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128-516: Off Our Backs (stylized in all lowercase ; oob ) was an American radical feminist periodical that ran from 1970 to 2008, making it the longest-running feminist periodical in the United States. Marilyn Salzman-Webb and Marlene Wicks were among Off Our Backs original founders, creating the periodical in Washington, D.C. as a response to what many felt was an underrepresentation of

256-399: A constitutional right to abortion. Overall, she spent between 20 and 30 minutes discussing jurisdiction and procedure instead of constitutional issues. In his opening argument in defense of the abortion restrictions, attorney Jay Floyd made what was later described as the "worst joke in legal history". Appearing against two female lawyers, Floyd began, "Mr. Chief Justice and may it please

384-509: A plaintiff ." They also wanted to increase the likelihood that the panel selection would help them win in court. They wanted to present their case to a three-judge panel which included a judge they thought would be sympathetic, which was a possibility only by filing a case in Dallas. If either of the two cases they filed in Dallas were assigned favorably, they intended to ask for the other one to be consolidated with it. At first, Weddington

512-425: A closely related case, Doe v. Bolton , until they had first decided certain other cases. One case they decided first was Younger v. Harris . The justices felt the appeals raised difficult questions on judicial jurisdiction . Another case was United States v. Vuitch , in which they considered the constitutionality of a District of Columbia statute which banned abortion except when the mother's life or health

640-473: A common typographic practice among both British and U.S. publishers to capitalise significant words (and in the United States, this is often applied to headings, too). This family of typographic conventions is usually called title case . For example, R. M. Ritter's Oxford Manual of Style (2002) suggests capitalising "the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, but generally not articles, conjunctions and short prepositions". This

768-470: A descending element; also, various diacritics can add to the normal height of a letter). There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have parts higher ( ascenders ) or lower ( descenders ) than the typical size. Normally, b, d, f, h, k, l, t are the letters with ascenders, and g, j, p, q, y are the ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by some traditional or classical fonts, 6 and 8 make up

896-639: A former briefing attorney for the Court of Appeals for the Third Supreme Judicial District of Texas, abortion was not legal before quickening in 27 out of all 37 states in 1868; by the end of 1883, 30 of the 37 states, six of the ten U.S. territories, and the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , where abortion had once been common, had codified laws that restricted abortion before quickening. More than 10 states allowed pre-quickening abortions, before

1024-444: A handwritten sticky note , may not bother to follow the conventions concerning capitalisation, but that is because its users usually do not expect it to be formal. Similar orthographic and graphostylistic conventions are used for emphasis or following language-specific or other rules, including: In English, a variety of case styles are used in various circumstances: In English-language publications, various conventions are used for

1152-400: A hyphen ( upper-case and lower-case  – particularly if they pre-modify another noun), or as a single word ( uppercase and lowercase ). These terms originated from the common layouts of the shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing . Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate shallow tray or "case" that

1280-604: A lawful purpose. This meant that if the mother died, the individual performing the abortion was guilty of murder. This aspect of common law regarded pre-quickening abortions as a type of inchoate offense . Negative liberty rights from common law do not apply in situations caused by consensual or voluntary behavior, which allowed for abortions of fetuses conceived in a consensual manner to be common law offenses. The majority opinion for Roe v. Wade authored in Justice Harry Blackmun 's name would later state that

1408-605: A life-saving procedure on behalf of the mother, without regard to pregnancy stage and without recognition of the other interests involved, is violative of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Three justices from the majority filed concurring opinions in the case. Justice Potter Stewart wrote a concurring opinion in which he said that even though the Constitution makes no mention of

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1536-635: A majority of States today are of relatively recent vintage". During the 1960s and early 1970s, opposition to abortion was concentrated among members of the political left and the Democratic Party, although feminists within predominately supported legalization. Most liberal Catholics and Mainline Protestants (both of which tended to vote for the Democratic Party) opposed liberalizing laws surrounding abortion while most other Protestants , including evangelicals , supported doing so as

1664-462: A marker to indicate the beginning of a line of verse independent of any grammatical feature. In political writing, parody and satire, the unexpected emphasis afforded by otherwise ill-advised capitalisation is often used to great stylistic effect, such as in the case of George Orwell's Big Brother . Other languages vary in their use of capitals. For example, in German all nouns are capitalised (this

1792-536: A matter of religious liberty , what they saw as a lack of biblical condemnation , and belief in non-intrusive government . By 1971, elective abortion on demand was effectively available in Alaska, California, Hawaii, New York, Washington, and Washington, D.C. Some women traveled to jurisdictions where it was legal, although not all could afford to. In 1971, Shirley Wheeler was charged with manslaughter after Florida hospital staff reported her illegal abortion to

1920-498: A more general sense. It can also be seen as customary to capitalise any word – in some contexts even a pronoun  – referring to the deity of a monotheistic religion . Other words normally start with a lower-case letter. There are, however, situations where further capitalisation may be used to give added emphasis, for example in headings and publication titles (see below). In some traditional forms of poetry, capitalisation has conventionally been used as

2048-421: A news journal by, for and about women. The form varied throughout its publication, involving a wide range of articles, exposes, interviews, editorials, and signed commentaries. Off Our Backs was written and edited by a collective of women who used consensus decision-making to create the paper. Consensus decision-making allowed the collective to come to decisions acceptable to all. Marilyn Salzman-Webb , one of

2176-417: A non-standard or variant spelling. Miniscule is still less likely, however, to be used in reference to lower-case letters. The glyphs of lowercase letters can resemble smaller forms of the uppercase glyphs restricted to the baseband (e.g. "C/c" and "S/s", cf. small caps ) or can look hardly related (e.g. "D/d" and "G/g"). Here is a comparison of the upper and lower case variants of each letter included in

