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79-401: Oneiros was also, according to one Greek Grammarian named Photius , the name of one of the sons of Achilles with Deidamia . For the ancient Greeks, dreams were not generally personified. However, a few instances of the personification of dreams, some perhaps solely poetic, can be found in ancient Greek sources. In Homer 's Iliad , Zeus decides to send a "baleful dream" to Agamemnon ,

158-524: A " land of dreams " past the streams of Oceanus , close to Asphodel Meadows , where the spirits of the dead reside. In another passage of the Odyssey , truthful dreams are said to come through a gate made of horn, while deceitful dreams come through a gate made of ivory (see Gates of horn and ivory ). Hesiod in his genealogical poem the Theogony , makes the "tribe of Dreams" ( φῦλον Ὀνείρων ), among

237-587: A book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date. For a long time, the only manuscripts of the Lexicon were the Codex Galeanus , which passed into the library of Trinity College, Cambridge and Berolinensis graec. oct. 22, both of which were incomplete. But in 1959, Linos Politis of the University of Thessaloniki discovered

316-752: A collection of extracts and abridgements of 280 volumes of previous authors (usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. The work is especially rich in extracts from historical writers. To Photios, we are indebted for almost all we possess of Ctesias , Memnon of Heraclea , Conon , the lost books of Diodorus Siculus , and the lost writings of Arrian . Theology and ecclesiastical history are also very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal with those authors with whom every well-educated man would naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distinguished by keen and independent judgment, and

395-741: A complete manuscript, codex Zavordensis 95, in the Zavorda Monastery (Greek: Ζάβορδα) in Grevena , Greece, where it still resides. His most important theological work is the Amphilochia , a collection of some 300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus. Other similar works are his treatise in four books against the Manichaeans and Paulicians , and his controversy with

474-448: A council which was approved by Pope John VIII, his ecclesiastical career was viewed in utter disgrace by Catholic authorities and many of his theological opinions were condemned posthumously. Yet it appears that he did not remain reviled for the remainder of his life. Photios continued his career as a writer throughout his exile, and Leo probably rehabilitated his reputation within the next few years; in his Epitaphios on his brothers,

553-425: A dazzling reputation as a scholar. In a feud with Patriarch Ignatios, Photios invented a fanciful theory that people have two souls, for the sole purpose of tricking Ignatios into embarrassing himself by being seen to take it seriously, whereupon Photius withdrew his proposal and admitted he had not been serious. The historian John Julius Norwich described this as "perhaps the only really satisfactory practical joke in

632-456: A generic insult or a reference to his ethnicity is unclear. Although Photios had an excellent education, we have no information about how he received this education. The famous library he possessed attests to his enormous erudition (theology, history, grammar, philosophy, law, the natural sciences, and medicine). Most scholars believe that he never taught at Magnaura or at any other university; Vasileios N. Tatakes asserts that, even while he

711-540: A great figure of Byzantine history [...] Leo [...] certainly did not allow him back into the sphere of politics, and it is surely his absence from this arena that accounts for his quiet passing." After his death, Photius began to be venerated as saint in environs of Constantinople. His name features in a manuscript of the Typicon of the Great Church of Constantinople dated to the middle of the tenth century, where he

790-622: A great sense of depth in the disputes dealt with in the ecclesiastical seats, especially in the appeal judgments dealt with in the Roman curia. Therefore, some scholars today exclude that he was trained in Justinian Roman law and that (at the beginning of his career) he worked mainly in certain cities (such as Arezzo , Pisa or Bologna ) where Roman law was known and applied for years, it being plausible that he came from an episcopal city in which all jurisdiction, both civil and ecclesiastical,

869-513: A lion to sleep. He writes that the statue was surnamed Epidotes . Related figures are the Somnia (Dreams), the thousand sons that the Latin poet Ovid gave to Somnus (Sleep), who appear in dreams. Ovid named three of the sons of Somnus: Morpheus , who appears in human guise, Phobetor , called Icelos by the gods, who appears as beasts, and Phantasos , who appears as inanimate objects. Oneiros

