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154-580: The Odrysian kingdom was founded by king Teres I , exploiting the collapse of the Persian presence in Europe due to failed invasion of Greece in 480–79 . Teres and his son Sitalces pursued a policy of expansion, making the kingdom one of the most powerful of its time. Throughout much of its early history it remained an ally of Athens and even joined the Peloponnesian War on its side. By 400 BC

308-422: A 25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and would include "political, strategic and economic" components. Iran-China relations dates back to at least 200 BC and possibly earlier. Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has a good relationship with both North and South Korea . Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including

462-589: A Sapaean king, who are known to have resided in the Rhodopes. His identity must remain uncertain. It is a fact, however, that Cotys was the last king in the sources to be explicitly labelled an "Odrysian". There is also no evidence that Odrysians had any affiliations with the royal houses of the Sapaeans and Asti of the 1st century BC. By the middle of the 1st century BC, the Romans dominated coastal Thrace, while

616-541: A Macedonian pretender to the throne. This king is probably to be identified with the western Odrysian king Berisades. A year later he unified Macedon and subjugated the Paeonians to the northeast. In these early years he did not bother much with Thrace yet, as he regarded the infighting Odrysian kingdoms as no threat for his rule. A first push into the kingdom of Berisades and his successor Cetriporis occurred in 357/6, when he conquered Amphipolis and Crenides . The latter

770-423: A Thracian rebellion. He seems to have been an Odrysian and may have been associated with the royal house of Cersebleptes, although his social background must remain speculation. After Alexander's death in 323, one of his bodyguards named Lysimachus was appointed as the satrap of Thrace. Soon after his arrival he faced off with Seuthes, who had rallied much of Thrace around his banner. Seuthes' goal seems to have been

924-564: A century. The Getic capital was Helis, which has been identified with the archaeological site of Sboryanovo , which was founded in the 330s or early 320s and housed around 10.000 inhabitants. It seems that the Getae also became active in Muntenia north of the Danube, a region that would come to constitute a part of the " Dacia " of imperial Roman historiography . The first Getic king to appear in

1078-480: A ceremonial body without any real power. The political system is based on the country's constitution . Iran ranked 154th in the 2022 The Economist Democracy Index . Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that "the Iranian regime combines the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism ". The President is head of government and the second highest-ranking authority, after

1232-507: A city-state with considerable influence. Spartokos is known from several coins minted after 281 where he is addressed as king ( basileus ). Although not mentioned in the Seuthopolis inscription and known only from a few coins and an inscription in a grave from Kazanlak, Seuthes seemed to have another son named Roigos, who eventually became king. The fate of Seuthes' dynasty remains enigmatic. Other Thracian monarchs recorded in sources from

1386-590: A close economic and military alliance, and are subject to heavy sanctions by Western nations. Iran is the only country in Western Asia that has been invited to join the CSTO , the Russia-based international treaty organization that parallels NATO . Relations between Iran and China are strong economically; they have developed a friendly, economic and strategic relationship. In 2021, Iran and China signed

1540-684: A continent of its own. While the boundaries of Thrace fluctuated throughout history, Thrace can be divided in a northern and a southern half, which were also culturally different. The border between the two halves has been identified as the Haemus Mountains or the Danube slightly further north. Southern Thrace covered the fertile valley between the Haemus and the Rhodopes , the Strandzha and

1694-542: A distinct political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia (632–654) ended the Sasanian Empire and marked a turning point in Iranian history, leading to the Islamization of Iran from the eighth to tenth centuries and the decline of Zoroastrianism . However, the achievements of prior Persian civilizations were absorbed into the new Islamic polity. Iran suffered invasions by nomadic tribes during

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1848-698: A leading world power, though by the 19th century, it had lost significant territory through conflicts with the Russian Empire . The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty . Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the oil industry led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953 . After the Iranian Revolution , the monarchy was overthrown in 1979 and

2002-413: A mercenary army led by Iphicrates . Iphicrates subsequently married the daughter of Seuthes' son, Cotys I . Cotys I succeeded Seuthes II in 383. The historian Michael Zahrnt described Cotys as "the right man to strengthen the run-down Odrysian realm, vigorous, and an artful diplomat [...]." Indeed, it was under him that the kingdom reached its greatest might and became a considerable political factor in

2156-503: A moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami , whose government advocated freedom of expression , constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the European Union , and an economic policy that supported a free market and foreign investment. The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist and nationalist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power. He

2310-541: A privileged warrior aristocracy, he and his son Sitalces expanded the realm from the Danube in the north to the outskirts of Abdera at the Aegean Sea. He also expanded to eastern Thrace, although he suffered a setback at the hands of the Thynoi . In the north-east, he cemented the position of his realm by allying himself with the kingdom of Scythia under king Ariapeithes , who married Teres' daughter. In conclusion,

2464-602: A renewed expansion to the east, exploiting the weakness of the Ptolemies after the death of Ptolemy IV . While Philip's initial focus was on coastal Thrace, he also led a campaign into the interior. Temporarily losing his Thracian holdings after the end of the Second Macedonian War in 197, he reconquered most of them a decade later, while again campaigning in the Thracian interior. In 184 or 183 he pushed into

2618-471: A strong response from Iran, based on their historical and cultural background. Iran has full-control over the islands. Kish island , as a free trade zone , is touted as a consumer's paradise, with malls, shopping centres, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels. Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016. Its salt cave, Namakdan, is the largest in the world, and one of

2772-657: A variety of early tribal kingdoms. It has been suggested that the Odrysian kingdom might have had its origins in this period, even though the name of the Odrysians is notably absent from the numismatic evidence. The Odrysians eventually stepped into the light of history in the aftermath of the Persian failure in Greece, when they were mentioned by Herodotus, but without any further details. The Odrysians had their core territory in

2926-418: Is a major regional power , due to its large reserves of fossil fuels , including the world's second largest natural gas supply , third largest proven oil reserves , its geopolitically significant location, military capabilities , cultural hegemony , regional influence, and role as the world's focal point of Shia Islam . The Iranian economy is the world's 23rd-largest by PPP . Iran is a founding member of

3080-452: Is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for 8-year terms. Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces ( Persian : استان ostân ), each governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called

