Misplaced Pages

#577422

184-552: On May 4, 1970, Guard units infamously opened fire onto a crowd of both Vietnam War protestors and simple bystanders on the campus of Kent State University . This incident killed four and wounded nine others, an event known as the Kent State shootings . The President's Commission on Campus Unrest concluded that the Guard's actions were "unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable." The Ohio National Guard can be traced back to

368-572: A Gidra article, [a prominent influential newspaper of the Asian American movement], Evelyn Yoshimura noted that the US military systematically portrayed Vietnamese women as prostitutes as a way of dehumanizing them." Toledo War The Toledo War (1835–1836), also known as the Michigan–Ohio War or Ohio–Michigan War , was a boundary dispute between the U.S. state of Ohio and

552-540: A one-man election for President in 1971. Covert counter-terror programs and semi-covert ones such as the Phoenix Program attempted, with the help of anthropologists, to isolate rural South Vietnamese villages and affect the loyalty of the residents. Despite the increasingly disheartening news of the war, many Americans continued to support President Johnson's efforts. Apart from the Domino Theory, there

736-609: A National Guard which in addition to being a state force for quelling civil disturbances, was assuming a key role in the national defense. Leading the effort to accomplish this was Major General Charles Dick of the Ohio National Guard. After serving in the Spanish–American War, he was later elected to the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in passing the Dick Act of 1903. This benchmark legislation repealed

920-680: A baseline in Michigan and northward from one in Ohio. For unknown reasons, Surveyor General Tiffin ordered the two surveys to close on the Northwest Ordinance (Fulton) line, rather than Harris' line, perhaps lending implicit support to Michigan's claims over Ohio's. Thus, townships that were established north of the line assumed they were part of the Michigan Territory. By the early 1820s, the growing Michigan Territory reached

1104-416: A burgeoning draft resistance movement. The draft exhibited a disproportionate selection of young African American men and economically disadvantaged men of all races, resulting in higher enlistment rates compared to white, middle-class men. In 1967, although there were fewer draft-eligible black men (29% of all draft-eligible men) compared to white men (63%), a higher percentage of the eligible black men (64% of

1288-612: A consequence of the transformation of the 37th into an infantry brigade combat team, the unit is to be given the old Buckeye Patch of the 37th Infantry Division of World War I and World War II. The Ohio Army National Guard has maintained military partnerships with foreign militaries under the National Guard State Partnership Program. The OARNG, together with the Ohio Air National Guard, has worked with Hungary since 1993, and

1472-580: A convention, Adams summed up his opinion on the dispute: "Never in the course of my life have I known a controversy of which all the right was so clearly on one side and all the power so overwhelmingly on the other." Acting as commander-in-chief of Ohio's militia, Governor Lucas—along with General John Bell and about 600 other fully armed militiamen—arrived in Perrysburg, Ohio , 10 miles (16 km) southwest of Toledo, on March 31, 1835. Shortly thereafter, Governor Mason and General Brown arrived to occupy

1656-555: A crack unit came with a considerable cost as the Buckeye Division alone suffered almost 5400 casualties while in France. Ohio Guard units also formed part of the 42nd "Rainbow" Division which won an enviable combat record along the front lines. During the period between the two World Wars, the Ohio National Guard found itself frequently called upon to perform relief duties during natural disasters. Noteworthy were efforts during

1840-594: A critical part in the Union war effort and was one of the leading contributors of manpower (including a crop of gifted generals to include Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, McPherson, Griffin,). As most of the existing militia units were incorporated into federalized volunteer regiments, local defense and order fell to units of those exempted from federal service. Youths, middle aged men and a sprinkling of veterans who had completed their active duty enlistments stayed behind in Ohio. Numerous battalions were organized statewide that were for

2024-420: A delegation consisting of U.S. Attorney Noah Haynes Swayne , former Congressman William Allen , and David T. Disney to Washington D.C. to confer with Jackson. The delegation presented Ohio's case and urged Jackson to address the situation swiftly. Throughout mid-1835, both governments continued their practice of oneupmanship , and constant skirmishes and arrests occurred. Citizens of Monroe County joined in

SECTION 10

#1732772418578

2208-749: A dire financial crisis and pressure from Congress and President Andrew Jackson , the Michigan government called another convention (called the "Frostbitten Convention"), which accepted the compromise, resolving the Toledo War. In 1787, the Congress of the Confederation enacted the Northwest Ordinance , which created the Northwest Territory in what is now the upper Midwestern United States . The Ordinance specified that

2392-543: A fully armed and trained militia. With the brief exception of a border dispute with Michigan that caused the Governor to issue a militia call up, meaningful local militia musters and drills again became more the exception than the rule. The Mexican–American War in 1848 saw a renewed interest in vitalizing the militia throughout the entire country. With the regular U.S. Army at a strength of just over 13,000, it became evident that any successful military campaign against Mexico

2576-603: A group of ringleaders, including Dr. Benjamin Spock and Yale chaplain William Sloane Coffin, Jr. , in Boston in 1968. By the late 1960s, one-quarter of all court cases dealt with the draft, including men accused of draft-dodging and men petitioning for the status of conscientious objector . Over 210,000 men were accused of draft-related offenses, 25,000 of whom were indicted. The concerns regarding equity prompted

2760-517: A hearing before the U.S. Supreme Court on their competing claims to the Lake Erie waters. In Michigan v. Ohio , the court upheld a special master 's report and ruled that the boundary between the two states in Lake Erie was angled to the northeast, as described in Ohio's state constitution, and not a straight east–west line. One consequence of the decision was that Turtle Island , just outside Maumee Bay and originally treated as wholly in Michigan,

2944-635: A latitude north of the mouth of the Detroit River , suggesting that an east–west line would not intersect with Lake Erie at all, until well across the international border. The framers of the 1802 Ohio Constitution therefore believed it was the intent of Congress that Ohio's northern boundary should certainly be north of the mouth of the Maumee River, and possibly even of the Detroit River. Ohio would thus be granted access to most or all of

3128-422: A letter to Tiffin that the survey was biased to favor Ohio and "is only adding strength to the strong, and making the weak still weaker." In response, Michigan commissioned a second survey that was carried out by John A. Fulton. The Fulton survey was based upon the original 1787 Ordinance Line, and after measuring the line eastward from Lake Michigan to Lake Erie, it found the Ohio boundary to lie just southeast of

3312-720: A meaningful military solution in Vietnam. In 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson began his re-election campaign. Eugene McCarthy ran against him for the Democratic nomination on an anti-war platform. McCarthy did not win the first primary election in New Hampshire , but he did surprisingly well against an incumbent. The resulting blow to the Johnson campaign, combined with other factors, led the President to announce that he

3496-483: A minimum. Having demonstrated its value beyond the battlefield, the Ohio Guard was boosted in numbers and funding to a meaningful level. The breakout of hostilities with Spain over Cuba in 1898 also led to an increase in the size and improved equipment and training for the Ohio National Guard. Several regiments of infantry and artillery were formed and shipped to Tampa, Florida for training and eventual transport to