2304-399: A piece of tissue. You just missed your period." This convinced McCorvey that abortion should be legal. She agreed to let them represent her under the impression that she would be able to eventually get a legal abortion. She smoked an illegal drug and drank wine so she would not have to think about her pregnancy. McCorvey gave birth to a daughter at Dallas Osteopathic Hospital on June 2, 1970;

2432-412: A pregnancy to abort. The Court concluded that an established exception to the mootness doctrine allows consideration of cases that are "capable of repetition, yet evading review". Blackmun noted that McCorvey might get pregnant again, and pregnancy would normally conclude more quickly than an appellate process : "If that termination makes a case moot, pregnancy litigation seldom will survive much beyond

2560-544: A rally where attendees listened to speakers from the Women's National Abortion Action Coalition (WONAAC). Her conviction was overturned by the Supreme Court of Florida . Sarah Weddington recruited Linda Coffee to help her with abortion litigation. Their first plaintiffs were a married couple; they joined after the woman heard Coffee give a speech. The intended suit would state abortions were medically necessary for

2688-451: A record of facts. The oral argument was scheduled by the full Court for December 13, 1971. Before the Court could hear the oral argument, Justices Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II retired. Chief Justice Warren Burger asked Justice Potter Stewart and Justice Blackmun to determine whether Roe and Doe , among others, should be heard as scheduled. They recommended that the Court continue on as scheduled. As she began speaking for

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2816-529: A right to have an abortion . The decision struck down many abortion laws , and it sparked an ongoing abortion debate in the United States about whether, or to what extent, abortion should be legal, who should decide the legality of abortion, and what the role of moral and religious views in the political sphere should be. The decision also shaped debate concerning which methods the Supreme Court should use in constitutional adjudication . The case

2944-402: A state's interest in protecting prenatal life became so compelling that it could legally prohibit all abortions except where necessary to protect the mother's life or health. Having completed its analysis, the Court concluded that Texas's abortion statutes were unconstitutional and struck them down. A state criminal abortion statute of the current Texas type, that excepts from criminality only

3072-502: A sworn statement made in 2003, McCorvey asked if she had what was needed to be part of Weddington and Coffee's lawsuit. She recounted being told, "Yes. You're white. You're young, pregnant, and you want an abortion." Both McCorvey's whiteness and her lower social class were crucial factors in the attorneys' choice to have her as their plaintiff. McCorvey recounted that the lawyers asked if she thought abortion should be legal. McCorvey said she did not know. Weddington told her, "It's just

3200-547: Is also known as spinal case , param case , Lisp case in reference to the Lisp programming language , or dash case (or illustratively as kebab-case , looking similar to the skewer that sticks through a kebab ). If every word is capitalised, the style is known as train case ( TRAIN-CASE ). In CSS , all property names and most keyword values are primarily formatted in kebab case. "tHeqUicKBrOWnFoXJUmpsoVeRThElAzydOG" Mixed case with no semantic or syntactic significance to

3328-409: Is an old form of emphasis , similar to the more modern practice of using a larger or boldface font for titles. The rules which prescribe which words to capitalise are not based on any grammatically inherent correct–incorrect distinction and are not universally standardised; they differ between style guides, although most style guides tend to follow a few strong conventions, as follows: Title case

3456-450: Is arbitrary, but perhaps any other selected point, such as quickening or viability, is equally arbitrary." In the same memo he suggested that the end of the first trimester seemed more likely to get support from other justices and allowed states the ability to adjust their statutes. He was of the impression that doctors were concerned that recovering abortion patients would take up too many hospital beds, and that abortion patients later than

3584-472: Is capitalised, as are all proper nouns . Capitalisation in English, in terms of the general orthographic rules independent of context (e.g. title vs. heading vs. text), is universally standardised for formal writing. Capital letters are used as the first letter of a sentence, a proper noun, or a proper adjective . The names of the days of the week and the names of the months are also capitalised, as are

3712-424: Is capitalised. Nevertheless, the name of the unit, if spelled out, is always considered a common noun and written accordingly in lower case. For example: For the purpose of clarity, the symbol for litre can optionally be written in upper case even though the name is not derived from a proper noun. For example, "one litre" may be written as: The letter case of a prefix symbol is determined independently of

3840-422: Is no technical requirement to do so – e.g., Sun Microsystems ' naming of a windowing system NeWS . Illustrative naming of the style is, naturally, random: stUdlY cAps , StUdLy CaPs , etc.. In the character sets developed for computing , each upper- and lower-case letter is encoded as a separate character. In order to enable case folding and case conversion, the software needs to link together

3968-405: Is not available. Acronyms (and particularly initialisms) are often written in all-caps , depending on various factors . Capitalisation is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Capitalisation rules vary by language and are often quite complex, but in most modern languages that have capitalisation, the first word of every sentence

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4096-853: Is removed and spaces are replaced by single underscores . Normally the letters share the same case (e.g. "UPPER_CASE_EMBEDDED_UNDERSCORE" or "lower_case_embedded_underscore") but the case can be mixed, as in OCaml variant constructors (e.g. "Upper_then_lowercase"). The style may also be called pothole case , especially in Python programming, in which this convention is often used for naming variables. Illustratively, it may be rendered snake_case , pothole_case , etc.. When all-upper-case, it may be referred to as screaming snake case (or SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE ) or hazard case . "the-quick-brown-fox-jumps-over-the-lazy-dog" Similar to snake case, above, except hyphens rather than underscores are used to replace spaces. It