3234-478: Is four times that of Europe's. There are over 200 protected areas to preserve biodiversity and wildlife, with over 30 being national parks . Iran's living fauna includes 34 bat species, Indian grey mongoose , small Indian mongoose , golden jackal , Indian wolf , foxes , striped hyena , leopard , Eurasian lynx , brown bear and Asian black bear . Ungulate species include wild boar , urial , Armenian mouflon , red deer , and goitered gazelle . One of

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3388-559: Is in a seismically active area. On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years. Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake . Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau . It is one of the world's most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate basins or plateaus . The populous west part

3542-419: Is in fact very slim. Throughout the remainder of the 3rd century, Thrace remained fragmented into various political entities. In the interior ruled various badly known Thracian dynasts. In the east was the kingdom of Tylis, a Celtic-dominated predator state which existence was based on blackmailing tribute and that was eventually destroyed by a Thracian revolt or attack soon after 220. In the southeast and based at

3696-541: Is known about this insurrection. In 389 the Athenian general Thrasybulus mediated between the two parties, resulting in Seuthes II, whom Xenophon called "ruler of the coast region", recognizing Amadocus' authority again. Amadocus, who had defied Seuthes' insurrection probably due to his own popularity, died soon after 389. His successor was Hebryzelmis , about whom very little is known, but who, like Amadocus, sought

3850-543: Is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and one of the world's most mountainous countries. Officially an Islamic republic , Iran has a Muslim-majority population . The country is divided into five regions with 31 provinces . Tehran is the nation's capital , largest city and financial center . A cradle of civilization , Iran has been inhabited since the Lower Palaeolithic . The large part of Iran

4004-551: Is the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran . The Chief Justice nominates candidates to serve as minister of justice, and the President selects one. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics , although it has taken on cases involving laypeople . The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and

4158-635: Is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus , Zagros , and Alborz , the last containing Mount Damavand , Iran's highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran's mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries. The north part is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian forests , near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The east part consists mostly of desert basins, such as

4312-594: Is unlikely to have been utilized by Celts. It may therefore be that Seuthopolis was not destroyed by the Celts, but by the Seleucid king Antiochus II , who campaigned in the Thracian interior in around 252. Most modern historians believe that the Odrysian kingdom continued to exist throughout the Hellenistic and the early Imperial period, when it became a Roman vassal state. However, the evidence for this assumption

4466-542: The Oxford English Dictionary as / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / and / ɪ ˈ r æ n / , while American English dictionaries provide pronunciations which map to / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , - ˈ r æ n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / , or / ɪ ˈ r æ n , ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / . The Cambridge Dictionary lists / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / as the British pronunciation and / ɪ ˈ r æ n / as

4620-489: The Army , the head of Supreme National Security Council , and has the power to declare a state of emergency after passage by the parliament. The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, who has the final say. The President functions as

4774-620: The Caucasus to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Persian Wars . Iran remained a monarchy until the 1979 Iranian Revolution , when it officially became an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979. Since then, Iran has experienced significant political, social, and economic changes. The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran led to the restructuring of its political system, with Ayatollah Khomeini as

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4928-625: The G-15 , G-24 , G-77 , IAEA , IBRD , IDA , NAM , IDB , IFC , ILO , IMF , IMO , Interpol , OIC , OPEC , WHO , and the UN , and currently has observer status at the WTO . The military is organized under a unified structure, the Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces , comprising the Islamic Republic of Iran Army , which includes the Ground Forces , Air Defence Force , Air Force , and Navy ;

5082-585: The Islamic Golden Age . A series of Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule, revived the Persian language and ruled the country until the Seljuk and Mongol conquests of the 11th to 14th centuries. In the 16th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shi'ism as the official religion . During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was

5236-756: The Islamic Republic of Iran ( IRI ), also known as Persia , is a country in West Asia . It borders Turkey to the northwest and Iraq to the west, Azerbaijan , Armenia , the Caspian Sea , and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a multi-ethnic population of almost 90 million in an area of 1,648,195 km (636,372 sq mi), Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population . It

5390-766: The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , which consists of the Ground Forces , Aerospace Force , Navy , Quds Force , and Basij ; and the Law Enforcement Command (Faraja), which serves an analogous function to a gendarme . While the IRIAF protects the country's sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC is mandated to ensure the integrity of the Republic, against foreign interference, coups, and internal riots. Since 1925 , it

5544-775: The Kassites , Mannaeans , and Gutians . Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel called the Persians the "first Historical People". The Iranian Empire began in the Iron Age with the rise of the Medes , who unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. The Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), founded by Cyrus the Great , was the largest empire the world had seen, spanning from the Balkans to North Africa and Central Asia . They were succeeded by

5698-763: The Kavir Desert , which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert , as well as salt lakes . The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian and at the north end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river . Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along

5852-623: The Late Middle Ages and early modern period , negatively impacting the region. Iran was reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty , which established Shia Islam as the empire's official religion, marking another turning point in the history of Islam . Iran functioned again as a leading world power, especially in rivalry with the Ottoman Empire . In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in

6006-536: The Macedonian conquest of Persia under Philip's successor Alexander the Great and were probably commanded by Odrysian noblemen. Philip founded several towns in Thrace to ease Macedonian rule, most prominently Cabyle and Philippopolis . The situation south of the Haemus remained largely stable for the next few years, albeit even here, Macedon never managed to impose its rule over all Thracian tribes. Macedon's rule

6160-530: The Persian defeat in Greece. Teres, who united the 40 or more Thracian tribes under one banner, was well known for his military abilities and spent much of his life on the battlefield. He died during a military campaign in 445 BC. Historians argue it was against the Triballi, a Thracian tribe occupying a large amount of land to the north of Thrace. He was succeeded by his second son, Sitalces , who seemed to have taken on his father's fighting prowess and used all

6314-478: The Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea ; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman ; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi). Iran

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6468-588: The Roman Republic in the Third Macedonian War . Perseus' most trusted ally in this war was the Thracian king Cotys, whom the historian Polybius calls an Odrysian. He fought in the battles of Callinicus and Pydna , but eventually became a Roman ally after the war. Perhaps he is identical with the Cotys mentioned by the historian Strabo . However, his Odrysian background has been doubted, as

6622-595: The Seleucid , Parthian , and Sasanian Empires , who governed Iran for almost 1,000 years, making Iran a leading power once again. Persia's arch-rival during this time was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire . Iran endured invasions by the Macedonians , Arabs , Turks , and Mongols . Despite these invasions, Iran continually reasserted its national identity and developed as