3680-652: A mistake. This was echoed decades later by former Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara . US military involvement in Vietnam began in 1950 with the support of French Indochina against communist Chinese forces . Military involvement and opposition escalated after the Congressional authorization of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in August 1964, with US ground troops arriving in Vietnam on March 8, 1965. Richard Nixon

3864-453: A posse to make arrests in Toledo. Partisans from Ohio, angered by the harassment, targeted the offenders with criminal prosecutions. Lawsuits were rampant and served as a basis for retaliatory lawsuits from the opposite side. Partisans of both sides organized spying parties to keep track of the sheriffs of Wood County, Ohio , and Monroe County, Michigan, who were entrusted with the security of

SECTION 20

#1732772418578

4048-529: A request for an official survey of the line. Delayed because of the War of 1812 , it was only after Indiana 's admission to the Union in 1816 that work on the survey commenced. At that time, the border between Michigan and Indiana was altered from the Northwest Ordinance boundary – over the protests of the Michigan Territory – moving it 10 miles (16 km) northward to give the new state substantial frontage on Lake Michigan. U.S. Surveyor General Edward Tiffin , who

4232-453: A result of the lackluster performance of some poorly trained and armed local units, the Ohio National Guard in actuality played a key role in the ultimate defeat of Gen. Morgan (and his vaunted force of Confederate cavalry). Instrumental in defending the approaches to Pomeroy and its river fords, Ohio Guardsmen were also responsible for blocking Morgan's escape route at Buffington Island .Pursuing Union forces eventually caught up and administered

4416-528: A stinging defeat to Morgan on July 19, 1863 – the last battle fought on Ohio soil. Over 35,000 Ohio Guardsmen were federalized and organized into regiments for 100 days service in May 1864. Shipped to the Eastern Theater, they were designed to be placed into "safe" rear area duty to protect the railroads and supply points. As events transpired, many units found themselves in the thick of combat, stationed in

4600-447: A system of conscription that mainly drew from minorities and lower and middle-class whites, inspired much of the protest after 1965. Conscientious objectors played an active role despite their small numbers. Student and blue-collar American opposition to the military draft was compelled by a sentiment that the draft was unfairly administered. Opposition to the war arose during a time of unprecedented student activism , which included

4784-502: A vehicle for portraying their thoughts about the Vietnam War, often satirizing the role of America in the world and juxtaposing the horrific effects of war with normal scenes of life. Regardless of medium, anti-war artists ranged from pacifists to violent radicals, and caused Americans to think more critically about the war. Art as war opposition was quite popular in the early years of the war, but soon faded as political activism became

4968-567: A view towards annexing it to the United States). The first attempt ended with the surrender of Fort Detroit to the British by General William Hull in late 1812. Although not present in large numbers, Ohio militia were present and paroled shortly thereafter with the promise not to engage in any further hostilities. Ohio militia also played a role in the efforts of Gen. William Henry Harrison to re-capture Fort Detroit and decisively defeat

5152-455: Is considered a milestone in King's critiques against imperialism and militarism. King, during the year of 1966, publicly declared that it was hypocritical for Black Americans to be fighting in Vietnam since they were being treated as second-class citizens back home. One of his arguments was that many white middle-class men avoided the draft by college deferments, but his greatest defense was that

5336-515: Is important to note that the Doves did not question the intentions of the US in intervening in Vietnam, nor did they question the morality or legality of the US intervention. Instead, they made pragmatic claims that the war was a mistake. Contrarily, the Hawks represented people who argued that the war was legitimate, winnable, and part of US foreign policy. The Hawks claimed that the one-sided criticism of

5520-471: The 25 states but not to territorial governments; Michigan would have been ineligible to receive a share. The war unofficially ended on December 14, 1836, at a second convention in Ann Arbor. Delegates passed a resolution to accept Congress's terms. The calling of the convention was itself controversial. It came about only because of an upswelling of private summonses, petitions, and public meetings. Since

5704-451: The 37th Infantry Brigade Combat Team and the 371st Sustainment Brigade . The 16th Engineer Brigade , a current formation, will have two of its subordinate commands, the 512th and 612th Engineer Battalions, inactivated. Some parts of the 73d Troop Command will also undergo changes. The result, when completed by September 2007, will be an Ohio Army National Guard organized under a Joint Force Headquarters and made up of five major commands:

Ohio Army National Guard - Misplaced Pages Continue

5888-855: The Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA) , the Bay Area Coalition Against the War (BAACAW), and the Asian Americans for Action (AAA) made opposition to the war their main focus. Of these organizations, the Bay Area Coalition Against the War was the biggest and most significant. BAACAW was "highly organized, holding biweekly ninety-minute meetings of the Coordinating Committee at which each regional would submit detailed reports and action plans." The driving force behind its formation

6072-548: The Draft Board in each locality had broad discretion on whom to draft and whom to exempt in cases where there was no clear guideline for exemption. In late July 1965, Johnson doubled the number of young men to be drafted per month from 17,000 to 35,000, and on August 31, 1965, he signed the Draft Card Mutilation Act, making it a crime to knowingly destroy or mutilate a draft card. On October 15, 1965,

6256-602: The Korean War Armistice Agreement of 1953, the Ohio Guard's focus returned to its state mission and reorganization in accordance with federal mandates. Significant challenges were met by the continuing changes and advances in technology which required a flexible and better educated force. World events also continued to impact the Ohio Guard. The Berlin Crisis of 1961 resulted in the mobilization of ten Ohio Air and Army National Guard units to help counter

6440-547: The Ohio Territory by the United States was contested by the region's native inhabitants. A confederation of Indian tribes with British backing engaged in a campaign of raids and depredations upon the scattered settlements, resulting in full-scale war by the 1790s. The disastrous campaigns led by Generals Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair only intensified Indian resistance to white migration, and threatened

6624-600: The Third U.S. Brigade to head the state militia, with the instructions to be ready to act against Ohio trespassers. Lucas obtained legislative approval for a militia of his own, and he soon sent forces to the Strip area. The Toledo War had begun. Former United States President John Quincy Adams , who at the time represented Massachusetts in Congress, backed Michigan's claim. In 1833, when Congress rejected Michigan's request for

6808-503: The free speech movement and the civil rights movement . The military draft mobilized the baby-boomers , who were most at risk of being drafted, but the opposition grew to include a varied cross-section of Americans. The growing opposition to the Vietnam War was partly attributed to greater access to uncensored information through extensive television coverage on the ground in Vietnam. Anti-War protesters primarily made moral arguments against US involvement in Vietnam. In May 1954, preceding

6992-698: The "most northerly cape of the Miami [Maumee] Bay". This provision would guarantee that most of the Maumee River watershed and the southern shore of Lake Erie west of Pennsylvania would fall in Ohio. The draft constitution with this proviso was accepted by the United States Congress, but before Ohio's admission to the Union in February 1803, the proposed constitution was referred to a Congressional committee . The committee's report stated that

