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67-625: The Ongi Kuden ( 御義口伝 ) (also known as Shū-Jū Hokke-Kyō Ongi Kuden ( 就註法華経口伝 ) or The Record of the Orally Transmitted Teachings ) is a hermeneutic text in Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism. The Kuden are the alleged oral teachings of Nichiren Daishonin on the Lotus Sutra , beginning on 1 January 1278 which were recorded and compiled by his senior disciple Nikkō Shōnin thirteen years after

134-552: A "special hermeneutic of empathy" to dissolve the classic philosophic issue of "other minds" by putting the issue in the context of the being-with of human relatedness. (Heidegger himself did not complete this inquiry.) Advocates of this approach claim that some texts, and the people who produce them, cannot be studied by means of using the same scientific methods that are used in the natural sciences , thus drawing upon arguments similar to those of antipositivism . Moreover, they claim that such texts are conventionalized expressions of

201-565: A hermeneutics that is based upon Heidegger's concepts. His work differs in many ways from that of Gadamer. Karl-Otto Apel (b. 1922) elaborated a hermeneutics based on American semiotics . He applied his model to discourse ethics with political motivations akin to those of critical theory . Jürgen Habermas (b. 1929) criticized the conservatism of previous hermeneutists, especially Gadamer, because their focus on tradition seemed to undermine possibilities for social criticism and transformation. He also criticized Marxism and previous members of

268-430: A negative (since it denies justice)? The logical square, also called square of opposition or square of Apuleius has its origin in the four marked sentences to be employed in syllogistic reasoning: Every man is white, the universal affirmative and its negation Not every man is white (or Some men are not white), the particular negative on the one hand, Some men are white, the particular affirmative and its negation No man

335-604: A single proposition, the nouns referring to the subjects combine to form a unity. Thus, 'two-footed domesticated animal' applies to a 'man', and the three predicates combine to form a unity. But in the term 'a white walking man' the three predicates do not combine to form a unity of this sort. Chapter 12 . This chapter considers the mutual relation of modal propositions: affirmations and denials which assert or deny possibility or contingency, impossibility or necessity. Chapter 13 . The relation between such propositions. Logical consequences follow from this arrangement. For example, from

402-466: A verb. A simple proposition indicates a single fact, and the conjunction of its parts gives a unity. A complex proposition is several propositions compounded together. Chapter 6 . An affirmation is an assertion of something, a denial an assertion denying something of something. (For example, 'a man is an animal' asserts 'animal' of 'man'. 'A stone is not an animal' denies 'animal' of stone'). Chapter 7 . Terms. Some terms are universal . A universal term

469-570: Is also evident in the medieval Zohar . In Christianity, it can be seen in Mariology . The discipline of hermeneutics emerged with the new humanist education of the 15th century as a historical and critical methodology for analyzing texts. In a triumph of early modern hermeneutics, the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery. This

536-444: Is apparently unavoidable, and thus necessary. Another interpretation would be: that we cannot know that which has not yet come to pass. In other words: if there is a sea battle tomorrow then it is true today that tomorrow there will be a sea battle. So, only if we can know whether or not there will be a sea battle tomorrow then can we know if there will be a sea battle). Chapter 1 . Aristotle defines words as symbols of 'affections of

603-452: Is capable of being asserted of several subjects (for example 'moon'—even though the Earth has one moon, it may have had more, and the noun 'moon' could have been said of them in exactly the same sense). Other terms are individual. An individual or singular term ('Plato') is not predicated (in the same) sense of more than one individual. A universal affirmative proposition, such as, 'Every man

670-552: Is claimed to be the core practice of Nichiren's teachings, is weighted on heavily with great significance on Ongi-Kuden . This Nam-myoho-renge-kyo is explained in Ongi kuden as follows: A large number of Nichiren's writings collected and published by Soka Gakkai (called Gosho Zenshu ) has been called into question. Some scholars have raised doubts about whether these texts were actually authored by Nichiren or approved by him or his associates. Additionally, there has been debate over