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948-488: A lowercase "q.", and canons by a lowercase "c.". Gratian's dicta are referred to with a lowercase "d. a. c." ( dictum ante canonem , for commentary preceding the canon) or "d. p. c." ( dictum post canonem , for commentary following the canon). Examples: Commonly used between the seventeenth and early twentieth centuries, this form generally begins with a reference to the smallest unit in Arabic numerals, followed by

1027-527: A text probably written in 888, the Emperor presents Photios favorably, portraying him as the legitimate archbishop, and the instrument of ultimate unity, an image that jars with his attitude to the patriarch in the previous year. Confirmation that Photios was rehabilitated comes upon his death: according to some chronicles, his body was permitted to be buried in Constantinople. In addition, according to

1106-469: A tribunal headed by senior officials, headed by Andrew the Scythian . Although the sources sympathetic to Photios give the impression that the trial ended without a conviction, the chronicle of Pseudo-Symeon clearly states that Photios was banished to the monastery of Gordon, where he later died. Latin sources confirm that while he did not die in a state of complete excommunication, having been reinstated by

1185-481: Is characteristic: the author argues that Photios was educated after an agreement he concluded with a Jewish magician who offered him knowledge and secular recognition, in case he renounced his faith. ^   c:  David Marshall Lang argues that "Photius [...] was only one of many Byzantine scholars of Armenian descent". Peter Charanis notes that " John the Grammarian , Photius, Caesar Bardas and Leo

1264-512: Is not possible after Anders Winroth 's groundbreaking scholarship. Winroth's research shows that the Decretum existed in two published recensions . The first dates to sometime after 1139, while the second dates to 1150 at the latest. There are several major differences between the two recensions: These differences led Winroth to conclude that Roman law was not as far developed by 1140 as scholars had previously thought. He has also argued that

1343-400: Is referred to a saint with a day of commemoration of February 6. According to Francis Dvornik , Photius must have been venerated as a saint in the second half of the tenth century at the very latest. The contemporary Eastern Orthodox Church venerates Photius as a saint, with his feast day being February 6. Photios is one of the most famous figures not only of 9th-century Byzantium but of

1422-520: Is sometimes incorrectly referred to as Franciscus Gratianus, Johannes Gratian, or Giovanni Graziano. For a long time he was believed to have been born around 1100, at Ficulle in Umbria , based on a chronicle of illustrious men of the 14th century attributed to an exponent of the powerful Colonna family , who had possessions in Ficulle . He was said to have become a monk at Camaldoli and then taught at

1501-480: Is the manuscript St. Gall, Stiftsbibliothek , 673 (=Sg), which some have argued contains the earliest known draft (Larrainzar's borrador ) of the Decretum , but which other scholars have argued contains an abbreviation of the first recension expanded with texts taken from the second recension. During the reformation, individuals such as Martin Luther strongly criticized the claims of papal primacy within

1580-663: Is the principal source for the work, which is now lost. The first English translation, by Holy Transfiguration Monastery, of the " Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit " by Photios was published in 1983. Another translation was published in 1987 with a preface by Archimandrite (now Archbishop ) Chrysostomos of Etna . ^   a:  The exact dates of Photios's birth and death are not known. Most sources list circa 810 and others circa 820 as his year of birth. He died some time between 890 and 895 (probably 891 or 893). ^   b:  The case of pseudo-Simeon's Chronicle

1659-711: The Decretum , is a collection of canon law compiled and written in the 12th century as a legal textbook by the jurist known as Gratian . It forms the first part of the collection of six legal texts, which together became known as the Corpus Juris Canonici . It was used as the main source of law by canonists of the Roman Catholic Church until the Decretals , promulgated by Pope Gregory IX in 1234, obtained legal force, after which it

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1738-476: The Decretum . The Roman revisers of the 16th century (1566–1582) corrected the text of the "Decree" and added many critical notes designated by the words Correctores Romani . The Decretum is cited by referring to the larger units of the distinction or the cause and question, and then the specific canon or dictum. For clarity, the distinctions of Causa 33, quaestio 3 of the second part are referred to as De penitentia (or De pen. ), while