6776-560: The South Caucasus . However, they have shared common interests, such as the issue of Kurdish separatism and the Qatar diplomatic crisis . Iran has a close and strong relationship with Tajikistan . Iran has deep economic relations and alliance with Iraq , Lebanon and Syria, with Syria often described as Iran's "closest ally". Russia is a key trading partner, especially in regard to its excess oil reserves. Both share

6930-411: The Spartan side and handed it over to Athens. At the turn of the year 428, Sitalces raised a massive, multi-ethnic army to march against Macedon and insurgents on the Chalkidiki peninsula . His army consisted of a variety of Thracians (some, like those of the Rhodopes, were independent, but joined nonetheless), Getae and some Paeonians. While Sitalces managed to subjugate some of the Thracian tribes of

7084-420: The United Nations , OIC , OPEC , and ECO as well as a current member of the NAM , SCO , and BRICS . Iran is home to 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the 10th highest in the world, and ranks 5th in Intangible Cultural Heritage , or human treasures. The term Iran ' the land of the Aryans ' derives from Middle Persian Ērān , first attested in a 3rd-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam , with

7238-418: The parliament . The Rahbar is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces , controls military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, and the members of the Guardian Council are all appointed by the Rahbar. The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing

7392-556: The peltasts . Due to their success the Greeks soon began to raise peltast units of their own. Still, the Athenians eventually lost the Peleponnesian war and, for a few years at least, much of their influence in the northern Aegean. Seuthes I was eventually succeeded by Amadocus I, also known as Medokos , in around 410 or 405 BC. By the turn of the 4th century the Odrysian kingdom showed its tendency towards fragmentation. Two rulers are known by 405: Amadocus I and Seuthes II . The historian Diodorus Siculus even called both of them "kings of

7546-806: The 2nd-most powerful person in Iran, was assassinated by the US , heightening tensions between them . Iran retaliated against US airbases in Iraq , the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans; 110 sustained brain injuries . Hardliner Ebrahim Raisi ran for president again in 2021 , succeeding Hassan Rouhani . During Raisi's term, Iran intensified uranium enrichment , hindered international inspections, joined SCO and BRICS, supported Russia in its invasion of Ukraine and restored diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, Israel's airstrike on an Iranian consulate , killed an IRGC commander. Iran retaliated with UAVs , cruise and ballistic missiles ; 9 hit Israel. Western and Jordanian military helped Israel down some Iranian drones. It

7700-413: The 3rd century, like Cotys or Scostocus, can not be proved to have been Odrysian, even if they are often labelled as such by modern authors. The end of Seuthopolis is a matter of debate, but it is clear that the town was destroyed still in the first half of the 3rd century. According to some scholars it was conquered by the Celts in the 270s. The Celts were ravaging much of the Balkan Peninsula since

7854-409: The 5th century BC) and Dalakova (early 4th century BC) also contained finely crafted and rather impressive gold funeral masks. Teres, who is claimed to have lived 92 years, had died by the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war in 431. His successor was his son Sitalces, whose reign is mostly known thanks to the account of Thucydides. Before the war he is known to have campaigned against the Paeonians in

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8008-412: The Aegean and Black Sea. There is no evidence for Lysimachus vassalizing Seuthes. Thrace north of the Rhodopes probably remained outside of Lysimachus' reach, as he may have regarded its pacification not worth the money and manpower. In 313 Seuthes allied with revolting Greek towns on the western shore of the Black Sea, but Lysimachus defeated this alliance. It is possible that to guarantee the peace between

8162-441: The Aegean coast. It seems most likely that the Achaemenids did not establish a satrapy (provincial administration) in Thrace, even though the historian Herodotus claimed that the subdued regions had to pay taxes. As a matter of fact, there is no evidence for important administrative centers. Instead, Persian authority was merely exercised through a couple of garrisoned forts, most importantly those of Doriskos and Eion . Hence,

8316-399: The American pronunciation. Voice of America 's pronunciation guide provides / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / . Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC. The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as

8470-503: The Athenians again attempted to strengthen their presence in Thrace, which they probably did at the request of Cersebleptes. Macedon expelled the Athenian garrisons and defeated the Odrysians, preventing yet again a Thraco-Athenian alliance against him. As a result of this campaign Philip also put the Aeagean coast as far east as Acontisma (not the banks of the Nestos river as often assumed) under direct Macedonian administration. A few years later Cersebleptes allied with Teres II and invaded

8624-453: The Chersonese, which was now under Macedon's protection. After asking the Persian king Artaxerxes III to cut the support of the Ionian towns for Cersebleptes, Philip finally felt confident enough to begin his most ambitious project so far: the conquest of inland Thrace in the form of a large campaign that would last from 342 to 340. Few details are known about this campaign. It seems to have started in May or June, when Philip's army penetrated

8778-476: The Chersonese, while also striving to reunite the Odrysian kingdom. His attempts proved futile, for Amadocus II and Berisades, who received support from Athens, resisted his attacks. In 357 he was forced to accept a peace treaty that sealed the division of the Odrysian state. An inscription from Athens describes said treaty. First, Cersebleptes had to cease his hostilities in the Cheresonese. Second, all three kings and Athens agreed to share their tributes received from

8932-499: The Danube, however, Sitalces simply agreed to hand over Scylas (who was killed on the spot) for an unnamed brother of his who resided among the Scythians. Another important event may have happened further east, in the Bosporan Kingdom , when a Thracian named Spartokos seized power in around 438. It is not unlikely that he was of Odrysian descent and that his takeover was instigated by the Odrysian royal house, although this must remain speculation. Archaeological evidence confirms that by

9086-430: The Greek colonies along the Aegean and the Hellespont. Third, the kings promised to enter an alliance with Athens and both sides had to provide each other with military support if tributary Greek colonies revolted. Cersebleptes, however, soon quit that treaty and continued his war in the Chersonese. As early as 359, the year of his coronation, Philip II of Macedon I contacted a "Thracian king" to persuade him to not harbour

9240-473: The Guardian Council is not needed. The Leader can revert the decisions of the Guardian Council. The constitution gives the council three mandates: veto power over legislation passed by the parliament , supervision of elections and approving or disqualifying candidates seeking to run in local, parliamentary, presidential, or Assembly of Experts elections. The council can nullify a law based on two accounts: being against Sharia (Islamic law), or being against