737-466: Is equivalent to the two simple propositions 'a man is white and a horse is white'. Chapter 9 . Of contradictory propositions about the past and present, one must be true, the other false. But when the subject is individual, and the proposition is future, this is not the case. For if so, nothing takes place by chance. For either the future proposition such as, 'A sea battle will take place,' corresponds with future reality, or its negation does, in which case

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804-562: Is expressed in his work. Dilthey divided sciences of the mind ( human sciences ) into three structural levels: experience, expression, and comprehension. In the 20th century, Martin Heidegger 's philosophical hermeneutics shifted the focus from interpretation to existential understanding as rooted in fundamental ontology, which was treated more as a direct—and thus more authentic—way of being-in-the-world ( In-der-Welt-sein ) than merely as "a way of knowing." For example, he called for

871-453: Is expressed, is not based on empathy , understood as a direct identification with the Other . Interpretation, on a hermeneutical conception of empathy involves an indirect or mediated understanding that can only be attained by placing human expressions in their historical context. Thus, understanding is not a process of reconstructing the state of mind of the author, but one of articulating what

938-459: Is honest' and 'No man is honest' are false. But their contradictories, 'Some men are not honest' and 'Some men are honest,' are both true. Chapter 8 . An affirmation is single, if it expresses a single fact. For example, 'every man is mortal'. However, if a word has two meanings, for example if the word 'garment' meant 'man and horse', then 'the garment is white' would not be a single affirmation, for it would mean 'the man and horse are white', which

1005-512: Is mortal' and a universal negative proposition having the same subject and predicate, such as, 'No man is mortal,' are called contrary . A universal affirmative proposition ("Every man is mortal") and the non-universal denial of that proposition in a way ("Some men are not mortal") are called contradictories . Of contradictories, one must be true, the other false. Contraries cannot both be true, although they can both be false, and hence their contradictories are both true. For example, both 'Every man

1072-511: Is the study of the principles of interpretation of the Bible. While Jewish and Christian biblical hermeneutics have some overlap, they have very different interpretive traditions. The early patristic traditions of biblical exegesis had few unifying characteristics in the beginning but tended toward unification in later schools of biblical hermeneutics. Augustine offers hermeneutics and homiletics in his De doctrina christiana . He stresses

1139-422: Is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of biblical texts , wisdom literature , and philosophical texts . As necessary, hermeneutics may include the art of understanding and communication. Modern hermeneutics includes both verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as semiotics , presuppositions , and pre-understandings. Hermeneutics has been broadly applied in

1206-408: Is to unfold the nature of individual understanding. Gadamer pointed out that prejudice is an element of our understanding and is not per se without value. Indeed, prejudices, in the sense of pre-judgements of the thing we want to understand, are unavoidable. Being alien to a particular tradition is a condition of our understanding. He said that we can never step outside of our tradition—all we can do

1273-471: Is try to understand it. This further elaborates the idea of the hermeneutic circle . New hermeneutic is the theory and methodology of interpretation to understand Biblical texts through existentialism . The essence of new hermeneutic emphasizes not only the existence of language but also the fact that language is eventualized in the history of individual life. This is called the event of language. Ernst Fuchs , Gerhard Ebeling , and James M. Robinson are

1340-435: Is white, the universal negative on the other. Robert Blanché published with Vrin his book Structures intellectuelles in 1966 and since then many scholars think that the logical square or square of opposition representing four values should be replaced by the logical hexagon which by representing six values is a more potent figure because it has the power to explain more things about logic and natural language. The study of

1407-533: The Buddha ( Buddhavacana ) and other enlightened beings. Buddhist hermeneutics is deeply tied to Buddhist spiritual practice and its ultimate aim is to extract skillful means of reaching spiritual enlightenment or nirvana . A central question in Buddhist hermeneutics is which Buddhist teachings are explicit, representing ultimate truth, and which teachings are merely conventional or relative. Biblical hermeneutics

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1474-486: The Frankfurt School for missing the hermeneutical dimension of critical theory . De Interpretatione The work begins by analyzing simple categoric propositions, and draws a series of basic conclusions on the routine issues of classifying and defining basic linguistic forms, such as simple terms and propositions , nouns and verbs, negation , the quantity of simple propositions (primitive roots of