1817-549: The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . True or not, this story does reveal Basil's dependence on Photios for literary and ideological matters. Following Photios's recall, Ignatios and the ex-patriarch met, and publicly expressed their reconciliation. When Ignatios died on October 23, 877, it was a matter of course that his old opponent replaced him on the patriarchal throne three days later. Shaun Tougher asserts that from this point on Basil no longer simply depended on Photios, but in fact he

1896-540: The monastery of St. Felix in Bologna and devoted his life to studying theology and canon law, but contemporary scholars do not attach credibility to these traditions. Since the 11th century, some cities of central-northern Italy such as Arezzo , Pisa , Bologna had been the centre of the study of Roman law , after the Corpus Juris Civilis was rediscovered in western Europe. In the second half of

1975-467: The patronal feast of Constantinople's cathedral, Hagia Sophia, Photios's was consecrated a bishop and installed as patriarch. The confinement and removal of Ignatios and the speedy promotion of Photios at first caused only internal controversy within the Church of Constantinople, and in 859 a local council was held, examining the issue and confirming the removal of Ignatios and election of Photios. In

2054-445: The 11th century and at the beginning of the 12th century Roman law was generally studied and applied only in the cities (seat of the diocese) in which there was an imperial Prefecture, where imperial and ecclesiastical jurists (and courts) coexisted (such as Pisa and Bologna ), with mutual interference. However, from the first editorial stages of the Decretum it is clear that Gratian had little knowledge of Roman law and that he had

2133-540: The Abbasids were interested in works of Greek science and philosophy. However, specialists of this period of Byzantine history, such as Paul Lemerle , have shown that Photios could not have compiled his Bibliotheca in Baghdad because he clearly states in both his introduction and his postscript that when he learned of his appointment to the embassy, he sent his brother a summary of books that he read previously , "since

2212-556: The Distinction or Cause in Roman numerals and (if required) the question in Arabic numerals, e.g. "c. 5, C.3 q.1". This is the form used by medieval and early modern writers, falling out of use after the eighteenth century. Major divisions ( Distinctio, Causa, quaestio ) were cited with (usually Roman) numerals. Since the numbering of the Decretum 's capitula only became standard in the sixteenth century, canons were cited by their opening word(s). Two or more canons beginning with

2291-655: The Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit . Photios also addressed a long letter of theological advice to the newly converted Boris I of Bulgaria. Numerous other Epistles also survive. Photios is also the writer of two "mirrors of princes", addressed to Boris-Michael of Bulgaria (Epistula 1, ed. Terzaghi) and to Leo VI the Wise (Admonitory Chapters of Basil I). Photios' epitome of Philostorgius ' Church History

2370-785: The Mathematician as Photios's teacher, but Paul Lemerle notes that Leo was not one of the persons with whom Photios had a correspondence. Recent years have seen the first translations into English of a number of primary sources about Photios and his times. Gratian (jurist) Jus novum ( c.  1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c.  1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of

2449-582: The Philosopher seem to have been the prime movers. All four were, at least in part, of Armenian descent [...] as for Photius, the fact is that his mother Irene, was the sister of Arshavir , the Arshavir who had married Calomaria the sister of Bardas and the empress Theodora." Nicholas Adontz stresses that "Arshavir, Photius' uncle, must not be confused with Arshavir, the brother of John the Grammarian". ^   d:  G. N. Wilson regards Leo

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2528-548: The Skepi monastery, it appears that the ex-patriarch brought pressure to bear on the Byzantine emperor to restore him. Ignatios's biographer argues that Photios forged a document relating to the genealogy and rule of Basil's family, and had it placed in the imperial library where a friend of his was a librarian. According to this document, the Byzantine emperor's ancestors were not mere peasants as everyone believed but descendants of

2607-446: The accuracy of the information these sources provide. Little is known of Photios's origin and early years. It is known that he was born into a notable family and that his uncle Saint Tarasius had been the patriarch of Constantinople from 784–806 under both Empress Irene (r. 797–802) and Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). During the second Iconoclasm , which began in 814, his family suffered persecution since his father, Sergios,