9394-444: The Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in Iran. The Parliament has 207 constituencies, including the 5 reserved seats for religious minorities. The remaining 202 are territorial, each covering one or more of Iran's counties . Iran uses a form of Sharia law as its legal system, with elements of European Civil law . The Supreme Leader appoints

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9548-515: The Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini , who became the country's first Supreme Leader . In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran , sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War , which ended in stalemate. Iran is officially governed as a unitary Islamic republic with a presidential system , with ultimate authority vested in a Supreme Leader. The government is authoritarian and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant violations of human rights and civil liberties. Iran

9702-460: The Odrysae" and that he "was the first founder of the great Odrysian empire, which he extended over a large part of Thrace, although many of the Thracian tribes are still independent." Said independent tribes consisted of Thracians living along parts of the Aegean coast and in parts of the Rhodope mountains and as well as the powerful Triballi around the Haemus. Teres most likely came to dominate central Thrace soon after 480 BC. Building his realm on

9856-440: The Odrysae". Several inscribed silver vessels mention king Cotys I and Cersebleptes and were most likely gifts or tribute. While the king received valuable gifts like gold, silver, textiles or horses, he was also expected to distribute gifts like artefacts, women or land to earn the loyalty and achieve the expansion of his military retinue. Such systems are inevitably unstable, royal authority would always remain rather fluid. Due to

10010-452: The Odrysian invasion had come to an end. Sitalces was succeeded in 424 by his nephew Seuthes I after the former was killed while campaigning against the Triballi , who resided north of the western Haemus. Throughout his reign, the Odrysians did not intervene in coastal Thrace, which had now become a contested battlefield between Athens and Sparta. Athens for its part began to make heavy use of Thracian mercenaries acting as light skirmishers,

10164-495: The Odrysian state was "very powerful, and in revenue and general prosperity exceeded all the nations of Europe which lie between the Ionian Sea and the Euxine [Black Sea]." In the south, much of coastal Thrace had passed under the rule of Athens , making them direct neighbours of the Odrysians. The Athenians had already taken some interest in the Thracian interior before 431, but it was in said year when they concluded an alliance with Sitalces against Perdiccas II of Macedon in

10318-406: The Odrysians and the Getae, while the army of Seuthes III had 8.000 riders, probably all Odrysians. The majority of Sitalces' infantry was described as being of rather low quality and was certainly composed of ill-organized levies. It therefore appears that warfare remained a heroic pursuit worthy only of the aristocracy, while military training for the commoners was considered unfitting. Despite this,

10472-411: The Odrysians were the first to supersede the Thracian tribal system and establish a large state in the eastern Balkans . Around the middle of the 5th century, when Sitalces had not yet succeeded his father, the Odrysians intervened in a Scythian civil war, seemingly on the side of the dethroned king Scylas against Octamasadas , who was a son of Ariapeithes and Teres' sister. When the two armies met at

10626-407: The Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in). More than one-tenth of the country is forested . About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation. Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: Hyrcanian region which forms

10780-494: The Propontis. Thracians had already settled in the 2nd millennium BCE, and were featured in the epics of Homer . Occasional references to them appear in the following centuries, although it was not until the 5th century when Greek literature developed an interest in discussing non-Greeks more extensively. In the 7th and 6th centuries, much of the Thracian coast was settled by Greek colonists who founded numerous towns, like Thasos , Byzantion or Odessos . The political history of

10934-419: The Rahbar, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani , appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar. Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become

11088-509: The Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is the head of state and responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to the Rahbar. Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar's agreement and they have the ultimate say on foreign policy. The Rahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defence, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from

11242-523: The Sapaean kingdom in 45/6 and turned it into the province of Thracia . Although covering almost a third of the entire Balkan peninsula at its peak, the Odrysian kingdom is unlikely to have had state-like institutions before the reign of Seuthes III. In general, the Odrysian kingship was heavily influenced by the Persian court, while also bearing many similarities to the one practiced in Macedon. Unlike in

11396-650: The Supreme Leader. Iran's foreign relations have been shaped by the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), ongoing tensions with the United States, and its nuclear program, which has been a point of contention in international diplomacy. In 1989, Akbar Rafsanjani concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a free market domestically, favoring privatization of state industries and

11550-521: The Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage for 4 years. Before elections , nominees to become a presidential candidate must be approved by the Guardian Council . The Council's members are chosen by the Leader, with the Leader having the power to dismiss the president. The President can only be re-elected for one term. The president is the deputy commander-in-chief of

11704-629: The Thracian infantry made a great impression on the Greeks, who hired them as mercenaries. Meanwhile, the Odrysian kings made use of Greek mercenary commanders like Xenophon or Iphicrates, while Greek towns inside Thrace were defended by the colonists themselves. Initially, the Odrysian army was divided into light infantry and light cavalry. The infantry used bows, slings, spears, swords, axes and light crescent-shaped shields called pelte , giving these warriors their name: "peltasts". Round and oval shields were, however, also utilized. A weapon primarily found in

11858-558: The Thracian tribes of this age is virtually unknown, although it is recorded that in the late 6th century, Athenian settlers interacted with a "king of Thrace" (and possible predecessor of the Odrysian kings?) residing north of the Chersonese peninsula. The absence of imported artefacts confirms that inland Thrace north of the Rhodopes remained largely isolated from the Aegean trade until the late 6th century. In around 513 BC, an army of

12012-519: The Thracians", although this is most likely a misunderstanding: by 405 Seuthes II still considered Amadocus I as his suzerein. Amadocus was the son of the previous king Seuthes I, while Seuthes II was the son of a Thracian chieftain named Maisades. Maisades was a descendant of king Teres, making Seuthes II and Amadocus I distant relatives. There was also an autonomous Odrysian prince in the western hinterlands of Byzantium named Teres. Initially raised at

12166-561: The Triballi, who devastated the western parts of the realm while marching towards Abdera at the coast. Cotys eventually set his eyes on the strategic Chersonese and the Hellespont , challenging the Athenian hegemony in the region. The Athenians were more than ready to fight for the control of the Hellespont, as it was vital for Athens' grain supply from the northern Black Sea region. An early invasion in 367 failed, but in 363/2 Cotys

12320-567: The accompanying Parthian inscription using Aryān , in reference to the Iranians . Ērān and Aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning ' Aryan ', i.e. of the Iranians), recognised as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo- , meaning ' one who assembles (skilfully) ' . According to Iranian mythology ,