1541-425: The humanities , especially in law, history and theology. Hermeneutics was initially applied to the interpretation, or exegesis , of scripture , and has been later broadened to questions of general interpretation. The terms hermeneutics and exegesis are sometimes used interchangeably. Hermeneutics is a wider discipline which includes written, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Exegesis focuses primarily upon

1608-426: The quantifiers in modern symbolic logic), investigations on the excluded middle (which to Aristotle is not applicable to future tense propositions—the problem of future contingents ), and on modal propositions . The first five chapters deal with the terms that form propositions. Chapters 6 and 7 deal with the relationship between affirmative, negative, universal and particular propositions. These relationships are

1675-436: The sociologist Max Weber . Hans-Georg Gadamer 's hermeneutics is a development of the hermeneutics of his teacher, Heidegger. Gadamer asserted that methodical contemplation is opposite to experience and reflection. We can reach the truth only by understanding or mastering our experience. According to Gadamer, our understanding is not fixed but rather is changing and always indicating new perspectives. The most important thing

1742-617: The Ark as a “type” of the Christian church that God designed from the start. This type of interpretation is more often known as mystical interpretation. It claims to explain the events of the Bible and how they relate to or predict what the future holds. This is evident in the Jewish Kabbalah , which attempts to reveal the mystical significance of the numerical values of Hebrew words and letters. In Judaism, anagogical interpretation

1809-475: The New Testament might be clarified by comparing their possible meanings with contemporary Christian practices. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) explored the nature of understanding in relation not just to the problem of deciphering sacred texts but to all human texts and modes of communication. The interpretation of a text must proceed by framing its content in terms of the overall organization of

1876-538: The Scriptures. Although Augustine endorses some teaching of the Platonism of his time, he recasts it according to a theocentric doctrine of the Bible. Similarly, in a practical discipline, he modifies the classical theory of oratory in a Christian way. He underscores the meaning of diligent study of the Bible and prayer as more than mere human knowledge and oratory skills. As a concluding remark, Augustine encourages

1943-426: The affirmations and denials that can be assigned when 'indefinite' terms such as 'unjust' are included. He makes a distinction that was to become important later, between the use of the verb 'is' as a mere copula or 'third element', as in the sentence 'a man is wise', and as a predicate signifying existence, as in 'a man is [i.e. exists]'. Chapter 11 . Some propositions appear to be simple, but are really composite. In

2010-410: The authors is believed to correspond to the literal meaning. Literal hermeneutics is often associated with the verbal inspiration of the Bible. Moral interpretation searches for moral lessons which can be understood from writings within the Bible. Allegories are often placed in this category. Allegorical interpretation states that biblical narratives have a second level of reference that is more than

2077-415: The authorship of Ongi Kuden, which is believed by some to have been compiled by Nikko Shonin rather than Nichiren Daishonin himself. The Heibonsha World Encyclopedia states that a growing number of Nichirenist religious and textual writings, including Ongi Kuden, are regarded by some scholars as potentially forgeries. Hermeneutic Hermeneutics ( / h ɜːr m ə ˈ nj uː t ɪ k s / )

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2144-401: The basis of the well-known square of opposition . The distinction between universal and particular propositions is the basis of modern quantification theory . The last three chapters deal with modalities . Chapter 9 is famous for the discussion of the sea-battle . (If it is true that there will be a sea-battle tomorrow, then it is true today that there will be a sea-battle. Thus a sea-battle

2211-552: The being of entities is what determines entities as entities) and for Heidegger's hermeneutic realism (the thesis that (a) there is a nature in itself and science can give us an explanation of how that nature works, and (b) that (a) is compatible with the ontological implications of our everyday practices). Philosophers that worked to combine analytic philosophy with hermeneutics include Georg Henrik von Wright and Peter Winch . Roy J. Howard termed this approach analytic hermeneutics . Other contemporary philosophers influenced by

2278-416: The boundaries of the sacred . A divine message must be received with implicit uncertainty regarding its truth. This ambiguity is an irrationality; it is a sort of madness that is inflicted upon the receiver of the message. Only one who possesses a rational method of interpretation (i.e., a hermeneutic) could determine the truth or falsity of the message. Folk etymology places its origin with Hermes ,