4224-402: Is reserved for special purposes, such as the first letter of a sentence or of a proper noun (called capitalisation, or capitalised words), which makes lowercase more common in regular text. In some contexts, it is conventional to use one case only. For example, engineering design drawings are typically labelled entirely in uppercase letters, which are easier to distinguish individually than

4352-572: Is sentence-style capitalisation in headlines, i.e. capitalisation follows the same rules that apply for sentences. This convention is usually called sentence case . It may also be applied to publication titles, especially in bibliographic references and library catalogues. An example of a global publisher whose English-language house style prescribes sentence-case titles and headings is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). For publication titles it is, however,

4480-400: Is slight". Lader also predicted that "If such a theoretical case was carried to a high court, perhaps even the U.S. Supreme Court , and the judges confirmed a broad interpretation of the meaning of a threat to life, undoubtedly a landmark in abortion decisions would be reached." The historical survey for Roe also referenced two articles by Cyril Means, who served as counsel to NARAL. In

4608-422: Is to win the case no matter how, however, I suppose I agree with Means's technique: begin with a scholarly attempt at historical research; if it doesn't work, fudge it as necessary; write a piece so long that others will read only your introduction and conclusion; then keep citing it until courts begin picking it up. This preserves the guise of impartial scholarship while advancing the proper ideological goals. After

4736-424: Is widely used in many English-language publications, especially in the United States. However, its conventions are sometimes not followed strictly – especially in informal writing. In creative typography, such as music record covers and other artistic material, all styles are commonly encountered, including all-lowercase letters and special case styles, such as studly caps (see below). For example, in

4864-519: The English alphabet (the exact representation will vary according to the typeface and font used): (Some lowercase letters have variations e.g. a/ɑ.) Typographically , the basic difference between the majuscules and minuscules is not that the majuscules are big and minuscules small, but that the majuscules generally are of uniform height (although, depending on the typeface, there may be some exceptions, particularly with Q and sometimes J having

4992-573: The Ninth Amendment . The court relied on Justice Arthur Goldberg 's 1965 concurrence in Griswold v. Connecticut . Yet the Court also declined to grant an injunction against enforcing the law, and ruled against the married couple on the basis that they lacked standing. Since Wade said he would continue to prosecute people for performing abortions, the lack of an injunction meant that McCorvey could not get an abortion. Roe v. Wade reached

5120-621: The Roe vs. Wade decision , The Women's Movement and the Lesbian and Gay Rights Movement . The publication had an impact on the feminist movement in the United States and beyond. The periodical provided a platform for feminist discourse, advocacy, activism, and community building. Off Our Backs reported on a wide range of feminism related topics not covered in mass media such as issues of international affairs, women's rights, activism, sexuality, women of colour and social justice, positioning itself as

5248-570: The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit . Hughes knew Coffee, who clerked for her from 1968 to 1969. Additionally, the backgrounds of two other judges also gave Weddington and Coffee hope they would be successful. On June 17, 1970, the three judges unanimously ruled in McCorvey's favor and declared the Texas law unconstitutional, finding that it violated the right to privacy found in

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5376-738: The U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Texas heard the case and ruled in her favor. The parties appealed this ruling to the Supreme Court. In January 1973, the Supreme Court issued a 7–2 decision in McCorvey's favor holding that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides a fundamental "right to privacy", which protects a pregnant woman's right to an abortion. It also held that

5504-413: The lawsuit , Weddington did not speak again with McCorvey until four months after Roe was decided. After the first argument session, Burger assigned the task of writing the Court's opinions for both Roe and Doe to Blackmun. Douglas suggested to Blackmun that Burger assigned the opinions to him out of malicious intention, but Blackmun disagreed. He knew that Burger could not write it himself because

5632-483: The women’s liberation movement in mainstream media. It was a self-sustaining periodical edited and published by a collective of women consisting mainly of volunteers who practiced consensus decision-making . Reporting on feminism related topics, the periodical transitioned from a monthly to a bi-monthly newspaper, and ultimately to a quarterly magazine before financial difficulties led to its termination in 2008. Off Our Backs dealt with some controversy in 1984 during

5760-520: The wordmarks of video games it is not uncommon to use stylised upper-case letters at the beginning and end of a title, with the intermediate letters in small caps or lower case (e.g., ArcaniA , ArmA , and DmC ). Single-word proper nouns are capitalised in formal written English, unless the name is intentionally stylised to break this rule (such as e e cummings , bell hooks , eden ahbez , and danah boyd ). Multi-word proper nouns include names of organisations, publications, and people. Often

5888-465: The " strict scrutiny " standard, the most stringent level of judicial review in the United States. The Supreme Court's decision in Roe was among the most controversial in U.S. history. Roe was criticized by some in the legal community, including some who thought that Roe reached the correct result but went about it the wrong way, and some called the decision a form of judicial activism . Others argued that Roe did not go far enough, as it

6016-482: The 1980s the collective published rare editorials and moved away from them to signed commentaries. Carol Anne Douglas (one of Off Our Back s' longest-writing members) explained their cease of editorials due to the fact that the collective "often disagreed on issues anyways". 1977 was the year Off Our Backs peaked, with 15,000 copies sold. In 1988 Off Our Backs struggled to keep publishing. Carol Anne Douglas stated that only two or three women would attend meetings at

6144-434: The 19th century, the medical profession was generally opposed to abortion, which Mohr argues arose due to competition between men with medical degrees and women without one. The practice of abortion was one of the first medical specialties, and was practiced by unlicensed people; well-off people had abortions and paid well. The press played a key role in rallying support for anti-abortion laws. According to James S. Witherspoon,