2686-535: The anti-Photian biographer of Ignatius, partisans of the ex-patriarch after his death endeavored to claim for him the "honor of sainthood". Furthermore, a leading member of Leo's court, Leo Choirosphaktes , wrote poems commemorating the memory of several prominent contemporary figures, such as Leo the Mathematician and the Patriarch Stephen, and he also wrote one on Photios. Shaun Tougher notes, however, that "yet Photios's passing does seem rather muted for

2765-537: The canonical jurisdiction from the civil one. Gratian's work was an attempt, using early scholastic method, to reconcile seemingly contradictory canons from previous centuries. Gratian quoted a great number of authorities, including the Bible , papal and conciliar legislation, church fathers such as Augustine of Hippo , and secular law in his efforts to reconcile the canons. Gratian found a place in Dante 's Paradise among

2844-664: The commander of the Greek army during the Trojan War . An Oneiros is summoned by Zeus, and ordered to go to the camp of the Greeks at Troy and deliver a message from Zeus urging him to battle. The Oneiros goes quickly to Agamemnon's tent, and finding him asleep, stands above Agamemnon's head; taking the shape of Nestor , a trusted counselor to Agamemnon, the Oneiros speaks to Agamemnon, as Zeus had instructed him. The Odyssey locates

2923-458: The consent of Boris I of Bulgaria (r. 852–889), the papacy was unable to enforce its claims. Pope Adrian III chose a policy of appeasement and sent between 884 and 885 bishop Theodosius of Oria to transmit notice of his election and a synodal letter to Photios about faith and the filioque . Photios also promoted a policy of religious reconciliation with the Armenian kingdom to the east of

3002-675: The demand of an apology to the Pope, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Bulgaria , and the addition of the filioque to the Nicene creed by the Western church. Eventually, Photios refused to apologize or accept the filioque , and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without

3081-536: The distinctions of the third part are referred to as De consecratione (or De cons. ). The Part is usually not included, as the citation form is different for each. Citation styles for the Decretum have changed over time and can generally be categorised under the modern, obsolescent, and obsolete forms. This form, common since the twentieth century, cites all units in Arabic numerals, from largest unit to smallest unit. Distinctions are referenced by an uppercase "D.", Causes by an uppercase "C.", questions by

3160-544: The doctors of the Church: This next flamelet issues from Gratian's smile, he who gave such help to the ecclesiastical and civil spheres as is acceptable in Paradise. He has long been acclaimed as Pater Juris Canonici ( Latin : "Father of Canon Law"), a title he shares with his successor St. Raymond of Penyafort . Gratian was the father and the first teacher of the scientia nova which he himself coined:

3239-469: The empire. He sought to bridge the confessional differences between the Greek Orthodox and Armenian churches on two separate occasions, once in 862 and again in 877, but his efforts ultimately proved unsuccessful. During the altercations between Emperor Basil I and his heir Leo VI , Photios took the side of the Byzantine emperor. In 883, Basil accused Leo of conspiracy and confined the prince to

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3318-528: The entire history of the Byzantine Empire. One of the most learned men of his age, and revered – even by some of his opponents and detractors – as the most prolific theologian of his time, he has earned his fame due to his part in ecclesiastical conflicts, and also for his intellect and literary works. Analyzing his intellectual work, Tatakes regards Photios as "mind turned more to practice than to theory". He believes that, thanks to Photios, humanism

3397-575: The excerpts vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notes are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus . Some older scholarship speculated that the Bibliotheca was compiled in Baghdad at the time of Photius's embassy to the Abbasid court, since many of the mentioned works were rarely cited during the so-called Byzantine Dark Ages c. 630 – c. 800, and it was known that

3476-531: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life The Decretum Gratiani , also known as the Concordia discordantium canonum or Concordantia discordantium canonum or simply as

3555-615: The former. The contested councils mark the end of unity represented by the first seven Ecumenical Councils . Photios was canonized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1847. Most of the popular sources treating Photios's life are written by persons hostile to him. The chief contemporary authority for the life of Photios is his bitter enemy, Nicetas the Paphlagonian, the biographer of his rival Ignatios. Modern scholars are thus cautious when assessing