2345-537: The death of his master. The Hokkeko adherents of the Dai Gohonzon mandala regard this text as one of the most divinely hermeneutic treatises in Nichiren's writings , because it supposedly reveals some essential principles of Nichiren's teachings. The Nichiren Shoshu religion considers this text as an authoritative Buddhist scripture preserved at the repository of Nikko Shonin from the year 1295, recopied in

2412-406: The empirical study of family interactions as well as reflection upon the procedures of interpretation employed in our research. For the time being we shall refer to it as objective hermeneutics in order to distinguish it clearly from traditional hermeneutic techniques and orientations. The general significance for sociological analysis of objective hermeneutics issues from the fact that, in

2479-402: The experience of the author. Thus, the interpretation of such texts will reveal something about the social context in which they were formed, and, more significantly, will provide the reader with a means of sharing the experiences of the author. The reciprocity between text and context is part of what Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle . Among the key thinkers who elaborated this idea was

2546-550: The four propositions constituting the square is found in Chapter 7 and its appendix Chapter 8. Most important also is the immediately following Chapter 9 dealing with the problem of future contingents. This chapter and the subsequent ones are at the origin of modal logic . Aristotle's original Greek text, Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας ( Peri Hermeneias ) was translated into the Latin " De Interpretatione " by Marius Victorinus , at Rome, in

2613-528: The hermeneutic tradition include Charles Taylor ( engaged hermeneutics ) and Dagfinn Føllesdal . Wilhelm Dilthey broadened hermeneutics even more by relating interpretation to historical objectification. Understanding moves from the outer manifestations of human action and productivity to the exploration of their inner meaning. In his last important essay, "The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Manifestations of Life" (1910), Dilthey made clear that this move from outer to inner, from expression to what

2680-461: The importance of humility in the study of Scripture. He also regards the duplex commandment of love in Matthew 22 as the heart of Christian faith. In Augustine's hermeneutics, signs have an important role. God can communicate with the believer through the signs of the Scriptures. Thus, humility, love, and the knowledge of signs are an essential hermeneutical presupposition for a sound interpretation of

2747-456: The interpreter and preacher of the Bible to seek a good manner of life and, most of all, to love God and neighbor. There is traditionally a fourfold sense of biblical hermeneutics: literal, moral, allegorical (spiritual), and anagogical. Encyclopædia Britannica states that literal analysis means “a biblical text is to be deciphered according to the ‘plain meaning’ expressed by its linguistic construction and historical context.” The intention of

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2814-500: The loss in precision and objectivity necessitated by the requirement of research economy can be condoned and tolerated in the light of prior hermeneutically elucidated research experiences. Bernard Lonergan 's (1904–1984) hermeneutics is less well known, but a case for considering his work as the culmination of the postmodern hermeneutical revolution that began with Heidegger was made in several articles by Lonergan specialist Frederick G. Lawrence . Paul Ricœur (1913–2005) developed

2881-417: The mythological Greek deity who was the 'messenger of the gods'. Besides being a mediator among the gods and between the gods and men, he led souls to the underworld upon death. Hermes was also considered to be the inventor of language and speech, an interpreter, a liar, a thief and a trickster. These multiple roles made Hermes an ideal representative figure for hermeneutics. As Socrates noted, words have

2948-463: The people, events and things that are explicitly mentioned. One type of allegorical interpretation is known as typological , where the key figures, events, and establishments of the Old Testament are viewed as “types” (patterns). In the New Testament this can also include foreshadowing of people, objects, and events. According to this theory, readings like Noah's Ark could be understood by using

3015-453: The power to reveal or conceal and can deliver messages in an ambiguous way. The Greek view of language as consisting of signs that could lead to truth or to falsehood was the essence of Hermes, who was said to relish the uneasiness of those who received the messages he delivered. Summaries of the principles by which Torah can be interpreted date back to, at least, Hillel the Elder , although

3082-410: The proposition 'it is possible' it follows that it is contingent, that it is not impossible, or from the proposition 'it cannot be the case' there follows 'it is necessarily not the case'. Chapter 14 . Is there an affirmative proposition corresponding to every denial? For example, is the proposition 'every man is unjust' an affirmation (since it seems to affirm being unjust of every man) or is it merely