7176-526: The 137 AGAD, until 1 April 1963, and then transferred to the 371 AGAD, 1 April 1963, to 1 February 1972. With the escalation of the Vietnam War , the Ohio Guard was again called upon to engage in combat upon foreign shores. Both the Ohio Army and Air National Guards deployed units to Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. The mission to support state authorities still continued during this time with

7360-405: The 137th Air Defense Artillery Regiment was part of the force. The Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 371st Antiaircraft Artillery Group, was consolidated on 1 September 1959 with the 103d Antiaircraft Artillery Detachment as the 371st Artillery Group. 2d and 3d Battalions, 137th ADA Regiment (2-137 & 3-137) served with 371 AGAD from 1 September 1959 to 1 February 1968, which 1-137 served with

7544-425: The 1840s led to a mining boom that lasted long into the 20th century. Michigan's loss of 1,100 square miles (2,800 km ) of agricultural land and the port of Toledo was offset by the gain of 9,000 square miles (23,000 km ) of timber and ore-rich land. Differences of opinion about the exact boundary location continued until a definitive re-survey was performed in 1915. Re-survey protocol ordinarily required

Ohio Army National Guard - Misplaced Pages Continue

7728-578: The 1960s began. By the middle of the decade, open condemnation of the war became more common, with figures like Malcolm X and Bob Moses speaking out. Champion boxer Muhammad Ali risked his career and a prison sentence to resist the draft in 1966. Soon, Martin Luther King Jr. , Coretta Scott King , and James Bevel of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) became prominent opponents of

7912-402: The 1st Battalion, 145th Armor and the 2d Squadron, 107th Cavalry belong to the 174th Air Defense Artillery Brigade for day-to-day command and control purposes. In addition, there are elements of the 137th Aviation Regiment in the state, previously part of the 18th Aviation Brigade before it was inactivated. Additional changes will occur with the subsidiary units of the 73d Troop Command. As

8096-468: The 29%) were chosen for conscription to serve in the war, as opposed to only 31% of eligible white men. On October 16, 1967, draft card turn-ins were held across the country, yielding more than 1,000 draft cards, later returned to the Justice Department as an act of civil disobedience . Resisters expected to be prosecuted immediately, but Attorney General Ramsey Clark chose to prosecute

8280-425: The 37th Brigade Combat Team, 73rd Troop Command, 16th Engineer Brigade, 416th Engineer group, 145th Regiment (Regional Training Institute), 196th Mobile Public Affairs Detachment , 112th Engineer Battalion, 216th Engineer Battalion, 731st Transportation Battalion in response to Hurricane Katrina . The Ohio National Guard sent 1,500 troops to Louisiana and Mississippi to haul relief supplies such as food, water and ice;

8464-550: The 37th Infantry BCT, the 16th Engineer Brigade, the 174th Air Defense Artillery Brigade , the 73d Joint Task Force, and the 371st Sustainment Brigade. All of this will occur with minimal changes in the end strength of the OHARNG at 10,300 Soldiers. The 37th Infantry BCT will be one of 34 combat brigades in the Army National Guard. Its core is two infantry battalions and a fires battalion: Remaining combat units in

8648-516: The 3rd Marine Division and others. March 1944 saw a ferocious attack by Japanese forces against the division at Bougainville, one which the stretched and weakened division fought off. January 1945 saw the division go ashore in Luzon as part of the XIV Corps , and by February it had liberated Manila. The Buckeye Division produced seven Medal of Honor recipients during World War II. MG Beightler led

8832-478: The 73d Brigade was released from assignment to the 38th ID in 1977 and was redesignated the 73d Infantry Brigade, a separate brigade. During the draw down of forces after the Cold War, units of the 73rd and the 107th Armored Cavalry Regiment consolidated to form the 37th Brigade, 28th Infantry Division. A year later, the brigade was reunited with the 38th Infantry Division. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990,

9016-511: The American embassy in Saigon as a sign of US military vulnerability. The military victories on the battlefields of Tet were overshadowed by shocking images of violence on television screens, extensive casualty lists, and a new perception among the American people that the military had been less than truthful about the success of earlier military operations, and, ultimately, the ability to achieve

9200-480: The American opposition to the war was the perception that US justification for intervention in Vietnam (i.e. the domino theory and the threat of communism ) was not legally justifiable. Some Americans believed that the communist threat was used to hide imperialistic intentions. Others argued that the American intervention in South Vietnam interfered with the self-determination of the country, expressing that

9384-629: The Balkans to provide peacekeeping support in war–torn Bosnia and Kosovo. Units of the Ohio Guard continued to take a role in providing humanitarian assistance in impoverished areas of Central America. Engineering, transportation and medical detachments provided medical care as well as building roads, wells, bridges, schools and other infrastructure. On the domestic front the Ohio Guard fulfilled its role in assisting civilian authorities in maintaining order in extraordinary circumstances. A significant number of Ohio Guardsmen were activated in 1993 to help quell

SECTION 50

#1732772418578

9568-548: The Berkeley Draft Board and forty students staged the first public Draft-card burning in the United States. Another 19 cards were burned on May 22, 1965, at a demonstration following the Berkeley teach-in . Draft card protests were primarily aimed at the immoral conduct of the war, rather than the draft itself. At that time, only a fraction of all men of draft-able age were actually being conscripted , but

9752-574: The Bombing of Asian People and Stop Killing Our Asian Brothers and Sisters." Its newsletter stated, "our goal is to build a solid, broad-based anti-imperialist movement of Asian people against the war in Vietnam." The anti-war sentiment of Asian Americans was fueled by the racial inequality that they faced in the United States. As historian Daryl Maeda notes, "the anti-war movement articulated Asian Americans' racial commonality with Vietnamese people in two distinctly gendered ways: identification based on

9936-562: The British at the Battle of the Thames . After the end of the inconclusive War of 1812, the militia system in Ohio abandoned its regimental formations and reverted to multiple small units representing the various municipalities throughout the rapidly growing state. With the last Indians expelled from the state's borders and peaceful relations along the Canada–US border, there seemed little need for

10120-708: The Buckeye Division throughout the course of the war, the only one of 32 National Guard division commanders to accomplish this. The 37th Infantry Division was reformed in the OH ARNG in 1945–46. During this time period the Air Force also broke off from the Army to become a separate service branch. Within the Ohio Guard this was reflected in the creation of the Ohio Air National Guard . The demobilization from World War II had barely taken place when once again

10304-474: The Governor of each state to appoint an Adjutant General to enact the orders of the Governor, and to supervise unit training and organization. Reflecting the Founding Fathers' distrust of a large standing army, it strictly limited the ability of the militia to serve outside of their state borders. And, it placed effective control with the Governor rather than the federal government. The occupation of