3634-528: The legitimacy of the succession. His legates were dispatched to Constantinople with instructions to investigate, but finding Photios well ensconced, they acquiesced in the confirmation of his election at a synod in 861. On their return to Rome, they discovered that this was not at all what Nicholas had intended, and in 863 at a synod in Rome the Supreme Pontiff deposed Photios, and reappointed Ignatius as

3713-489: The many offspring of Nyx (Night), without a father. Their siblings include: Moros (Doom), Ker (Destiny), Thanatos (Death), Hypnos (Sleep), Momus (Blame), Oizys (Pain), Keres (Destinies), Nemesis (Retribution), Eris (Discord), and other abstract personifications. Euripides , in his play Hecuba has Hecuba call "lady Earth" the "mother of black-winged dreams". The second-century AD geographer Pausanias mentions seeing statues of an Oneiros and Hypnos lulling

3792-490: The marriage of his brother Sergios to Irene, a sister of Empress Theodora , who upon the death of her husband Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) in 842, had assumed the regency of the Byzantine Empire. Photios became a captain of the guard ( prōtospatharios ) and subsequently chief imperial secretary ( protasēkrētis ). At an uncertain date, Photios participated in an embassy to the Abbasids of Baghdad . Photios achieved

3871-453: The most wonderful men of all the middle ages", and stresses that "had [he] not given his name to the great schism, he would always be remembered as the greatest scholar of his time". Yet, Fortescue is equally adamant of his condemnation of Photios' involvement in the Schism: "And yet the other side of his character is no less evident. His insatiable ambition, his determination to obtain and keep

3950-481: The murder of Photios's patron Bardas in 866 and of Emperor Michael III in 867, by his colleague Basil the Macedonian , who now usurped the throne. Photios was deposed as patriarch, not so much because he was a protégé of Bardas and Michael, but because Basil I was seeking an alliance with the Pope and the western emperor. Photios was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867, and Ignatios

4029-582: The new canon law or ius novum . Many of his disciples have become highly renowned canonists. The vulgate version of Gratian's collection was completed at some point after the Second Council of the Lateran of 1139, which it quotes. Research by Anders Winroth established that some manuscripts of an early version of Gratian's text, which differs considerably from the mainstream textual tradition, have survived. With later commentaries and supplements,

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4108-701: The ninth-century renaissance". He was a central figure in both the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity and the Photian schism , and is considered "[t]he great systematic compiler of the Eastern Church, who occupies a similar position to that of Gratian in the West ," and whose " collection in two parts...formed and still forms the classic source of ancient Church Law for the Greek Church." Photios

4187-575: The official story. Warren T. Treadgold believes that this time the evidence points to a plot on behalf of Leo VI, who became emperor, and deposed Photios, although the latter had been his tutor. Photios was replaced by the Byzantine emperor's brother Stephen , and sent into exile to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia . It is confirmed from letters to and from Pope Stephen that Leo extracted a resignation from Photios. In 887, Photios and his protégé, Theodore Santabarenos , were put on trial for treason before

4266-603: The palace; he would have even had Leo blinded had he not been dissuaded by Photios and Stylianos Zaoutzes , the father of Zoe Zaoutzaina , Leo's mistress. In 886, Basil discovered and punished a conspiracy by the domestic of the Hikanatoi John Kourkouas the Elder and many other officials. In this conspiracy, Leo was not implicated, but Photios was possibly one of the conspirators against Basil's authority. Basil died in 886 injured while hunting, according to

4345-434: The patriarchal see, led him to the extreme of dishonesty. His claim was worthless. That Ignatius was the rightful patriarch as long as he lived, and Photius an intruder, cannot be denied by any one who does not conceive the Church as merely the slave of a civil government. And to keep this place Photius descended to the lowest depth of deceit." The most important of the works of Photios is his Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon ,

4424-445: The pope and the Byzantine emperor, Ignatius was reinstated. Photios resumed the position when Ignatius died (877), by order of the Byzantine emperor. The new pope, John VIII , approved Photios's reinstatement. Catholics regard as legitimate a Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic) anathematizing Photios, while Eastern Orthodox regard as legitimate a subsequent Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox) , reversing