3149-464: The relation of hermeneutics with problems of analytic philosophy , there has been, particularly among analytic Heideggerians and those working on Heidegger's philosophy of science , an attempt to try and situate Heidegger's hermeneutic project in debates concerning realism and anti-realism : arguments have been presented both for Heidegger's hermeneutic idealism (the thesis that meaning determines reference or, equivalently, that our understanding of

3216-504: The rules for the various rituals that had to be performed precisely. The foundational text is the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini (ca. 3rd to 1st century BCE) with a major commentary by Śabara (ca. the 5th or 6th century CE). The Mimamsa sutra summed up the basic rules for Vedic interpretation. Buddhist hermeneutics deals with the interpretation of the vast Buddhist literature , particularly those texts which are said to be spoken by

3283-435: The scholars who represent the new hermeneutics. The method of Marxist hermeneutics has been developed by the work of, primarily, Walter Benjamin and Fredric Jameson . Benjamin outlines his theory of the allegory in his study Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels ("Trauerspiel" literally means "mourning play" but is often translated as "tragic drama"). Fredric Jameson draws on Biblical hermeneutics, Ernst Bloch , and

3350-402: The sea battle will take place with necessity, or not take place with necessity. But in reality, such an event might just as easily not happen as happen; the meaning of the word 'by chance' with regard to future events is that reality is so constituted that it may issue in either of two opposite possibilities. This is known as the problem of future contingents . Chapter 10 . Aristotle enumerates

3417-461: The social sciences justifies qualitative approaches as exploratory or preparatory activities, to be succeeded by standardized approaches and techniques as the actual scientific procedures (assuring precision, validity, and objectivity), we regard hermeneutic procedures as the basic method for gaining precise and valid knowledge in the social sciences. However, we do not simply reject alternative approaches dogmatically. They are in fact useful wherever

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3484-434: The social sciences, interpretive methods constitute the fundamental procedures of measurement and of the generation of research data relevant to theory. From our perspective, the standard, nonhermeneutic methods of quantitative social research can only be justified because they permit a shortcut in generating data (and research "economy" comes about under specific conditions). Whereas the conventional methodological attitude in

3551-534: The soul' or mental experiences. Spoken and written symbols differ between languages, but the mental experiences are the same for all (so that the English word 'cat' and the French word 'chat' are different symbols, but the mental experience they stand for—the concept of a cat—is the same for English speakers and French speakers). Nouns and verbs on their own do not involve truth or falsity. Chapter 2 . A noun signifies

3618-524: The subject by convention, but without reference to time. Chapter 3 . A verb carries with it the notion of time. 'He was healthy' and 'he will be healthy' are tenses of a verb. An untensed verb indicates the present, the tenses of a verb indicate times outside the present. Chapter 4 . The sentence is an expression whose parts have meaning. The word 'cat' signifies something, but is not a sentence. Only when words are added to it do we have affirmation and negation. Chapter 5 . Every simple proposition contains

3685-617: The term " objective hermeneutics " in his Objective Knowledge (1972). In 1992, the Association for Objective Hermeneutics (AGOH) was founded in Frankfurt am Main by scholars of various disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Its goal is to provide all scholars who use the methodology of objective hermeneutics with a means of exchanging information. In one of the few translated texts of this German school of hermeneutics, its founders declared: Our approach has grown out of

3752-516: The text, some expounded the law given in the text, and others found secret or mystical levels of understanding. Vedic hermeneutics involves the exegesis of the Vedas , the earliest holy texts of Hinduism . The Mimamsa was the leading hermeneutic school and their primary purpose was understanding what Dharma (righteous living) involved by a detailed hermeneutic study of the Vedas. They also derived

3819-551: The texts themselves. Martin Luther and John Calvin emphasized scriptura sui ipsius interpres (scripture interprets itself). Calvin used brevitas et facilitas as an aspect of theological hermeneutics . The rationalist Enlightenment led hermeneutists, especially Protestant exegetists, to view Scriptural texts as secular classical texts. They interpreted Scripture as responses to historical or social forces so that, for example, apparent contradictions and difficult passages in