6272-408: The Court created the trimester framework. During the first trimester, when it was believed that the procedure was safer than childbirth, the Court ruled that a state government could place no restrictions on women's ability to choose to abort pregnancies other than imposing minimal medical safeguards, such as requiring abortions to be performed by licensed physicians. From the second trimester on,

6400-406: The Court held the second argument session, Powell said he would agree with Blackmun's conclusion but pushed for Roe to be the lead of the two abortion cases being considered. Powell also suggested that the Court strike down the Texas law on privacy grounds. Byron White was unwilling to sign on to Blackmun's opinion, and Justice Rehnquist had already decided to dissent. During the drafting process,

6528-464: The Court introduced the concept of a constitutional " right to privacy " that it said had been intimated in earlier decisions such as Meyer v. Nebraska and Pierce v. Society of Sisters , which involved parental control over childrearing , and Griswold v. Connecticut , which involved the use of contraception. Then, "with virtually no further explanation of the privacy value", the Court ruled that regardless of exactly which provisions were involved,

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6656-429: The Court ruled that evidence of increasing risks to the mother's health gave states a compelling interest that allowed them to enact medical regulations on abortion procedures so long as they were reasonable and "narrowly tailored" to protecting mothers' health. From the beginning of the third trimester on—the point at which a fetus became viable under the medical technology available in the early 1970s—the Court ruled that

6784-451: The Court, and he would have to face Catholic political groups which were against abortion. If Marshall wrote the opinions, the ruling would be perceived as being directed towards African Americans, and he would have to face the displeasure of African American political groups. Stewart would have trouble going far enough in legalizing abortion. At this point, Black and Harlan had been replaced by William Rehnquist and Lewis F. Powell Jr. , but

6912-505: The Court. It's an old joke, but when a man argues against two beautiful ladies like this, they are going to have the last word ." His remark was met with cold silence; abortion rights lawyer Margie Pitts Hames thought that Chief Justice Burger "was going to come right off the bench at him. He glared him down." McCorvey did not attend either of the oral arguments along with her two lawyers. After talking McCorvey out of getting an illegal abortion and getting her name signed on an affidavit for

7040-544: The State of Texas. Weddington later stated that she "saw Roe as part of a much larger effort by many attorneys" whose collective interests she represented. James H. Hallford was a physician who was in the process of being prosecuted for performing two abortions. The Court allowed him to join the suit as a physician- intervenor on behalf of Jane Roe. One of the cases was assigned to a panel of judges which included Judge Sarah T. Hughes, who they thought would be sympathetic, and

7168-415: The Supreme Court when both sides appealed in 1970. It bypassed the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit because 28 USC § 1253 authorizes a direct appeal to the Supreme Court in cases concerning the granting or denial of a civil injunction decided by a three judge panel. The case continued under the name Roe v. Wade instead of being switched to Wade v. Roe . The justices delayed taking action on Roe and

7296-530: The U.S. Constitution and its guarantees of liberty covered a right to privacy that protected a pregnant woman's decision whether to abort a pregnancy. This right of privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment 's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to

7424-430: The age of the fetus and instead allowing states to regulate the procedure based on its safety for the mother. On January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court issued a 7–2 decision in favor of "Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey) holding that women in the United States had a fundamental right to choose whether to have abortions without excessive government restriction and striking down Texas's abortion ban as unconstitutional . The decision

7552-458: The articles, Means misrepresented the common law tradition in ways that were helpful to the Roe side. Roy Lucas , the principal attorney assisting Weddington and Coffee, had previously received a memo from his colleague David M. Tundermann about Means's scholarship. The memo stated that the conclusions in Means's articles "sometimes strain credibility." It also stated: Where the important thing

7680-582: The ascender set, and 3, 4, 5, 7 , and 9 the descender set. A minority of writing systems use two separate cases. Such writing systems are called bicameral scripts . These scripts include the Latin , Cyrillic , Greek , Coptic , Armenian , Glagolitic , Adlam , Warang Citi , Garay , Zaghawa , Osage , Vithkuqi , and Deseret scripts. Languages written in these scripts use letter cases as an aid to clarity. The Georgian alphabet has several variants, and there were attempts to use them as different cases, but

7808-429: The baby, Shelley Lynn Thornton , was adopted by a couple in Texas. In 1970, Coffee and Weddington filed Roe v. Wade as a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Texas on behalf of McCorvey under the legal pseudonym " Jane Roe ", and they also filed Does v. Wade on behalf of the married couple. The defendant for both cases was Dallas County District Attorney , Henry Wade , who represented

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7936-581: The capitalisation of the following internal letter or word, for example "Mac" in Celtic names and "Al" in Arabic names. In the International System of Units (SI), a letter usually has different meanings in upper and lower case when used as a unit symbol. Generally, unit symbols are written in lower case, but if the name of the unit is derived from a proper noun, the first letter of the symbol

8064-414: The capitalisation of words in publication titles and headlines , including chapter and section headings. The rules differ substantially between individual house styles. The convention followed by many British publishers (including scientific publishers like Nature and New Scientist , magazines like The Economist , and newspapers like The Guardian and The Times ) and many U.S. newspapers

8192-446: The case is usually known as lower camel case or dromedary case (illustratively: dromedaryCase ). This format has become popular in the branding of information technology products and services, with an initial "i" meaning " Internet " or "intelligent", as in iPod , or an initial "e" meaning "electronic", as in email (electronic mail) or e-commerce (electronic commerce). "the_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog" Punctuation

8320-608: The case was leaked to and published in The Washington Post before the decision was published. Blackmun continued to work on his opinions in both cases over the summer recess, even though there was no guarantee that he would be assigned to write them again. Over the recess, he spent a week researching the history of abortion at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota, where he had worked in the 1950s. He talked daily on