10488-632: The Harris Line. The project proceeded without serious incident until April 26, 1835, when the surveying group was attacked by 50 to 60 members of General Brown's militia in the Battle of Phillips Corners. As the only site of armed conflict, the battle's name is sometimes used as a synonym for the entire Toledo War. Surveyors wrote to Lucas afterward that while observing "the blessings of the Sabbath ", Michigan militia forces advised them to retreat. In

10672-538: The Lake Erie shoreline west of Pennsylvania, and any other new states carved out of the Northwest Territory would have access to only Lakes Michigan, Huron , or Superior . However, the delegates allegedly received reports from a fur trapper that Lake Michigan extended significantly farther south than had previously been believed (or mapped). Thus, it was possible that an east–west line extending east from Lake Michigan's southern tip might intersect Lake Erie somewhere southeast of Maumee Bay , or worse, might not intersect

10856-415: The Liberation of Vietnam . They intended to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupted the meeting, with 50 individuals being arrested. In February 1967, The New York Review of Books published " The Responsibility of Intellectuals ," an essay by Noam Chomsky , a leading intellectual opponent of the war. In the essay, Chomsky argued that much responsibility for

11040-417: The Maumee River was not necessarily well-suited for large ships, but it did provide an easy connection to Indiana's Fort Wayne . At the time, there were plans to connect the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes through a series of canals. One such canal system approved by the Ohio legislature in 1825 was the Miami and Erie Canal that included a connection to the Ohio River and an outflow into Lake Erie via

11224-434: The Maumee River. During the conflict over the Toledo Strip, the Erie Canal was built, linking New York City and the Eastern seaboard to the Great Lakes at Buffalo . The canal finished in 1825, and immediately became a major route for trade and migration. Corn and other farm products (from the Midwest) could be shipped to eastern markets for much less expense than the older route along the Mississippi River. In addition,

SECTION 60

#1732772418578

11408-454: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) disallowed him. The "Beyond Vietnam" speech involved King in a debate with the diplomat Ralph Bunche who argued that it was folly to associate the civil rights movement with the anti-Vietnam war movement, maintaining that this would set back civil rights for African Americans. This speech also showed how bold King could be when he condemned US "aggression" in Vietnam, and this

11592-450: The National Guard under federal control in October 1940, the Buckeye Division was among their ranks. Notably, Company C, 192nd Tank Battalion , from Camp Perry, Ohio, joined a provisional unit sent to the Philippines to bolster the active duty and Filipino forces there. When the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 brought the country into a declared war, the Ohio tankers found themselves under attack as Japanese forces landed in

11776-458: The Ohio Guard playing a key role in quelling a full-scale riot at the Ohio Penitentiary in 1968 and in helping to curb the violence associated with the trucker's strike in 1970. It was subsequent to this latter event that the Ohio Guard was involved in one of the most unfortunate events in its long history, the Kent State shootings of May 4, 1970. Called to the campus Kent State University to quell demonstrations and anti-war protests, members of

11960-486: The Ohio Guard was an essential asset in situations other than war. Like the rest of the nation, labor unrest started to spread in the latter part of the century resulting in violent strikes and crippling shutdowns, especially in the railroad industry. Ohio Governors repeatedly called upon Ohio Guardsmen to keep the peace. In numerous situations the Guard's intervention resulted in the immediate restoration of peace and order and succeeded in keeping violence and property damage to

12144-438: The Ohio Guardsmen were defiantly a significant part of the battle. With the end of the Civil War, the Ohio National Guard was rapidly demobilized and its extensive inventory placed into mothballs maintained by a few non-commissioned officers. From a war-time strength in excess of 50,000, by 1870 the Ohio National Guard had been allowed to dwindle to fewer than 500 officers and enlisted men. Yet Ohio officials soon rediscovered that

12328-422: The Ohio National Guard provided numerous transportation, logistical and other combat support units to assist in Operation Desert Storm. Additionally, numerous individual Ohio Guardsmen with specialty skills volunteered and served in Operation Desert Storm. Although active hostilities ceased in February 1991 after a lightning campaign, the continuing presence of Saddam Hussein required continued military presence in

12512-403: The Ohio National Guard was mobilized for the Korean War . As part of the mobilization of National Guard divisions across the country, in 1952 the Buckeye Division activated to serve as a training division at then- Camp Polk , Louisiana. While no major Ohio Guard units were deployed as units to Korea during hostilities, National Guard units from Ohio were sent to Korea where individual soldiers from

12696-416: The Persian Gulf region. The Ohio Guard continued in its role as key player as its Air National Guard units were routinely deployed to enforce the no-fly zones over Iraq as part of Operation Northern Watch. Other Ohio Guard units were periodically deployed to the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to engage in joint desert warfare training. Ohio Guardsmen also saw overseas service in a demanding environment when deployed to

12880-525: The Philippines within days. As the remnant defenders withdrew to Bataan, the 192nd disintegrated as a unit, its members eventually captured along with the others in 1942. These Ohioans, who had fought from the very beginning of the war, remained as prisoners for the duration. The Buckeye Division participated in the Pacific theater of the war, serving in the Northern Solomons and Luzon (Philippines) campaigns. Entering combat in June 1943, they fought at New Georgia and Bougainville (in November 1943) alongside

13064-404: The Quaker protests but just after the defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu , the Service Committee bought a page in The New York Times to protest what seemed to be the tendency of the US to step into Indochina as France was stepping out. The moral imperative argument against the war was especially popular among American college students, who were more likely than the general public to accuse

13248-621: The Senate gallery. On June 15, 1836, Jackson signed a bill that allowed Michigan to become a state, but only after it ceded the Toledo Strip. In exchange for this concession, Michigan would be granted the western three-quarters of what is now known as the Upper Peninsula (the easternmost portion had already been included in the state boundaries). Because of the perceived worthlessness of the Upper Peninsula's remote wilderness, which

13432-1016: The South Vietnamese government needed a solid base of popular support if it were to survive the insurgency. To pursue this goal of winning the " Hearts and Minds " of the Vietnamese people, units of the United States Army , referred to as " Civil Affairs " units, were used extensively for the first time since World War II . Civil Affairs units, while remaining armed and under direct military control, engaged in what came to be known as " nation-building ": constructing (or reconstructing) schools, public buildings, roads, and other infrastructure ; conducting medical programs for civilians who had no access to medical facilities; facilitating cooperation among local civilian leaders; conducting hygiene and other training for civilians; and engaging in similar activities. This policy of attempting to win

13616-589: The Soviet threat. It was during this period that the Ohio Guard's units switched over to the next United States Army division structure, the Reorganisation Objective Army Division (ROAD) structure. Most notable among these changes was the deactivation of the storied 37th "Buckeye" Division on February 15, 1968. Much of the former division's units became part of the 73d Infantry Brigade, 38th Infantry Division . From 1959 to 1968,