4503-519: The popes, texts of the Scripture or of the Fathers. These are the canones ; the entire remaining portion, even the summaries of the canons and the chronological indications, are called the maxims or dicta Gratiani . Many auctoritates have been inserted in the Decretum by authors of a later date. These are the Paleae , so called from Paucapalea , the name of the principal commentator on

4582-526: The rightful patriarch, triggering a schism . Four years later, Photios was to respond on his own part by calling a Council and attempting to excommunicate the Holy Father on grounds of heresy – over the question of the double procession of the Holy Spirit . The situation was additionally complicated by the question of papal authority over the entire Church and by disputed jurisdiction over newly converted Bulgaria . This state of affairs changed with

4661-545: The same time, partisans of Ignatios decided to appeal to the Holy Roman and Catholic Church, thus initiating ecclesiastical controversy on an ecumenical scale as the Pope and the rest of the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatios. The latter's confinement and removal without a formal ecclesiastical trial meant that Photios's election was uncanonical, and eventually Pope Nicholas I sought to involve himself in determining

4740-549: The same word/phrase might be distinguished with numbers, e.g. In Christo ii . Examples (using the same references as above): Early commentators might also refer to the first few canons by number (e.g. cap. iij for the third canon of a distinction), or to the last few canons as cap. antepenult. ( "capitulum antepenultimum" , that is, third to last), cap. penult. (or pen. or pe. , second to last), and cap. fin. ( "capitulum finale" ) or cap. ult. (last). Gratian ( Medieval Latin : Gratianus )

4819-444: The second recension was due not to the original author of the first recension (whom he calls Gratian 1), but rather another jurist versed in Roman law. However, Winroth's thesis of two Gratians remains controversial. This field of inquiry is hampered by ignorance of the compiler's identity and the existence of manuscripts with abbreviated versions of the text or variant versions not represented by Winroth's two recensions. One of these

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4898-463: The secular texts in Bibliotheca are histories, grammars or literary works, usually rhetoric, rather than science, medicine or philosophy. This further indicates that the majority of the works cannot have been read while Photios was in the Abbasid empire. The Lexicon (Λέξεων Συναγωγή), published later than the Bibliotheca , was probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended as

4977-615: The study and the forensic use of canon law. In spite of its great reputation and wide diffusion, the Decretum has never been recognized by the Church as an official collection. The so-called vulgata or vulgate version (an advanced editorial stage) of the Decretum is divided into three parts ( ministeria , negotia , sacramenta ). Each distinction or question contains dicta Gratiani , or maxims of Gratian, and canones . Gratian himself raises questions and brings forward difficulties, which he answers by quoting auctoritates , i. e. canons of councils, decretals of

5056-400: The time I learned how to understand and evaluate literature" i.e. since his youth. Moreover, the Abbasids were interested only in Greek science, philosophy and medicine; they did not have Greek history, rhetoric, or other literary works translated; nor did they have Christian patristic writers translated. Yet the majority of works in Bibliotheca are by Christian patristic authors, and most of

5135-400: The whole history of theology." Photios's ecclesiastical career took off spectacularly after Caesar Bardas and his nephew, the youthful Emperor Michael, put an end to the administration of the regent Theodora and the logothete of the drome Theoktistos in 856. In 858, Bardas found himself opposed by the then Patriarch Ignatios , who refused to admit him into Hagia Sophia , since it

5214-410: The work he called Concordia discordantium canonum , and others titled Nova collectio, Decreta, Corpus juris canonici , or the more commonly accepted name, Decretum Gratiani , a living text, characterized by multiple editorial stages. He did this to obviate the difficulties which beset the study and the forensic application of practical, external theology ( theologia practica externa ), i.e.,

5293-468: The work was incorporated into the Corpus Juris Canonici . The Decretum quickly became the standard textbook for students of canon law throughout Europe, but it never received any formal, official recognition by the papacy. Only the Codex Juris Canonici of 1917 put it out of use. As late as 1997, scholars commonly set the date of completion at 1140, but this accuracy in dating