8448-600: The cases were consolidated. In accordance with the Court's rules, two of the judges hearing the consolidated case were assigned on the basis of their judicial district, and the third judge on the panel was a circuit court judge chosen by the Chief Justice of the United States . The consolidated lawsuit was heard by a three-judge panel consisting of district court judges Sarah T. Hughes and William McLaughlin Taylor Jr. and appellate judge Irving Loeb Goldberg of

8576-418: The code too abstract and overloaded for the common programmer to understand. Understandably then, such coding conventions are highly subjective , and can lead to rather opinionated debate, such as in the case of editor wars , or those about indent style . Capitalisation is no exception. "theQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" or "TheQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" Spaces and punctuation are removed and

8704-404: The context of an imperative, strongly typed language. The third supports the macro facilities of LISP, and its tendency to view programs and data minimalistically, and as interchangeable. The fourth idiom needs much less syntactic sugar overall, because much of the semantics are implied, but because of its brevity and so lack of the need for capitalization or multipart words at all, might also make

8832-468: The creation of On Our Backs . Archives of Off Our Backs are housed at Hornbake Library , University of Maryland . Off Our Backs was founded in January 1970 by Marlene Wicks and Marilyn Salzman Webb in Washington, D.C. The original funding for the periodical came from $ 1000 that was collected to start an anti-Vietnam War coffee house, with the idea for the paper stemming from frustration about

8960-483: The criminalization of abortion did not have "roots in the English common-law tradition", and was thought to return to the more permissive state of pre-1820s abortion laws. One purpose for banning abortion was to preserve the life of the fetus, another was to protect the life of the mother, another was to create deterrence against future abortions, and another was to avoid injuring the mother's ability to have children. Judges did not always distinguish between which purpose

9088-628: The decision appeared on newsstands a few hours before it was published by the court. Burger demanded a meeting with Time 's editors and punishment for the leaker. Powell refused Hammond's resignation, on the grounds that "Hammond had been double-crossed" by the reporter. Justice Harry Blackmun authored the opinion of the Court—the "majority opinion"—and was joined by six other justices: Chief Justice Warren Burger and Justices Potter Stewart , William J. Brennan Jr. , William O. Douglas , Thurgood Marshall , and Lewis F. Powell Jr. After reciting

9216-433: The factors that govern the abortion decision. ... We, therefore, conclude that the right of personal privacy includes the abortion decision, but that this right is not unqualified and must be considered against important state interests in regulation. Texas's lawyers had argued that limiting abortion to situations where the mother's life was in danger was justified because life began at the moment of conception , and therefore

9344-472: The facts of the case, the Court's opinion first addressed several legal questions involving procedure and justiciability . These included mootness , a legal doctrine that prevents American federal courts from hearing cases that have ceased to be "live" controversies because of intervening events. Under a normal application of the doctrine, McCorvey's appeal would have been considered moot because she had already given birth to her child and therefore no longer had

9472-455: The first argument had already occurred before they became Supreme Court justices. Justice Blackmun worked on a preliminary opinion for Roe which argued that Texas's law was unconstitutionally vague. This approach accommodated the claims of some doctors who were concerned that prosecutors might disagree with them over what constituted "life". Blackmun thought this approach would be a good way to avoid controversy which would come with saying there

9600-464: The first letter of each word is capitalised. If this includes the first letter of the first word (CamelCase, " PowerPoint ", "TheQuick...", etc.), the case is sometimes called upper camel case (or, illustratively, CamelCase ), Pascal case in reference to the Pascal programming language or bumpy case . When the first letter of the first word is lowercase (" iPod ", " eBay ", "theQuickBrownFox..."),

9728-417: The first trimester were more likely to require hospital beds than those whose fetuses were aborted earlier. Contrary to the justices who preferred viability, Douglas preferred the first-trimester line. Stewart said the lines were "legislative" and wanted more flexibility and consideration paid to state legislatures, though he joined Blackmun's decision. William Brennan proposed abandoning frameworks based on

9856-437: The first-person pronoun "I" and the vocative particle " O ". There are a few pairs of words of different meanings whose only difference is capitalisation of the first letter. Honorifics and personal titles showing rank or prestige are capitalised when used together with the name of the person (for example, "Mr. Smith", "Bishop Gorman", "Professor Moore") or as a direct address, but normally not when used alone and in

9984-450: The foundations of their lives, and bringing change on many levels." The paper always remained nonhierarchical, consisting of around 15 members at a time. Marilyn Salzman-Webb , one of the paper's founders stated that the collective was made up of women ranging from ages 17 to 32. The Off Our Backs collective was staffed mainly by volunteers. Starting in 1973, Off Our Backs paid one or two staff members minimal salaries. The periodical

10112-399: The grounds that the substantive right to abortion was not "deeply rooted in this Nation's history or tradition", nor considered a right when the Due Process Clause was ratified in 1868, and was unknown in U.S. law until Roe . Abortion was a fairly common practice in the history of the United States, and was not always a public controversy. At a time when society was more concerned with

10240-461: The journal monthly after its initial release, skipping one month of the year. The frequency of publication remained as 11 publications a year from 1970 until 2002. During that time, the Off Our Backs collective wrote about numerous local and international subjects revolving around feminist and women’s issues. During this time, the paper included several exposés, interviews and editorials . By

10368-405: The justices discussed the trimester framework at great length. Powell had suggested that the point where the state could intervene be placed at viability, which Thurgood Marshall supported as well. In an internal memo to the other justices before the majority decision was published, Justice Blackmun wrote: "You will observe that I have concluded that the end of the first trimester is critical. This