12474-459: The account of Polybius, the only remaining source (minus Livy , who relied on Polybius), called him an Odrysian only once, while also calling the Getic king Dromichaetes an Odrysian. It may thus be likely that Polybius used "Odrysian" as a synonym for "Thracian". Furthermore, after the war Cotys was described as being active in the hinterland of Abdera at the Aegean coast, implying that he was rather

12628-401: The agro-pastoral subsistence economy of old. When Sitalces' army invaded Macedon he supposedly fielded an army numbering 150.000 men, which is likely an inflated number. Around 100 years later, when Seuthes III confronted Lysimachus, the numbers had shrunk to 28.000 men. A considerable part of these armies were horsemen. Of Sitalces' army, every third warrior was a horseman, who were provided by

12782-736: The capital (Persian: مرکز , markaz ) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general ( استاندار ostândâr ), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet . Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 165 countries , but not the United States and Israel —a state which Iran derecognised in 1979. Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and ideologies. Iran and Turkey have been involved in modern proxy conflicts such as in Syria , Libya , and

12936-548: The constitution. The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) is at the top of the foreign policy decisions process. The council was formed during the 1989 Iranian constitutional referendum for the protection and support of national interests, the revolution, territorial integrity and national sovereignty. It is mandated by Article 176 of the Constitution to be presided over by the President . The Leader selects

13090-426: The contemporary Greek city-states, the Odrysian kings needed to legitimize their rule by military prowess, religion and gifts. The royal gift exchange, a practice originally adopted from the Persian court, was especially important for legitimation. Thucydides noted that the total tribute of 400 talents of gold and silver generated under king Seuthes I was distributed among Seuthes as well as the "chief men and nobles of

13244-509: The country, which was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire in the third century AD. Ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, religion and central government. Muslims conquered the region in the seventh century AD, leading to Iran's Islamization . The blossoming literature , philosophy , mathematics , medicine , astronomy and art became major elements for Iranian civilization during

13398-548: The court of Amadocus, Seuthes was sent to eastern Thrace several years before 405. By 405 he had managed to consolidate his position over a realm stretching from Apollonia Pontica over the Strandzha to parts of the northern Propontis coast. In 400 BC he hired Greek mercenaries under Xenophon to expand his dominion at the cost of Teres and other rebels, forcing them to reacknowledge the authority of Amadocus. Due to lacking funds they left his service already after two months. Seuthes II eventually rose against Amadocus, although little

13552-436: The early 270s and also led numerous incursions into Thrace. In c.  278 and led by Comontorius , they eventually founded a kingdom in eastern Thrace centered around Tylis . A newer theory proposes the destruction of the town in the 250s, based on a revamped dating of pottery, numismatic evidence and the presence of several Celtic artefacts. The archaeological evidence also shows the employment of siege artillery , which

13706-565: The early years of the 3rd century BC. Seuthes was symbolically buried in the tumulus of Golyama Kosmatka , without his actual corpse. It may well be that he had been killed in battle, perhaps fighting against Lysimachus or with him as an ally. A long inscription from Seuthopolis attests to the decline of the fortunes of the town and the trouble in Seuthes' household. It mentions the wife of Seuthes, Berenice, and their four (probably underage) sons Hebryzelmis, Teres, Satocos and Satalas. The document

13860-440: The entire country as Persia , until 1935, when Reza Shah requested the international community to use its native and original name, Iran ; Iranians called their nation Iran since at least 1000 BC. Today, both Iran and Persia are used culturally, while Iran remains mandatory in official use. The Persian pronunciation of Iran is [ʔiːˈɾɒːn] . Commonwealth English pronunciations of Iran are listed in

14014-586: The executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar. The President appoints ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, and the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister. The President supervises the Council of Ministers , coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before

14168-557: The former. The Sapaeans of Bizye created a large kingdom loyal to Rome and even expanded into the interior. Little is known about how the Sapaeans administered this region, although they made Philippopolis a royal residence. In 21 AD king Rhoemetalces II took refuge in Philippopolis when he was confronted with a rebellion, among them Odrysians. While the historian Tacitus described them as powerful, their uprising failed due to their bad coordination. The Romans eventually dissolved

14322-407: The fragmentary nature of the remaining sources, the royal court and the administration of the kingdom must remain largely obscure. It can be assumed that, as in early Macedon, the Odrysian kings formed the heart of the realm and controlled the policy and the minting of coins, appointed loyal deputies and commanded the troops on the battlefield. The realm was essentially the king's estate. Below the king

14476-564: The good will of Athens. Seuthes II on the other hand allied with Sparta. An Athenian inscription from the year 386/5 confirms that Hebryzelmis sent a delegation to Athens to legitimize his rule and/or gain an ally against Seuthes. However, the Athenians had little interest in another war in the region and thus limited themselves to kind words. Meanwhile, Seuthes had risen yet again against the crown. This second war went badly, as he seemingly lost all of his domains before reconquering them thanks to

14630-509: The green belt of the north side of the country; the Turan region, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran; Zagros region , which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region , which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; the Arasbarani region , which contains rare and unique species. More than 8,200 plant species are grown. The land covered by natural flora

14784-516: The head of the Supreme Court and chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain offences, such as crimes against national security . The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Chief Justice is the head of the judicial system and responsible for its administration and supervision. He

14938-564: The interior by marching upstream the Martisa river. The Odrysians resisted valiantly and confronted the Macedonians in many battles. Philip faced several setbacks and even seems to have lost at least one battle. By the spring of 341, fighting was still raging and Philip was forced to call in reinforcements. Although detailed evidence is lacking he finally managed to improve his situation and defeated Cersebleptes and Teres at some point between

15092-486: The invasion of the kingdom of Amadocus II and the Athenian domains in Thrace, while around a year later he marched against the kingdom of Cetriporis. Meanwhile, Athens feared a possible alliance between Philip and Cersebleptes and decided to make an example by conquering the town of Sestos and eradicating its population. Intimidated, Cersebleptes renounced his claims on much of the Chersonese and allied with Athens. This

15246-525: The late 1st century BC, which was converted into a Roman province of Thracia in 45-46 AD. Since the ancient Thracians lacked an indigenous writing tradition, the most important sources for the reconstruction of their history are archaeological remains, coins as well as accounts of ancient Greek historians. Said historians considered the Thracians to be a numerous people and their country, Thrace , to be of barely comprehensible size, so large that Andron of Halicarnassus (4th century BC) thought of it as