3886-566: The thirteen principles set forth in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael are perhaps the best known. These principles ranged from standard rules of logic (e.g., a fortiori argument [known in Hebrew as קל וחומר –  kal v'chomer ]) to more expansive ones, such as the rule that a passage could be interpreted by reference to another passage in which the same word appears ( Gezerah Shavah ). The rabbis did not ascribe equal persuasive power to

3953-579: The various principles. Traditional Jewish hermeneutics differed from the Greek method in that the rabbis considered the Tanakh (the Jewish Biblical canon) to be without error. Any apparent inconsistencies had to be understood by means of careful examination of a given text within the context of other texts. There were different levels of interpretation: some were used to arrive at the plain meaning of

4020-492: The word and grammar of texts . Hermeneutic, as a count noun in the singular, refers to some particular method of interpretation (see, in contrast, double hermeneutic ). Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word ἑρμηνεύω ( hermēneuō , "translate, interpret"), from ἑρμηνεύς ( hermeneus , "translator, interpreter"), of uncertain etymology ( R. S. P. Beekes (2009) suggests a Pre-Greek origin). The technical term ἑρμηνεία ( hermeneia , "interpretation, explanation")

4087-784: The work of Friedrich Schleiermacher ( Romantic hermeneutics and methodological hermeneutics ), August Böckh (methodological hermeneutics), Wilhelm Dilthey ( epistemological hermeneutics ), Martin Heidegger ( ontological hermeneutics , hermeneutic phenomenology , and transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology ), Hans-Georg Gadamer (ontological hermeneutics), Leo Strauss ( Straussian hermeneutics ), Paul Ricœur (hermeneutic phenomenology), Walter Benjamin ( Marxist hermeneutics ), Ernst Bloch (Marxist hermeneutics), Jacques Derrida ( radical hermeneutics , namely deconstruction ), Richard Kearney ( diacritical hermeneutics ), Fredric Jameson (Marxist hermeneutics), and John Thompson ( critical hermeneutics ). Regarding

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4154-476: The work of Northrop Frye , to advance his theory of Marxist hermeneutics in his influential The Political Unconscious . Jameson's Marxist hermeneutics is outlined in the first chapter of the book, titled "On Interpretation" Jameson re-interprets (and secularizes) the fourfold system (or four levels) of Biblical exegesis (literal; moral; allegorical; anagogical) to relate interpretation to the mode of production , and eventually, history. Karl Popper first used

4221-416: The work. Schleiermacher distinguished between grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation. The former studies how a work is composed from general ideas; the latter studies the peculiar combinations that characterize the work as a whole. He said that every problem of interpretation is a problem of understanding and even defined hermeneutics as the art of avoiding misunderstanding. Misunderstanding

4288-435: The year 1539 (both lost to history). Due to claims of the text being divinely inspired, it vehemently rejects any re-interpretation of this text outside the confines of the sect. Ongi kuden is a series of lectures on important sentences and phrases of the Lotus Sutra , and includes the following lectures: Ongi kuden elucidates the following theories and concepts as interpreted by Nichiren Shoshu : Nam-myoho-renge-kyo

4355-541: Was done through intrinsic evidence of the text itself. Thus hermeneutics expanded from its medieval role of explaining the true meaning of the Bible. However, biblical hermeneutics did not die off. For example, the Protestant Reformation brought about a renewed interest in the interpretation of the Bible, which took a step away from the interpretive tradition developed during the Middle Ages back to

4422-545: Was introduced into philosophy mainly through the title of Aristotle 's work Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας ("Peri Hermeneias"), commonly referred to by its Latin title De Interpretatione and translated in English as On Interpretation . It is one of the earliest (c. 360  BCE ) extant philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit and formal way. The early usage of "hermeneutics" places it within

4489-402: Was to be avoided by means of knowledge of grammatical and psychological laws. During Schleiermacher's time, a fundamental shift occurred from understanding not merely the exact words and their objective meaning, to an understanding of the writer's distinctive character and point of view. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century hermeneutics emerged as a theory of understanding ( Verstehen ) through

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