13800-472: The State of Ohio have also been realigned. The 1st Battalion, 107th Cavalry , along with one company from the 148th Infantry and one company from the 112th Engineer Battalion, transformed into the 1st Battalion, 145th Armor Regiment and, together with the 2d Squadron, 107th Cavalry , were briefly elements of the 2d Brigade Combat Team, 28th Infantry Division , Pennsylvania Army National Guard . Currently, both

13984-449: The Strip west of the Toledo area is good for agriculture , because of its well-drained, fertile loam soil. The area had for many years produced large amounts of corn and wheat per acre. Michigan and Ohio both wanted what seemed strategically and economically destined to become an important port and prosperous farmland. In 1820–21, the federal land surveys had reached the disputed area from two directions, progressing southward from

14168-430: The Strip. The county in which Toledo sat would, later in 1835, be named after incumbent Governor Robert Lucas , a move that further exacerbated the growing tensions with Michigan. Also, during this period, Ohio attempted to use its power in Congress to revive a previously rejected boundary bill that would formally set the state border to be the Harris Line. Michigan, led by the young and hot-headed Mason, responded with

14352-497: The Toledo Strip as part of Ohio. However, Butler held that until Congress dictated otherwise, the land rightfully belonged to Michigan. This presented a political dilemma for Jackson that spurred him to take action that would greatly influence the outcome. On April 3, 1835, Jackson sent two representatives from Washington, D.C. – Richard Rush of Pennsylvania and Benjamin Chew Howard of Maryland – to Toledo to arbitrate

14536-648: The U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War began in 1965 with demonstrations against the escalating role of the United States in the war . Over the next several years, these demonstrations grew into a social movement which was incorporated into the broader counterculture of the 1960s . Members of the peace movement within the United States at first consisted of many students, mothers, and anti-establishment youth. Opposition grew with

14720-483: The Union, and Jackson vowed to reject Michigan's statehood until the border issue and war were resolved. Lucas ordered his adjutant general , Samuel C. Andrews, to conduct a count of the militia, and was told that 10,000 volunteers were ready to fight. That news became exaggerated as it traveled north, and soon thereafter the Michigan territorial press dared the Ohio "million" to enter the Strip as they "welcomed them to hospitable graves". In June 1835, Lucas dispatched

14904-582: The United States joined the war in April 1917, the manpower requirements for a modern field army were so great that only with a draft could the ranks be filled. Congress passed the Selective Service Act, which decentralized the selection to local draft boards within each state. With this massive mobilization the strength of the Ohio National Guard expanded and was eventually organized into the 37th Division. To preserve its Ohio identity, they adopted

15088-549: The United States of having imperialistic goals in Vietnam and to criticize the war as "immoral." Civilian deaths, which had been downplayed or omitted entirely by the Western media, became a subject of protest when photographic evidence of casualties emerged. The infamous photo of General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan shooting a Viet Cong captain in handcuffs during the Tet Offensive also provoked public outcry. Another element of

15272-523: The United States was to avoid the conflict and maintain a stance of neutrality. As hostilities between the great European powers bogged down into a bloody stalemate, each side sought an edge to break the deadlock. For Germany, it was unrestricted submarine warfare. While this assisted in slowing down trade and supplies between the Allies and the United States, the result was to propel the United States into war as American merchant ships began to be targeted. After

15456-559: The Vietnam War, and Bevel became the director of the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam . The Black Panther Party vehemently opposed US involvement in Vietnam. At the beginning of the war, some African Americans did not want to join the war opposition movement because of their loyalty to President Johnson for pushing the Civil Rights legislation, but soon the escalating violence of

15640-662: The War . In April 1971, thousands of these veterans converged on the White House in Washington, D.C., and hundreds threw their medals and decorations on the steps of the United States Capitol . By this time, it had also become commonplace for the most radical anti-war demonstrators to prominently display the flag of the Viet Cong "enemy," an act which alienated many who were otherwise morally opposed to

15824-554: The adjoining territory of Michigan over what is now known as the Toledo Strip . Control of the mouth of the Maumee River and the inland shipping opportunities it represented, and the good farmland to the west were seen by both parties as valuable economic assets. Poor geographical understanding of the Great Lakes helped produce conflicting state and federal legislation between 1787 and 1805, and varying interpretations of

16008-545: The almost annual flooding of the Ohio River and the great tornado of 1924 in the Lorain and Sandusky area. Units were again utilized to keep the peace during a series of bitter strikes in the coal-mining region of southeast Ohio. Although initially perceived as being brought in to aid and assist the mine operators, they won begrudging respect for adopting a fair and even-handed approach. Unlike the bloody history associated with

16192-419: The anti-war movement and their creation of new opposition groups. Many artists during the 1960s and 1970s opposed the war and used their creativity and careers to oppose the war visibly. Writers and poets who were opposed to involvement in the war included Allen Ginsberg , Denise Levertov , Robert Duncan , and Robert Bly . Artists often incorporated imagery based on the tragic events of the war, as well as on

16376-590: The antiquated militia laws and effectively converted the various volunteer militias into the National Guard as we know it today. Under the Dick Act Guard units received increased federal funding and equipment. In return each state National Guard was required to conform to federal standards for training and organization. Rather than the periodic muster, each unit was expected to muster for a set number of monthly drills and an extended summer camp. Also, for

16560-448: The area, and a budget of $ 300,000 ($ 9.4 million in 2023 ) to implement the legislation. Michigan's territorial legislature responded with a budget appropriation of $ 315,000 to fund its militia. In May and June, Michigan drafted a state constitution , with provisions for a bicameral legislature, a supreme court , and other components of a functional state government. Congress was still not willing to allow Michigan's entry into

16744-645: The area. The Toledo Strip was and still is a commercially important area. Prior to the rise of the railroad industry, rivers and canals were the major "highways of commerce" in the American Midwest. A small but important part of the Strip—the area around present-day Toledo and Maumee Bay—fell within the Great Black Swamp , and this area was nearly impossible to navigate by road, especially after spring and summer rains. Draining into Lake Erie,

16928-438: The arms race and the Vietnam War were taking much-needed resources away from the civil rights movement and the War on Poverty . To combat these issues, King rallied the poor working class in hopes that the federal government would redirect resources toward fighting the War on Poverty. To emphasize his point, King would use the statistic that the US government had underestimated the cost of the 1967 war budget by $ 10 billion, which

17112-617: The attacks of September 11, numerous units from the Army Guard supplemented by security police units of the Air Guard were mobilized on short notice in the following days and executed critical security missions at various locations for extended periods of time. Other communications and engineering units deployed to the Persian Gulf area and Afghanistan in support of the war on terrorism. In 2005, The Ohio Army National Guard deployed

17296-446: The banner of "Self-determination for Black America and Vietnam," while whites marched under banners that said, "Support Our GIs, Bring Them Home Now!". Within these groups, however, many African American women were seen as subordinate members by black male leaders. Many African American women viewed the war in Vietnam as racially motivated and sympathized strongly with Vietnamese women. Such concerns often propelled their participation in