15400-424: The late 4th century, when Seuthes III founded Seuthopolis, marking the establishment of early state-like institutions which were probably inspired by those of Hellenistic Macedon. Seuthopolis' size always remained quite small, housing not more than 1.000 inhabitants. It is very likely that it was the home of the kingdom's aristocracy, while the common population continued to live outside the city walls, still practicing

15554-498: The legislature. Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 22 ministers, all appointed by the president. Presidential and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the 12-member Guardian Council (all members of which are appointed by the Leader) or the Leader, before running to ensure their allegiance. The Leader rarely does the vetting, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of

15708-584: The lower Strymon, his invasion of eastern Macedon and the Chalkidiki was less successful, as his opponents avoided open combat and simply hid behind their walls. The Odrysian army had not the means to storm them, plus winter was approaching and food supplies were running out. Furthermore, the Athenian force that was promised to them never arrived, perhaps because Athens feared the might of the unleashed Thracian kingdom. After failed negotiations with Perdiccas II, Sitalces retreated back home. Thus, after only 30 days

15862-472: The middle of the 3rd century. The conquest of the Odrysian kingdoms doubled the size of the domains ruled by Philip II, even though inland Thrace was not transformed into a Macedonian province, but was put under the loose control of a Strategos . Local Thracian rulers who seemed trustworthy were allowed to rule on Macedonian behalf, granted that they would pay a tithe and provide troops. Such troops, generally called "Thracians" or "Odrysians", participated in

16016-489: The middle of the 5th century BC, a new and powerful elite had emerged that accumulated a wealth of precious artifacts of both local and regional origin. Burial practices were changing after the Persian withdrawal and a new type of elite burial emerged in central Thrace in the form of tombs with ashlar masonry, sometimes with stone sarcophagi. The tomb of Rouets from the late 5th century even contained traces of wall paintings. The earliest of these new elite tombs can be found in

16170-729: The mighty Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids crossed the Bosphorus , after already having subdued the Thracians of Bithynia thirty years earlier. King Darius I 's goal was a punitive expedition against the Scythians at the northern shores of the Black Sea. Most eastern Thracian tribes submitted peacefully, except of the Getae, who were defeated. More expeditions under the generals Megabazus and Mardonius as well as king Xerxes I followed, even though they only managed to secure

16324-655: The military or used for wildlife protection, and entry is prohibited or requires a permit. Iran took control of Bumusa , and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their strategic location. Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty, it has consistently been met with

16478-441: The most famous animals is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah , which survives only in Iran. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the extinct Caspian tigers by the early 20th century. Domestic ungulates are represented by sheep , goat , cattle , horse , water buffalo , donkey and camel . Bird species like pheasant , partridge , stork , eagles and falcons are native. The Supreme Leader , "Rahbar", Leader of

16632-567: The most important Thracian tribes were the Sapaeans and the Asti. The Romans decided not to implement an administration in the Thracian interior, but instead relied on indirect influence via a large, Hellenized client kingdom resembling the Odrysian kingdom of old. Probably soon after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, the Romans abolished the Asti dynasty and established the Sapaeans in Bizye , the capital of

16786-744: The name comes from Iraj , a legendary king. Iran was referred to as Persia by the West , due to Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Persís , meaning 'the land of the Persians '. Persia is the Fars province in southwest Iran, the 4th largest province, also known as Pârs . The Persian Fârs (فارس), derived from the earlier form Pârs (پارس), which is in turn derived from Pârsâ ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿). Due to Fars' historical importance, Persia originated from this territory through Greek in around 550 BC, and Westerners referred to

16940-809: The names of Cleobulus and Anaxandros, Philip II of Macedon's generals who led the assault on the Odrysian kingdom. The list below includes the known Odrysian kings of Thrace, but much of it is conjectural, based on incomplete sources, and the varying interpretation of ongoing numismatic and archaeological discoveries. Various other Thracian kings (some of them possibly non-Odrysian) are included as well. Odrysian kings, though called Kings of Thrace, never exercised sovereignty over all of Thrace. Control varied according to tribal relationships. Odrysian kings (names are presented in Greek or Latin forms): Teres I Teres I ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Τήρης , Ancient Greek : [tɛ́ːrɛːs] ; reigned 460–445 BC)

17094-447: The nascent Hellenistic world . He was also the only Odrysian king whose character was excessively discussed by ancient scholars, although primarily in a rather unfavourable way. While virtually nothing is known about the early years of his rule it is clear that he, together with his son-in-law Iphicrates, managed to conquer the domains of the deceased Hebryzelmis, thus uniting the Odrysian realm under his rule. In 375 he faced an invasion of

17248-557: The national budget. All parliamentary candidates and legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council . The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the parliament. The parliament has no legal status without the Guardian Council, and the Council holds absolute veto power over legislation. The Expediency Discernment Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and

17402-606: The necropolis of Duvanli , with the oldest tombs dating to the mid-5th century. Their inventory is exceptional not only by contemporary Thracian, but even Mediterranean standards. According to the archaeologist Tonkova they contained "splendid sets of head and body ornaments, consisting of numerous hoop or boat-shaped earrings, pendants for earrings, a necklace, a torque, bracelets, finger-rings, chains with pendants and fibulae, and pectorals." Most Thracian elite tombs have been identified as warrior burials as they contained weapons and gold pectorals. Two burials from Svetitsa (second half of

17556-411: The plains of the upper Hebros, defeated the Odrysians and other local tribes and conquered Philipopolis, although the Odrysians reconquered the town soon afterwards. It may be noteworthy that no Odrysian king is mentioned. While in 181, Philip was still climbing the Haemus in northern Thrace, his Thracian empire collapsed with his death two years later. Between 171 and 168, Philip's heir Perseus engaged

17710-529: The president. Regional policy is directly controlled by the Rahbar, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. Ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Force , which directly reports to the Rahbar. The Rahbar can order laws to be amended. Setad was estimated at $ 95 billion in 2013 by Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to

17864-706: The remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz , and Gulf of Oman. Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf. Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake , 427 in Aras River , several in Anzali Lagoon , Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea , Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and other inland islands. Iran has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman , near Pakistan. A few islands can be visited by tourists. Most are owned by

18018-419: The revival of an independent Odrysian state. A battle ensued between him and Lysimachus, which Lysimachus barely and by no means decisively won. Both sides prepared for a second conflict, but the primary source for this event, Diodorus Siculus, provides no details on its outcome. In any case, both parties eventually reached a settlement, restricting Seuthes to the interior and Lysimachus to the coastal regions of