10496-438: The lack of news about the women’s liberation movement in mainstream media. They created the periodical with the intention for the paper to be by, for and about women, emphasizing that the paper was part of a movement. The name Off Our Backs was selected to reflect the dual nature of the women’s movement. Their mission statement was stated as “to provide news and information about women's lives and feminist activism; to educate

10624-427: The last issue of the news journal in 2008, citing financial difficulties as the primary factor behind the cessation. Carol Anne Douglas stated that the lack of money led to the end of publication as prices rose and subscriptions diminished. In their final publication, the Off Our Backs collective wrote about considering moving the periodical online and requesting donations. Off Our Backs never made an online version of

10752-490: The late 2010s to early 2020s, opposed overruling Roe . Despite criticism of the decision, the Supreme Court reaffirmed Roe 's central holding in its 1992 decision, Planned Parenthood v. Casey . Casey overruled Roe 's trimester framework and abandoned its "strict scrutiny" standard in favor of an " undue burden " test. In 2022, the Supreme Court overruled Roe in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization on

10880-413: The limitation of family size from Griswold v. Connecticut also applied here, although he acknowledged that "on the other side is the belief of many that the fetus, once formed, is a member of the human family and that mere personal inconvenience cannot justify the fetus' destruction." He also challenged the majority opinion with a series of hypothetical questions asking whether "health" might also include

11008-412: The lowercase when space restrictions require very small lettering. In mathematics , on the other hand, uppercase and lower case letters denote generally different mathematical objects , which may be related when the two cases of the same letter are used; for example, x may denote an element of a set X . The terms upper case and lower case may be written as two consecutive words, connected with

11136-460: The majority—himself, Brennan, Stewart, and Marshall. Blackmun at one point thought all seven justices wanted to vote in the majority. In May 1972, Blackmun proposed that the case be reargued. Justice Douglas threatened to write a dissent from the reargument order because he and the other liberal justices were suspicious that Rehnquist and Powell would vote to uphold the Texas abortion statutes . He

11264-433: The modern written Georgian language does not distinguish case. All other writing systems make no distinction between majuscules and minuscules – a system called unicameral script or unicase . This includes most syllabic and other non-alphabetic scripts. In scripts with a case distinction, lowercase is generally used for the majority of text; capitals are used for capitalisation and emphasis when bold

11392-753: The name, though there is some variation in this. With personal names , this practice can vary (sometimes all words are capitalised, regardless of length or function), but is not limited to English names. Examples include the English names Tamar of Georgia and Catherine the Great , " van " and "der" in Dutch names , " von " and "zu" in German , "de", "los", and "y" in Spanish names , "de" or "d'" in French names , and "ibn" in Arabic names . Some surname prefixes also affect

11520-729: The needs of women from all backgrounds and classes." The first issue of Off Our Backs was published on February 27, 1970, consisting of a twelve-page tabloid first issue. The first issue included articles about the birth control pill, abortion rights, Korean women’s movements, and advocacy for women’s rights protests and oppositions. The first issue was written by a collective of 17 women, namely Marlene Wicks, Alison Sand, Roxanne Dunbar , Martha Atkins, Conni Bille Finnerty, Paula Goldsmid, Bonnie McFadden, Charlotte Bunch-Weeks , Sue Tod, Jessica Finney, Marilyn Salzman-Webb , Norma Allen Lesser, Anne Hutchinson, Rachel Scott, Coletta Reid, Regina Sigal, and Alice Wolfson . Off Our Backs began publishing

11648-408: The new magazine as "pseudo-feminist" and threatened legal action over the logo OOB . All lowercase Letter case is generally applied in a mixed-case fashion, with both upper and lowercase letters appearing in a given piece of text for legibility. The choice of case is often denoted by the grammar of a language or by the conventions of a particular discipline. In orthography , the uppercase

11776-490: The oral argument, Sarah Weddington was unaware that the Court had decided to hear the case to decide which courts had jurisdiction to hear it rather than as an attempt to overturn abortion laws in a broad ruling. She began by bringing up constitutional reasons why the Court should overturn Texas's abortion law, but Justice Stewart asked questions directed towards the jurisdiction question instead. Weddington replied that she saw no problem with jurisdiction and continued to talk about

11904-549: The paper's founders, described the process behind the collective's writing, stating "each member had to learn about those issues up for discussion: current news, the legal system, the history of the family, the role of romance in Western civilization, etc. (...) As collective members pushed themselves further intellectually, and learned to relate to one another differently from the way (competitively) that they had been taught to relate to other women, they found it necessary to challenge

12032-478: The people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether to terminate her pregnancy. The Court reasoned that outlawing abortions would infringe a pregnant woman's right to privacy for several reasons: having unwanted children "may force upon the woman a distressful life and future"; it may bring imminent psychological harm; caring for the child may tax the mother's physical and mental health; and because there may be "distress, for all concerned, associated with

12160-406: The periodical thus was the final issue published. Off Our Backs expanded its coverage to include topics such as: international women's issues, LGBTQ+ rights, and anti-racist activism. The periodical featured investigative journalism and analysis. The collective espoused a commitment to amplifying marginalized voices and engaging in political activism. For example, Off Our Backs provided coverage of

12288-593: The phone with George Frampton , his 28-year-old law clerk who stayed behind in Washington, D.C. Frampton researched the history of abortion using a book authored by Lawrence Lader, the founding chairman of what is now called NARAL Pro-Choice America . Blackmun's papers made available since his death contain at least seven citations for Lader's 1966 book, Abortion . Chapter 16 of his book, "A Blueprint for Changing U.S. Abortion Laws" predicted that if abortion were to be legalized, "the possibility of community opposition