5372-525: Was a canon lawyer from Etruria , probably operating in the former feudal state of Matilda of Tuscany (mainly in Tuscany and Emilia region ) as well as in Reims (1131), Rome , Bologna , Venice (1143) and Chiusi . He flourished in the second quarter of the twelfth century. He died on 10 August around the middle of the 12th century as bishop of Chiusi in Tuscany . Little else is known about him. He

5451-401: Was a prominent iconophile . Sergios's family returned to favor only after the restoration of the icons in 842. Certain scholars assert that Photios was, at least in part, of Armenian descent while other scholars merely refer to him as a " Greek Byzantine ". Byzantine writers also report that Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) once angrily called Photios " Khazar -faced", but whether this was

5530-435: Was a well-educated man from a noble Constantinopolitan family. Photios's great uncle was a previous patriarch of Constantinople, Saint Tarasius . He intended to be a monk, but chose to be a scholar and statesman instead. In 858, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) decided to confine Patriarch Ignatius in order to force him into resignation, and Photios, still a layman, was appointed to replace him. Amid power struggles between

5609-468: Was added to Orthodoxy as a basic element of the national consciousness of the medieval Byzantines, returning it to the place it had had in the early Byzantine period. Tatakes also argues that, having understood this national consciousness, Photios emerged as a defender of the Greek nation and its spiritual independence in his debates with the Western Church. Adrian Fortescue regards him as "one of

5688-458: Was also, according to some myths, the name of one of the sons of Achilles with Deidamia. His brother was Neoptolemus . He was killed by Orestes, who didn't recognize him, while fighting with him in Phocis for a place to pitch a tent. Photios I of Constantinople Photios I ( Greek : Φώτιος , Phōtios ; c. 815 – 6 February 893), also spelled Photius ( / ˈ f oʊ ʃ ə s / ),

5767-460: Was believed that he was having an affair with his widowed daughter-in-law. In response, Bardas and Michael engineered Ignatios's confinement and removal on the charge of treason, thus leaving the patriarchal throne empty. The throne was soon filled with a kinsman of Bardas, Photios himself, who was tonsured a monk on December 20, 858, and on the four following days was successively ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest, and then on Christmas Day,

5846-409: Was dealt with by the only court present: the ecclesiastical one. Perhaps also for this reason he feels the need to create a legal work to be applied only in ecclesial courts and only for cases relating to canon law, putting an end to the mixture between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions. It is no coincidence that Dante Alighieri writes that he helped "one and the other forum", that is, he separated

5925-581: Was dominated by him. Photios now obtained the formal recognition of the Christian world in a council convened at Constantinople in November 879. The legates of Pope John VIII attended, prepared to acknowledge Photios as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which the pope was much censured by Latin opinion. The patriarch stood firm on the main points contested between the Eastern and Western Churches:

6004-422: Was patriarch, Photios taught "young students passionately eager for knowledge" at his home, which "was a center of learning". He was a friend of the renowned Byzantine scholar and teacher Leo the Mathematician . Photios says that, when he was young, he had an inclination for the monastic life, but instead he started a secular career. The way to public life was probably opened for him by (according to one account)

6083-476: Was reinstated on November 23. Photios was condemned by the Council of 869–870 , thus putting an end to the schism. During his second patriarchate, however, Ignatios followed a policy not very different from that of Photios. Not long after his condemnation, Photios had reingratiated himself with Basil, and became tutor to the Byzantine emperor's children. From surviving letters of Photios written during his exile at

6162-566: Was the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople from 858 to 867 and from 877 to 886. He is recognized in the Eastern Orthodox Church as Saint Photios the Great . Photios is widely regarded as the most powerful and influential church leader of Constantinople subsequent to John Chrysostom 's archbishopric around the turn of the fifth century. He is also viewed as the most important intellectual of his time – "the leading light of

6241-577: Was the cornerstone of the Corpus Juris Canonici , in force until 1917. In the first half of the 12th century Gratian , clusinus episcopus , probably a jurist of the ecclesiastical forum and a teacher, rubricator at the monastery of Saints Nabor and Felix (according to the Bolognese Odofredus Denariis [13th century]) and starting from the 18th century believed to have been a Camaldolese monk, composed

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