18172-497: The royal household in the fifth century BC and became the language of administrators; the Greek alphabet was adopted as the new Thracian script. Residences and temples of the Odrysian kingdom have been found, particularly around Starosel in the Sredna Gora mountains. Archaeologists have uncovered the northeastern wall of the Thracian kings' residence, 13 m in length and preserved up to 2 m in height. They also found

18326-403: The rule of Cotys I or after his death in 360. Rich funeral treasures from the second half of the 4th century, like those of Agighiol , Peretu or Borovo , attest to the increasing wealth of the Getic elite. Several artefacts seem to have originated in the Odrysian kingdom and may well have been prestige gifts. By the middle of the 4th century there existed a Getic kingdom that was to thrive for

18480-455: The second half of 341 and the first half of 340. The Getae, a northern Thracian people located between the northeastern foothills of the Haemus range and the lower Danube and the Black Sea, had been part of the Odrysian realm since Teres I, even though it is not clear how tightly they were actually incorporated into the state. When and how the Getae became independent is not discussed in the available sources. Perhaps they became independent during

18634-619: The secretary of the Supreme Council, and the decisions of the council are effective after the confirmation by the Leader. The SNSC formulates nuclear policy, and would become effective if they are confirmed by the Leader. The legislature , known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly (ICA), Iranian Parliament or "Majles", is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-years. It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties , and approves

18788-748: The shores of the Propontis and the Aegean and Black Seas . The western boundary was marked by the Strymon and the upper Morava . Northern Thrace was defined by the Danube , the Carpathians and the adjacent western tip of the Pontic–Caspian steppe , thus enclosing parts of the territory now comprising modern Romania , Moldova , Serbia and Ukraine . Thrace also extended into what is now northwestern Turkey both west and east ( Bithynia , Mysia ) of

18942-461: The sources was Cothelas , who married his daughter Meda to Philip II, thus concluding an alliance between the two states. This probably happened during or shortly after Philip's conquest of the Odrysians. The kingdom survived two wars with Lysimachus and the Celtic invasion in around 280 , but eventually disintegrated a few decades later. Helis/Sboryanovo was completely destroyed by an earthquake in

19096-524: The state showed first signs of fatigue, although the skilled Cotys I initiated a brief renaissance that lasted until his murder in 360 BC. Afterwards the kingdom disintegrated: southern and central Thrace were divided among three Odrysian kings, while the northeast came under the dominion of the kingdom of the Getae . The three Odrysian kingdoms were eventually conquered by the rising kingdom of Macedon under Philip II in 340 BC. A much smaller Odrysian state

19250-622: The town of Lysimachia , the Seleucids established themselves under Antiochus II (r. 261–246), who relied on allied Thracian dynasts to expand his influence deep into the interior. After his death in 246 the Seleucid presence was replaced by that of the Ptolemies , who established a satrapy in coastal Thrace. An Odrysian kingdom, however, is not described in the sources. In the last years of the 3rd century, Macedonia under king Philip V began

19404-483: The tribes to wage war with Macedon. Teres Ridge on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica , is named after Teres. He had issue: This biography of a member of a European royal house is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Ancient Thrace –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Persia Iran , officially

19558-483: The two opponents, Seuthes married a daughter of Lysimachus named Berenice. Afterwards, there is no evidence for another confrontation between the two. Seuthes was keen to establish a Hellenistic kingdom, although he avoided to label himself as king on his coins. Probably after the death of Alexander in 323, Seuthes founded a town at the Tonzos river, near modern Kazanlak . He named it after himself: Seuthopolis . The town

19712-474: The valleys of the Hebros river and its tributaries Tonzos and Arda . Like other Thracian polities, the Odrysian tribal kingdom attempted to fill the vacuum left by the Persian retreat. The first known Odrysian king was the expansionist Teres I , who is claimed by Thucydides to have been the first Odrysian king altogether. Writing in the late 5th century BC, he wrote that Teres "was the first powerful king of

19866-460: The vast majority of Thrace remained unaffected by the Persian presence. After the failed invasion of Greece in 480-79 , the Persian foothold in Europe collapsed . By around 450, Persian authority in Europe, including Thrace, had vanished entirely. Although the Persian presence in Thrace was short-lived, it probably stimulated trade and first state formations among the Thracians. Mintings of Thracian coins started around 500 and may be an indicator for

20020-573: The west part. The UN Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that " Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today". To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The east and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts. Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The southern coastal plains of

20174-598: The west to the upper Tonzos in the east. Thus, his realm only covered the northwestern fringes of the former Odrysian empire. Seuthes also only issued bronze coins, which were insufficient to challenge the Macedonian economic hegemony and its royal mintings in more precious metals. It is unknown when Seuthes III died, with estimations ranging from the end of the 4th century to the 280s. Coins minted in his name include overstruck coins of Cassander (died 297) and Lysimachus (died 281), implying that his coins were produced until

20328-546: The west, subjugating some of the tribes living along the upper reaches of the Strymon. Now, his influence extended over much of Bulgaria, Greek and Turkish Thrace and also parts of southeastern Romania : from the Strymon and Iskar rivers in the west to the Black Sea and the Propontis in the east as well as the Haemus and the mouth of the Danube (which was ruled by the tributary Getae) in the north. According to Thucydides,

20482-432: The west. This pact was cemented by a dynastic marriage, as Sitalces would marry the sister of the Athenian ambassador, Nymphodoros of Abdera . Sitalces' son Sadokos was sent to Athens and was granted the Athenian citizenship. Sitalces, apparently an experienced leader with political acumen, would prove his commitment to the alliance in the next year, when he arrested a Peloponnesian embassy that tried to persuade him to join

20636-677: The western and central Rhodoes was the Rhomphaia . Except of slings, the cavalry used the same weapons as the infantry. In the later 5th century the Thracian cavalry began to adopt armour. The employed helmets were of the Chalcidian , Phrygian / Thracian and Corinthian types, of which the Chalcidian type seems to have been the most popular. The earliest torso armour was a type of primitive muscle cuirass of cylindrical form that had long fallen out of use elsewhere. Leather and linen armour

20790-451: The world's longest caves. Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid , to subtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests. On the north edge of the country, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the east part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in