12416-472: The police. Wheeler was one of a few women who were prosecuted by their states for abortion. She received a sentence of two years probation , and as an option under her probation, chose to move back into her parents' house in North Carolina. The Playboy Foundation donated $ 3,500 to her defense fund and Playboy denounced her prosecution. The Boston Women's Abortion Coalition raised money and held

12544-497: The public about the status of women around the world; to serve as a forum for feminist ideas and theory; to be an information resource on feminist, women's, and lesbian culture; and to seek social justice and equality for women". The editorial statement from the first issue in February 1970 states that Off Our Backs "is a paper for all women who are fighting for the liberation of their lives and we hope it will grow and expand to meet

12672-403: The quickening distinction was eliminated, and every state had anti-abortion laws by 1900. In the United States, before specific statutes were made against it, abortion was sometimes considered a common law offense , such as by William Blackstone and James Wilson . In all states throughout the 19th and early 20th century, pre-quickening abortions were always considered to be actions without

12800-417: The right to abortion is not absolute and must be balanced against the government's interests in protecting women's health and prenatal life. It resolved these competing interests by announcing a pregnancy trimester timetable to govern all abortion regulations in the United States. The Court also classified the right to abortion as "fundamental", which required courts to evaluate challenged abortion laws under

12928-400: The right to choose to have an abortion without interference, he thought the Court's decision was a permissible interpretation of the doctrine of substantive due process , which says that the Due Process Clause 's protection of liberty extends beyond simple procedures and protects certain fundamental rights. Justice William O. Douglas's concurring opinion described his view that although

13056-475: The rules for "title case" (described in the previous section) are applied to these names, so that non-initial articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are lowercase, and all other words are uppercase. For example, the short preposition "of" and the article "the" are lowercase in "Steering Committee of the Finance Department". Usually only capitalised words are used to form an acronym variant of

13184-419: The serious consequences of women becoming pregnant out of wedlock, family affairs were handled out of public view. The criminality of abortion at common law is a matter of debate by historians and legal scholars. In 1821, Connecticut passed the first state statute legislating abortion in the United States ; it forbade the use of poisons in abortion. After the 1840s, there was an upsurge in abortions. In

13312-403: The state's governmental interest in protecting prenatal life applied to all pregnancies regardless of their stage . The Court said that there was no indication that the Constitution's uses of the word " person " were meant to include fetuses, and it rejected Texas's argument that a fetus should be considered a "person" with a legal and constitutional right to life . The Court observed that there

13440-470: The stigma of having an illegitimate child, anxiety from the pregnancy being unwanted, the physical work of raising a child, the financial drain from the added expense of another child, and far off health risks that may never actually materialize in a similar fashion to how risks were warded off with prophylactic appendectomy. Douglas' dissent made a similar legal argument to the one used two years later in Roe v. Wade . The following day after their decision

13568-414: The subject of abortion was too controversial, and his opinions might get rejected by the majority. He also understood why the other justices could not be assigned to write the opinions: Douglas was too liberal for the public to accept his word. Likewise, he might split the Court's vote by writing something radical. In addition, the quality of his opinions had suffered recently. Brennan was the only Catholic on

13696-459: The term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase letters. Minuscule refers to lower-case letters . The word is often spelled miniscule , by association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini- . That has traditionally been regarded as a spelling mistake (since minuscule is derived from the word minus ), but is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as

13824-406: The time. It was not until 1989 when three new women joined the collective that Off Our Backs was able to publish with more ease. By its later years, Off Our Backs switched from a newspaper format to a magazine format. In 2002 Off Our Backs began publishing journals bi-monthly (six times a year). It remained bi-monthly until 2006 when the paper was released quarterly. Off Our Backs published

13952-561: The tokens, such as function and variable names start to multiply in complex software development , and there is still a need to keep the source code human-readable, Naming conventions make this possible. So for example, a function dealing with matrix multiplication might formally be called: In each case, the capitalisation or lack thereof supports a different function. In the first, FORTRAN compatibility requires case-insensitive naming and short function names. The second supports easily discernible function and argument names and types, within

14080-467: The trial stage, and appellate review will be effectively denied." After dealing with mootness and standing , the Court proceeded to the main issue of the case: the constitutionality of Texas's abortion law. The Court first surveyed abortion's status throughout the history of Roman law and the English and early American common law. It also reviewed the developments of medical procedures and technology used in abortions. Following its historical surveys,

14208-525: The two characters representing the case variants of a letter. (Some old character-encoding systems, such as the Baudot code , are restricted to one set of letters, usually represented by the upper-case variants.) Roe v. Wade Roe v. Wade , 410 U.S. 113 (1973), was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the Constitution of the United States protected

14336-596: The unit symbol to which it is attached. Lower case is used for all submultiple prefix symbols and the small multiple prefix symbols up to "k" (for kilo , meaning 10 = 1000 multiplier), whereas upper case is used for larger multipliers: Some case styles are not used in standard English, but are common in computer programming , product branding , or other specialised fields. The usage derives from how programming languages are parsed , programmatically. They generally separate their syntactic tokens by simple whitespace , including space characters , tabs , and newlines . When

14464-726: The unwanted child". But at the same time, the Court rejected the notion that this right to privacy was absolute. It held instead that a woman's right to have an abortion must be balanced against other government interests , such as protecting maternal health and protecting the life of the fetus. The Court held that these government interests were sufficiently compelling to permit states to impose some limits on pregnant women's right to choose to have an abortion. A State may properly assert important interests in safeguarding health, maintaining medical standards, and in protecting potential life. At some point in pregnancy, these respective interests become sufficiently compelling to sustain regulation of

