State Department's Cultural Presentations program established
18542-468: The port of Hambantota". In an editorial letter, they argued that it was 'long overdue' for people to know the truth and not to have it be "willfully misunderstood". Writing in 2023, academic and former UK diplomat Kerry Brown states that China's relationship to the Hambantota port has become the opposite of the theorized debt-trap modus operandi. Brown observes that China has had to commit more money to
18688-961: The potential to accelerate economic growth across the Asia Pacific , Africa and Central and Eastern Europe . A report from the World Pensions Council estimates that Asia, excluding China, requires up to US$ 900 billion of infrastructure investments per year over the next decade, mostly in debt instruments, 50% above current infrastructure spending rates. The gaping need for long-term capital explains why many Asian and Eastern European heads of state "gladly expressed their interest in joining this new international financial institution focusing solely on 'real assets' and infrastructure-driven economic growth". The initial focus has been infrastructure investment, education, construction materials, railway and highway, automobile, real estate, power grid, and iron and steel. Already, some estimates list
18834-419: The project, expose itself to further risk, and has had to become entangled in complex local politics.As of 2024, the port has not been a significant economic success, although shipping through the port is on the increase. In his comparison of BRI loans to IMF loans and Paris Club loans, which have not been very successful in reducing the debt of developing countries, academic Jeremy Garlick concludes that there
18980-409: The purpose of expressing benevolent interest or concern for a group of people or a region, improving or maintaining a relationship between parties, and exhibiting the item or person to places visited. Goodwill tours are meant to be friendly; however, in some cases, they may be intimidating to the people or the government at the place visited. At the same time, a visit by a goodwill tour might be used as
19126-453: The relative economic advancement of a given region or nation. The World Bank 's "World Development Indicators" are compiled annually from officially recognized international sources and include national, regional and global estimates. GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by mid-year population. GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidizes not included in
19272-449: The role as a musical ambassador during his trip to the Middle East. He reported to President Eisenhower that he and his jazz band were effective against Red propaganda. With their interracial group, the jazz band was able to communicate across social and language barriers. During the band's trip to Athens, Greece, a performance transformed an audience of Anti-American students angered by the U.S. stance on Greece's right-wing dictatorship. By
19418-426: The same ideology. Because each company's ballets were being judged with preconceived notions about society and the arts, opinions clashed and interpretations were different. The United States was mainly known for producing abstract modern pieces which align with Capitalist and individualistic thinking. On the other hand, the Soviet Union was producing narrative ballets which were meant to reeducate citizens and emphasize
19564-630: The same time, seventeen ballets by George Balanchine , who is considered a very influential figure in American ballet though he was born in Russia, were being performed in the Soviet Union. Once again ballet was used to showcase artistry and power while bettering international affairs. Many factors made this tour a pinnacle in Cold war exchanges. The tour occurred at the same time as the Cuban Missile Crisis . Also, NYCB making an appearance in
19710-430: The shared cultural heritage of America and Europe. Performances of classical music by the orchestra continued throughout Europe until 1962. They showcased the talents of several noted conductors and musicians including: James Dixon , John Ferritto , Henry Lewis and Kenneth Schermerhorn . As the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union escalated in the 1950s, the Department of State also supported
19856-419: The side which has the better side of the story that wins", this has resulted in a shift from old style diplomacy to encompass brand building and reputation management . In short, a country can use its culture to create a brand for itself which represents positive values and image. Museum diplomacy is a subset of cultural diplomacy concerned with museums and the cultural artifacts they exhibit. This can take
20002-884: The south. The Belt and Road Initiative now refers to the entire geographical area of the historic " Silk Road " trade route , which has been continuously used in antiquity. The goals of the BRI were officially presented for the first time in a 2015 document, the Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Belt and Road . It outlined six economic corridors for trade and investment connectivity would be implemented. The BRI develops new markets for Chinese firms, channels excess industrial capacity overseas, increases China's access to resources, and strengthens its ties with partner countries. The initiative generates its own export demand because Chinese loans enable participating countries to develop infrastructure projects involving Chinese firms and expertise. The infrastructure developed also helps China to address
20148-701: The souvenir pins that were given out turned up in every corner of the country. The Soviets banned printed material, but the Americans gave it out anyway. The most popular items were the Bible and a Sears catalogue. The guides for the exhibition were American graduate students, including African Americans and women, who spoke Russian. This gave Russians the ability to speak to real Americans and ask difficult questions. The ambassador to Moscow, Llewellyn Thompson , commented that "the exhibition would be 'worth more to us than five new battleships." The usefulness of exchanges
20294-462: The target nation. Cultural diplomacy derives its credibility not from being close to government institutions, but from its proximity to cultural authorities. Ultimately, the goal of cultural diplomacy is to influence a foreign audience and use that influence, which is built up over the long term, as a good will reserve to win support for policies. It seeks to harness the elements of culture to induce foreigners to: In turn, cultural diplomacy can help
20440-415: The value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Median income is related to real gross national income per capita and income distribution . European development economists have argued that the existence of modern transportation networks- such as high-speed rail infrastructure constitutes
20586-770: The well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and increases in GDP ; economist Amartya Sen describes economic growth as but "one aspect of the process of economic development". The precise definition of economic development has been contested: while economists in the 20th century viewed development primarily in terms of economic growth , sociologists instead emphasized broader processes of change and modernization . Development and urban studies scholar Karl Seidman summarizes economic development as "a process of creating and utilizing physical, human, financial, and social assets to generate improved and broadly shared economic well-being and quality of life for
20732-501: Was a typical American kitchen set up inside in which spectators could watch a Bird's Eye frozen meal be prepared. An IBM RAMAC computer was programmed to answer 3,500 questions about America in Russian. The most popular question was "what is the meaning of the American Dream?" The Soviets tried to limit the audience by only giving tickets to party members and setting up their own rival exhibition. But ultimately people came, and
20878-477: Was condemned by Andrei Zhdanov . He considered jazz as corrupt and capitalistic due to the fact that it grew out of the United States during a time of political unrest. During the 1950s to 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement, the decolonization of Africa and Asia , and the cultural and political rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union created the need for cultural exchange. As a result,
21024-528: Was initially abbreviated as the One Belt One Road (Chinese: 一带一路 ) or the OBOR strategy. The English translation has been changed to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) since 2016, when the Chinese government considered the emphasis on the words "one" and "strategy" were prone to misinterpretation and suspicion, so they opted for the more inclusive term "initiative" in its translation. However, "One Belt One Road"
21170-554: Was named leader of the group, and Wang Huning , Wang Yang , Yang Jing , and Yang Jiechi named deputy leaders. On 28 March 2015, China's State Council outlined the principles, framework, key areas of cooperation and cooperation mechanisms with regard to the initiative. The BRI is considered a central element within China's foreign policy , and was incorporated into the CCP's constitution in 2017 during its 19th Congress . The BRI represents
21316-465: Was worth. The authorities, our teachers, even our parents, became idiots to us." Despite the attempts of the Soviet Union's government to prevent the spread of the Beatles' popularity amongst their citizens, the band proved to be as popular in the USSR as it was in Britain. The government went as far as censoring the expression of all Western ideals, including the Beatles' bourgeois eccentricity, limiting
#211788