20944-412: Was a mutual influence between the Greeks and the Thracians. Greek customs and fashions contributed to the recasting of east Balkan society. Among the nobility Greek fashions in dress, ornament and military equipment were popular. Unlike the Greeks, the Thracians often wore trousers . Thracian kings were influenced by Hellenization . Greek as a lingua franca had been spoken at least by some members of

21098-590: Was affected also by Celts and the Triballi had adopted Celtic equipment. Thracian clothing is regarded for its quality and texture and was made up of hemp , flax or wool . Their clothing resembled that of the Scythians including jackets with coloured edges, pointed shoes and the Getai tribe were so similar to the Scythians that they were often confused with them. The nobility and some soldiers wore caps. There

21252-412: Was also worn. In the 4th century scale armour became popular, while greaves were also adopted at that time. Finally, there is also evidence that the Thracians employed siege artillery, in particular catapults . Odrysian crafts and metalworking were largely a product of Persian influence. Thracians as Dacians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos. Thracian warfare

21406-493: Was an elite of horse warriors and administrators deriving not only from the royal court, but also from rival tribes. Thucydides called said local rulers paradynasteuontes , meaning "those who share power". A similar elite class loyal only to the king, the hetairoi , could also be found in Macedon. The Odrysian kingdom appears to have been rather decentralized, consisting of many different regional elites vying for power. Their rule over their subjects, who lived in scattered hamlets,

21560-540: Was divided among three competing kings: Cersebleptes , the son of Cotys, ruled the eastern parts beyond the lower Hebros and Tonzos; Amadocus II , perhaps a son of Amadocus I, ruled central Thrace between Maroneia and the Meritsa; Berisades controlled the western part from Maroneia in the east to the Styrmon in the west. Cersebleptes was the most ambitious of the three. He continued his father's war against Athens for

21714-511: Was elected to office. Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km (636,372 sq mi). It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N , and longitudes 44° and 64° E . It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi), and

21868-550: Was first unified as a political entity by the Medes under Cyaxares in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire , one of the largest in ancient history . Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the fourth century BC. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC and liberated

22022-436: Was issued in the name of Berenice and includes the phrase "when Seuthes was in good health", which implies that by the time of writing, he was either dead or dying and that Berenice had taken the rule. The inscription describes negotiations between Berenice and Spartokos, the ruler of Cabyle, a town once founded by Philip II. Indeed, Cabyle had not remained a Macedonian fort for long, but began to mint coins and developed into

22176-648: Was known for his hardline views, nuclearisation, and hostility towards Israel , Saudi Arabia , the UK , the US and other states. He was the first president to be summoned by the parliament to answer questions regarding his presidency. In 2013, centrist and reformist Hassan Rouhani was elected president. In domestic policy, he encouraged personal freedom, free access to information, and improved women's rights. He improved Iran's diplomatic relations through exchanging conciliatory letters. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)

22330-406: Was made into a garrison town called Philippi that was to serve as a launch pad for future invasions into the interior. Cetriporis allied himself with the kings of Paeonia and Illyria , but Philip II defeated them one by one. Cetriporis was allowed to keep his kingdom, at least for a few more years. Cersebleptes continued his attempts to unite the Odrysian kingdoms: in 353/4 he and Philip discussed

22484-426: Was more successful and repeatedly defeated several Athenian generals. Thus, the Chersonese and the Hellespont had come under direct Odrysian rule. This achievement, however, proved shortlived: much to Athens relief, Cotys I was eventually murdered in 360/59. The death of Cotys, almost contemporary to the coronation of the talented Philip II of Macedon, marked the beginning of the kingdom's downfall. The Odrysian state

22638-482: Was precarious and a potential Odrysian upstarter could count on the support of much of the disgruntled population. With Alexander's absence in Asia, the Strategoi of Thrace engaged in rebellions and failed expeditions against the Getae, greatly unsettling the country in the process. At the end of the 330s or in the mid-320s (the dating is not entirely clear), a certain Seuthes, later known as Seuthes III , instigated

22792-453: Was primarily based on contemporary Macedonian foundations and showed heavy Greek influences. Seuthopolis probably acted as the capital of Seuthes' kingdom. The size and power of this kingdom should not be overestimated, as its influence was most likely limited to the hinterland of Seuthopolis, in particular the valley between the Rhodopes in the south to the Haemus in the north and the Syrmus in

22946-658: Was reached in Vienna in 2015, between Iran, the P5+1 ( UN Security Council + Germany) and the EU. The negotiations centered around ending the economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium . In 2018, however, the US under Trump Administration withdrew from the deal and new sanctions were imposed. This nulled the economic provisions, left the agreement in jeopardy, and brought Iran to nuclear threshold status . In 2020, IRGC general, Qasem Soleimani ,

23100-471: Was revived in around 330 BC by Seuthes III , who founded a new capital named Seuthopolis that functioned until the second quarter of the 3rd century BC. After that there is little conclusive evidence for the persistence of an Odrysian state, with the exception of a dubious Odrysian king fighting in the Third Macedonian War named Cotys. The Odrysian heartland was eventually annexed by the Sapaean kingdom in

23254-464: Was the first king of the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace . Thrace had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 516 BC during the rule of Darius the Great , and was re-subjugated by Mardonius in 492 BC. The Odrysian state was the first Thracian kingdom that acquired power in the region, by the unification of many Thracian tribes under a single ruler, King Teres probably in the 460's after

23408-642: Was the largest drone strike in history, biggest missile attack in Iranian history, its first ever direct attack on Israel and the first time since 1991 , Israel was directly attacked by a state force. This occurred during heightened tensions amid the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip . In May 2024, President Raisi was killed in a helicopter crash , and Iran held a presidential election in June, when reformist and former Minister of Health , Masoud Pezeshkian ,

23562-425: Was unacceptable for Philip, who allied with Amadocus II and marched against Cersebleptes. After besieging him in his residence in Heraion Teichos in 351, he forced the Thracian king to surrender and took his son as a hostage. Around this time, Philip also abolished Cetriporis' kingdom and deposed Amadocus II in favour of Teres II . After these events, the Thracian front remained peaceful until 347 or early 346, when

23716-456: Was very loose and exercised mainly through raiding and demanding tribute. There is no evidence that the early Odrysian kings had a fixed capital. Instead, they probably maintained a mobile court, moving throughout the kingdom and residing in fortified residences. These small fortified places, which the Greeks called thyrseis , were the backbones of the Thracian aristocracy in a society that did not build towns or cities. This changed somewhat in

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