17480-557: The border. On July 15, Monroe County, Michigan, Deputy Sheriff Joseph Wood went into Toledo to arrest Major Benjamin Stickney, but when Stickney and his family resisted, the whole family was subdued and taken into custody. During the scuffle, the major's son Two Stickney stabbed Wood with a penknife and fled into Ohio. Wood's injuries were not life-threatening. When Lucas refused Mason's demand to extradite Two Stickney to Michigan for trial, Mason wrote to Jackson for help, suggesting that

17664-414: The bordering countries would be sure to fall as well like dominoes. This theory was largely held due to the fall of Eastern Europe to communism and the Soviet sphere of influence following World War II. However, military critics of the war pointed out that the Vietnam War was political, and that the military mission lacked any clear idea of how to achieve its objectives. Civilian critics of the war argued that

17848-453: The city of Toledo proper with around 1,000 armed men, intending to prevent Ohio advances into the Toledo area as well as stopping further border marking from taking place. In a desperate attempt to prevent armed battle and to avert the resulting political crisis, U.S. President Andrew Jackson consulted his Attorney General , Benjamin Butler , for his legal opinion on the border dispute. At

18032-593: The clause defining the northern boundary depended on "a fact not yet ascertained" (the latitude of the southern extreme of Lake Michigan), and the members "thought it unnecessary to take it [the provision], at the time, into consideration." When Congress created the Michigan Territory in 1805, it used the Northwest Ordinance's language to define the territory's southern boundary, disregarding that provision in Ohio's state constitution. This difference, and its potential ramifications, apparently went unnoticed at

18216-449: The conflict and present a compromise to both governments. The proposal, presented on April 7, recommended that a re-survey to mark the Harris Line commence without further interruption by Michigan, and that the residents of the affected region be allowed to choose their own state or territorial governments until Congress could definitively settle the matter. Lucas reluctantly agreed to the proposal and began to disband his militia, believing

18400-668: The deadly prison riots at the Lucasville Correctional Facility . Personnel from the Ohio Guard also provided crucial advice and stood by to provide law enforcement support during rioting in Cincinnati and civic unrest surrounding the operation of a toxic waste incinerator plant near East Liverpool . Disaster relief also continued to be a priority mission with service during the Shadyside floods , tornadoes, snow emergencies and Ohio River flooding. After

18584-470: The debate to be settled. Three days later, elections in the region were held under Ohio law. Mason refused the deal and continued to prepare for possible armed conflict. During the elections, Ohio officials were harassed by Michigan authorities, and the area residents were threatened with arrest if they submitted to Ohio's authority. On April 8, 1835, the Monroe County, Michigan sheriff arrived at

18768-501: The demonstration of October 15, making it the largest protest in a single day at that point in history. A second round of "Moratorium" demonstrations was held on November 15 and attracted more people than the first. Over half a million people rallied in Washington, D.C., while about 250,000 rallied in San Francisco. The Washington demonstration was preceded by the "March against Death" on November 13 and 14. The US realized that

18952-472: The desert regions of the southwest also served as a confidence builder for the units and their active duty counterparts. The errors and problems of the 1916 mobilization also proved to be excellent teaching tools that were to pay dividends when the entire Ohio Guard was to be mobilized by President Woodrow Wilson a scant 10 months later in April 1917 As war had broken out in Europe in 1914, the original intent of

19136-480: The disparity between life in Vietnam and life in the United States. Visual artists such as Ronald Haeberle , Peter Saul , Leon Golub , Nancy Spero , among many others, created anti-war works. According to art historian Matthew Israel's book Kill for Peace: American Artists Against the Vietnam War , "significant examples of this politically engaged production...encompassed painting, sculpture, performance, installation, posters, short films, and comics—and... ranged from

19320-565: The engineering units cleared debris and helped to open roads. 25 Ohio National Guard soldiers were among the 1,500 troops that were deployed to Middle East amid tensions with Iran . The Ohio troops were stationed in Kuwait . As of late 2006, the Ohio Army National Guard began a process of transformation in line with the overall transformation of all active and National Guard units. Ohio will activate two new modular units,

19504-437: The ensuing chase, "nine of our men, who did not leave the ground in time after being fired upon by the enemy, from thirty to fifty shots, were taken prisoners and carried away into Tecumseh , Michigan." While the details of the attack are disputed—Michigan claimed it fired no shots, only discharging a few musket rounds in the air as the Ohio group retreated—the battle further infuriated both Ohioans and Michiganders and brought

19688-404: The establishment of a draft lottery in 1970, where a young man's birthday determined his relative risk of being drafted. For the year 1970, September 14 was the birthday at the top of the draft list, while the following year, July 9 held this distinction. Despite popular anti-war speculation that most American soldiers (especially those killed) were draftees, this was discredited in later years, as

19872-554: The existence of white Ohio settlements. The decisive victory of General "Mad" Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794), outside of present-day Toledo and the subsequent Treaty of Greenville (1795). And so removed the combined British-Indian military threat to Ohio settlers for the time being. While only limited numbers of Ohio militia played a part in these campaigns, the local militia units formed an important bulwark defending their local communities against potential attack. After achieving statehood in 1803 Ohio continued

20056-416: The experiences of male soldiers and identification by women." Asian American soldiers in the US military were many times classified as being like the enemy. They were referred to as gooks and their identity was racialized in comparison to their non-Asian counterparts. There was also the hyper sexualization of Vietnamese women, which in turn affected how Asian American women in the military were treated. "In

20240-431: The fact, claimed that Lém was captured near the site of a ditch holding as many as thirty-four bound and executed bodies of police and their relatives, including some who were the families of General Loan's deputy and close friend. The execution created an iconic image that influenced public opinion in the United States against the war. The events of Tet in early 1968 as a whole significantly altered public opinion regarding

20424-429: The facts." For the first time in American history, the media had the means to broadcast battlefield images. Graphic footage of casualties on the nightly news eliminated any myth of the glory of war. With no clear sign of victory in Vietnam, American military casualties helped stimulate opposition to the war by Americans. In their book Manufacturing Consent , Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky rejected this view of how

20608-630: The first major civil rights group to issue a formal statement against the war. When SNCC-backed Georgia Representative Julian Bond acknowledged his agreement with the anti-war statement, he was refused his seat by the State of Georgia, an injustice which he successfully appealed up to the Supreme Court. SNCC had special significance as a nexus between the student movement and the black movement. At an SDS-organized conference at UC Berkeley in October 1966, SNCC Chair Stokely Carmichael challenged

20792-682: The first time state Adjutant Generals had a formal relationship with the War Department. These common sense reforms were to pay their first dividends in 1916 when Ohio National Guard units were mobilized to serve as part of Gen. John Pershing 's punitive expedition against Pancho Villa along the Mexican Border. Although the expedition failed to capture or dispatch the notorious Villa and his army of bandits, valuable lessons were learned in combined operations and mobile warfare. The relatively speedy and seamless mobilization and deployment to