14592-445: The use of the capitals. Sometimes only vowels are upper case, at other times upper and lower case are alternated, but often it is simply random. The name comes from the sarcastic or ironic implication that it was used in an attempt by the writer to convey their own coolness ( studliness ). It is also used to mock the violation of standard English case conventions by marketers in the naming of computer software packages, even when there

14720-408: The woman. The woman had a neurochemical disorder and it was considered medically necessary that she not give birth or raise children, yet they did not want to abstain from sex, and contraception might fail. The attorneys were concerned about standing since the woman was not pregnant. Weddington later wrote that they "needed to find a pregnant Texas woman who wanted an abortion and would be willing to be

14848-671: Was a fundamental right to abortion. Brennan and Douglas disagreed with Blackmun and wrote to him that instead he needed to focus on privacy. After communicating with the other justices, Blackmun felt that his opinion did not adequately reflect his liberal colleagues' views. In March 1972, the court issued a ruling in Eisenstadt v. Baird , a landmark case which applied the earlier marital privacy right now also to unmarried individuals. Douglas wrote to Blackmun in May 1972 that he thought there were four judges who were definitely willing to rule in

14976-420: Was announced, the court voted to hear both Roe and Doe . According to Blackmun, Stewart felt the cases were a straightforward application of Younger v. Harris , and enough justices agreed to hear the cases to review whether they would be suitable for federal as opposed to only state courts. This sort of review was not about the constitutionality of abortion and would not have required evidence, witnesses, or

15104-501: Was brought by Norma McCorvey —under the legal pseudonym " Jane Roe "—who, in 1969, became pregnant with her third child . McCorvey wanted an abortion but lived in Texas , where abortion was illegal except when necessary to save the mother's life. Her lawyers, Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee , filed a lawsuit on her behalf in U.S. federal court against her local district attorney , Henry Wade , alleging that Texas's abortion laws were unconstitutional. A special three-judge court of

15232-413: Was coaxed out of the action by his colleagues, and instead his dissent was merely mentioned in the reargument order without further statement or opinion. The case was reargued on October 11, 1972. Weddington continued to represent the pseudonymous Jane Roe, and Texas Assistant Attorney General Robert C. Flowers replaced Jay Floyd for Texas. A June 1972 memo written by Douglas to his colleagues discussing

15360-409: Was endangered. The Court upheld the statute on the grounds that the word "health" was not unconstitutionally vague and placed the burden of proof concerning dangers to the life or health of the mother on the prosecutor instead of on the person who had performed the abortion. Justice William O. Douglas wrote a lengthy dissenting opinion to this case. He argued that the right to marital privacy and

15488-406: Was issued together with a decision in a companion case , Doe v. Bolton , which involved a similar challenge to Georgia 's abortion laws. Larry Hammond, a law clerk for Powell, gave a Time reporter a copy of the decision " on background ", expecting that it would be issued by the court before the next issue of Time was published; however, due to a delay in the decision's release, the text of

15616-578: Was located above the case that held the small letters. Majuscule ( / ˈ m æ dʒ ə s k juː l / , less commonly / m ə ˈ dʒ ʌ s k juː l / ), for palaeographers , is technically any script whose letters have very few or very short ascenders and descenders, or none at all (for example, the majuscule scripts used in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 , or the Book of Kells ). By virtue of their visual impact, this made

15744-428: Was more important. Rather than arresting the women having the abortions, legal officials were more likely to interrogate them to obtain evidence against the individual doing the abortions. This law enforcement strategy was a response to juries which refused to convict women prosecuted for abortion in the 19th century. In 1973, Justice Blackmun's opinion stated that "the restrictive criminal abortion laws in effect in

15872-473: Was placed within the framework of civil rights rather than the broader human rights . The decision also radically reconfigured the voting coalitions of the Republican and Democratic parties in the following decades. Anti-abortion politicians and activists sought for decades to restrict abortion or overrule the decision; polls into the 21st century showed that a plurality and a majority, especially into

16000-635: Was previously common in English as well, mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries), while in Romance and most other European languages the names of the days of the week, the names of the months, and adjectives of nationality, religion, and so on normally begin with a lower-case letter. On the other hand, in some languages it is customary to capitalise formal polite pronouns , for example De , Dem ( Danish ), Sie , Ihnen (German), and Vd or Ud (short for usted in Spanish ). Informal communication, such as texting , instant messaging or

16128-471: Was self-sustaining, receiving its funding through paid subscriptions. The title of the magazine On Our Backs (one of the first women-run erotica magazines and one of the first magazines to feature lesbian erotica for a lesbian audience in the United States) was a satirical reference to Off Our Backs , which the founders of On Our Backs considered prudish about sexuality. Off Our Backs regarded

16256-514: Was still great disagreement over when an unborn fetus becomes a living being. We need not resolve the difficult question of when life begins. When those trained in the respective disciplines of medicine, philosophy, and theology are unable to arrive at any consensus, the judiciary, in this point in the development of man's knowledge, is not in a position to speculate as to the answer. To balance women's rights to privacy and state governments' interests in protecting mothers' health and prenatal life,

16384-416: Was unsuccessful in finding a suitable pregnant woman. In June 1969, 21-year-old Norma McCorvey discovered she was pregnant with her third child. Ordinarily, lawyers are not allowed to directly solicit clients without any prior relationship, but McCorvey's situation qualified for an exception in the no solicitation rule which allows lawyers to solicit new clients for public interest cases. According to

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