20976-571: The first time titled "National Guard.". During the war the Ohio National Guard served in a variety of roles, providing not only guards at the Camp Chase and Johnson Island POW camps, but serving in a number of combat situations. During the September 1862 Confederate incursion into southeast Ohio and Morgan's Raid in July 1863, Ohio guardsmen were actively involved. While subjected to ridicule as

21160-469: The front lines in Cuba. Due to the rapid American success, the war ended prior to any of these units actually being deployed in a combat situation. The Spanish–American War thrust the United States into the role of a world power and both military and civilian leaders recognized that it was necessary to maintain a uniformly trained and armed military force. This reflected the slow evolution of the Ohio militia into

21344-467: The government of South Vietnam lacked political legitimacy or that support for the war was completely immoral. The media also played a substantial role in the polarization of American opinion regarding the Vietnam War. In 1965, the majority of media attention was focused on military tactics with very little discussion about the necessity of a full-scale intervention in Southeast Asia. After 1965,

21528-486: The guard — in what was recently described as "one of America's most horrific campus tragedies" — killed four unarmed students and wounded several more, garnering severely negative international attention and criticism, especially as some of the victims were simply passersby. After the United States withdrew from Vietnam, the Ohio Guard, like the rest of the military, was faced by the challenges of significantly decreased funding and adapting to new missions. Increasing attention

21712-462: The hearts and minds of the Vietnamese people, however, often was at odds with other aspects of the war, which sometimes served to antagonize many Vietnamese civilians and provided ammunition to the anti-war movement. These included the emphasis on " body count " as a way of measuring military success on the battlefield, civilian casualties during the bombing of villages (symbolized by journalist Peter Arnett 's famous quote, "it became necessary to destroy

21896-451: The home of Major Benjamin F. Stickney, an Ohio partisan . In the first contact between Michigan partisans and the Stickney family, the sheriff arrested two Ohioans under the Pains and Penalties Act on the basis that the men had voted in the Ohio elections. After the election, Lucas believed that the commissioners' actions had alleviated the situation and once again sent out surveyors to mark

22080-611: The initial settlement at Marietta, Ohio , in July 1788. Rooted in the English and early colonial tradition of citizen-soldiers providing local protection and law enforcement. These American Revolutionary War veterans and their families quickly organized into local militia units. The federal government passed the Militia Act of 1792 , which required all able bodied men ages 18 to 45 to serve in their local militia units, and provide their own weapons and equipment. It further authorized

22264-498: The issue sold out, with many individuals being haunted by the photographs of the ordinary young Americans killed. On October 15, 1969, hundreds of thousands of people took part in National Moratorium anti-war demonstrations across the United States. The demonstrations prompted many workers to call in sick from their jobs and adolescents nationwide engaged in truancy from school. About 15 million Americans took part in

22448-435: The lake at all; the farther south that Lake Michigan actually extended, the more land Ohio would lose, conceivably even the entire Lake Erie shoreline west of Pennsylvania. Addressing this contingency, the Ohio delegates included a provision in the draft Ohio constitution that if this report about Lake Michigan's position was correct, the state boundary line would be angled slightly northeast so as to intersect Lake Erie at

22632-645: The large majority of these soldiers were confirmed to be volunteers. On February 1, 1968, Nguyễn Văn Lém a Viet Cong officer suspected of participating in the murder of South Vietnamese government officials during the Tet Offensive , was summarily executed by General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan , the South Vietnamese National Police Chief. Loan shot Lém in the head on a public street in Saigon , despite being in front of journalists. South Vietnamese reports, provided as justification after

22816-443: The law creating a body of "state troops" and each significant village or county providing its own local unit. The military readiness of these local militia units varied greatly as did their uniform and armament. The monthly militia muster was supposed to train the members in close order drill and marksmanship, but in many cases was more of a social and political event. Moreover, each unit was responsible for electing its own officers with

23000-532: The laws led the governments of Ohio and Michigan to both claim jurisdiction over a 468-square-mile (1,210 km ) region along their border. The situation came to a head when Michigan petitioned for statehood in 1835 and sought to include the disputed territory within its boundaries. Both sides passed legislation attempting to force the other side's capitulation, and Ohio's Governor Robert Lucas and Michigan's 24-year-old "Boy Governor" Stevens T. Mason helped institute criminal penalties for residents submitting to

23184-495: The legislature did not approve a call to convention, some said the convention was illegal. Whigs boycotted the convention. As a consequence, the resolution was ridiculed by many Michigan residents. Congress questioned the convention's legality, but accepted its results. Because of these factors, as well as a notable cold spell, the event became known as the Frostbitten Convention. On January 26, 1837, Michigan

23368-442: The line, forcing traffic to jog east while traveling north. The line is identified on United States Geological Survey topographical maps as the "South [Boundary] Michigan Survey", and on Lucas County and Fulton County road maps as "Old State Line Road". While the land border was firmly set in the early 20th century, the two states still disagreed on the path of the border to the east, in Lake Erie. In 1973, they finally obtained

23552-724: The matter be referred to the United States Supreme Court . At the time of the conflict it was not established that the Supreme Court could resolve state boundary disputes, and Jackson declined the request. Looking for peace, Lucas began making his own efforts to end the conflict, again through federal intervention via Ohio's congressional delegation. In August 1835, at the strong urging of Ohio's members of Congress, Jackson removed Mason as Michigan's territorial governor and appointed John S. ("Little Jack") Horner in his stead. Before his replacement arrived, Mason ordered 1,000 Michigan militiamen to enter Toledo and prevent

23736-413: The media contributed to the decline of public support for the war and ultimately caused the US to lose the war. Conservative author William F. Buckley repeatedly wrote about his approval of the war and suggested, "[t]he United States has been timid, if not cowardly, in refusing to seek 'victory' in Vietnam." The Hawks claimed that liberal media was responsible for the growing popular disenchantment with

23920-492: The media covered the dissent and domestic controversy that existed within the United States, but mostly excluded the expressed views of dissidents and resisters. The media established a sphere of public discourse around the Hawk versus Dove debate. The Doves were people who had liberal views and were critics of the war. Doves claimed that the war was well-intended, but a disastrous mistake in an otherwise benign foreign policy. It

24104-455: The media influenced the war, on the basis that in their view that the media instead censored the more brutal images of the fighting and the death of millions of innocent people. If America's soul becomes totally poisoned, part of the autopsy must read "Vietnam." The US became polarized over the war. Many supporters of US involvement argued for what was known as the domino theory , a theory that stated that if one country fell to communism , then

24288-526: The migration of settlers to the Midwest increased sharply after the canal was finished, turning Buffalo and other port cities into boomtowns . The success of the Erie Canal inspired many other canal projects. Because the western end of Lake Erie offered the shortest overland route to the frontiers of Indiana and Illinois , Maumee Harbor was seen as a site of immediate importance and great value. Detroit

24472-435: The minimum population threshold of 60,000 to qualify for statehood. When it sought to hold a state constitutional convention in 1833, Congress rejected the request because of the still-disputed Toledo Strip. Ohio asserted that the boundary was firmly established in its constitution and thus Michigan's citizens were simply intruders; the state government refused to negotiate the issue with them. The Ohio Congressional delegation

24656-489: The more common and most visible way of opposing the war. Many Asian Americans were strongly opposed to the Vietnam War. They saw the war as being a significant action of US imperialism and "connected the oppression of the Asians in the United States to the prosecution of the war in Vietnam." Unlike many Americans in the anti-war movement, they viewed the war "not just as imperialist but specifically as anti-Asian." Groups like

24840-432: The most 'representational' to the most 'abstract' forms of expression." Filmmakers such as Lenny Lipton , Jerry Abrams, Peter Gessner, and David Ringo created documentary-style movies featuring footage from the anti-war marches to raise awareness about the war and the diverse opposition movement. Playwrights like Frank O'Hara , Sam Shepard , Robert Lowell , Megan Terry , Grant Duay, and Kenneth Bernard used theater as

25024-537: The mouth of the Maumee River. The region between the Harris and Fulton survey lines formed what is now known as the "Toledo Strip". This ribbon of land between northern Ohio and southern Michigan spanned a region five to eight miles (8 to 13 km) wide, over which both jurisdictions claimed sovereignty. While Ohio refused to cede its claim, Michigan quietly occupied it for the next several years, setting up local governments, building roads, and collecting taxes throughout

25208-726: The nickname of the "Buckeye" Division. Again under the overall leadership of "Black Jack" Pershing, Ohio Guardsmen were a key component of the American Expeditionary Force sent over to France. Rated by the German General Staff as one of the best six American divisions for combat effectiveness, the "Buckeye" Division proved its worth in numerous battles including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive and the St. Mihiel Salient. This reputation for being

25392-401: The other's authority. Both states deployed militias on opposite sides of the Maumee River near Toledo , but besides mutual taunting, there was little interaction between the two forces. The single military confrontation of the war ended with a report of shots being fired into the air, incurring no casualties. The only blood spilled was the non-fatal stabbing of a law enforcement officer. During

25576-498: The participation of leaders and activists of the civil rights , feminist , and Chicano movements, as well as sectors of organized labor. Additional involvement came from many other groups, including educators, clergy, academics, journalists, lawyers, military veterans , physicians (notably Benjamin Spock ), and others. Anti-war demonstrations consisted mostly of peaceful, nonviolent protests. By 1967, an increasing number of Americans considered military involvement in Vietnam to be

25760-424: The passage of the Pains and Penalties Act just six days after Lucas County was formed; the act made it a criminal offense for Ohioans to carry out governmental actions in the Strip, under penalty of a fine up to $ 1,000 (equivalent to $ 30,000 in 2023), up to five years imprisonment at hard labor , or both. Acting as commander-in-chief of the territory, Mason appointed Brigadier General Joseph W. Brown of

25944-521: The path of Confederate Gen. Jubal Early 's veteran Army of the Valley during its Raid on Washington. These Guard units participated in the battles of Monacacy, Fort Stevens, Maryland Heights, and in the siege of Petersburg. Ohio Guard units helped to blunt the Confederate offensive, thereby saving The District of Columbia from confederate capture. Significant casualties were incurred on all sides, but

26128-557: The population. As a result, black enlisted men protested and began the resistance movement among veterans . After taking measures to reduce the fatalities, apparently in response to widespread protest, the military brought the proportion of blacks down to 12.6 percent of casualties. African Americans involved in the anti-war movement often formed their own groups, such as Black Women Enraged, National Black Anti-War Anti-Draft Union, and National Black Draft Counselors. Some differences in these groups included how Black Americans rallied behind

26312-456: The program's inception, and in September 2006 initiated a second program with Serbia . The purpose of the program is to provide assistance to the host countries in establishing reserve military forces like the National Guard, before transitioning to follow-on programs designed to assist the citizen-soldiers in their non-military lives. The Ohio Army National Guard presently consists of the following major commands or units: Opposition to

26496-437: The race on March 16 and ran for the nomination on an anti-war platform. Johnson's vice president, Hubert Humphrey , also ran for the nomination, promising to continue to support the South Vietnamese government. In May 1969, Life magazine published photographs of the faces of the roughly 250 or so American servicemen who had been killed in Vietnam during a "routine week" of war in the spring of 1969. Contrary to expectations,

26680-619: The same in front of United Nations Headquarters in New York City . Both protests were conscious imitations of earlier (and ongoing) Buddhist protests in South Vietnam. The growing anti-war movement alarmed many in the US government. On August 16, 1966, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) began investigations of Americans who were suspected of aiding the National Front for

26864-627: The student-run National Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam in New York staged the first draft card burning, resulting in an arrest under the new law. Gruesome images of two anti-war activists who set themselves on fire in November 1965 demonstrated how strongly some people felt that the war was immoral. On November 2, 32-year-old Quaker Norman Morrison set himself on fire in front of The Pentagon . On November 9, 22-year-old Catholic Worker Movement member Roger Allen LaPorte did

27048-599: The summer of 1836, the United States Congress proposed a compromise whereby Michigan gave up its claim to the strip in exchange for its statehood and the remaining three-quarters of the Upper Peninsula . Although the northern region's mineral wealth later became an economic asset to Michigan, at the time the compromise was considered a poor deal for the new state, and voters in a statehood convention in September soundly rejected it. In December, facing

27232-401: The surveyors to follow the Harris line exactly, but in this case, the surveyors deviated from it in places. This was done to prevent certain residents near the border from being subject to changes in state residence and land owners from having parcels in both states. The 1915 survey was delineated by 71 granite markers, 12 inches (30 cm) wide by 18 inches (46 cm) high. Upon completion,

27416-516: The symbolically important first session of the Ohio Court of Common Pleas. While the idea was popular with Michigan residents, the effort failed: the judges held a midnight court before quickly retreating south of the Maumee River, where Ohio forces were positioned. Horner proved extremely unpopular as governor and his tenure was very short. Residents disliked him so much they burned him in effigy and pelted him with vegetables upon his entry into

27600-517: The territorial capital. In the October 1835 elections, voters approved the draft constitution and re-elected Mason governor. The same election saw Isaac E. Crary chosen as Michigan's first U.S. Representative to Congress. Because of the dispute, Congress refused to accept his credentials and seated him as a non-voting delegate. The two U.S. Senators chosen by the state legislature in November, Lucius Lyon and John Norvell , were treated with even less respect, being allowed to sit only as spectators in

27784-486: The territory was eventually to be divided into "not less than three nor more than five" future states. One of the boundaries between them was to be "an east and west line drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan ". When Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1802 , which authorized Ohio to begin the process of becoming a U.S. state, the language defining Ohio's northern boundary elaborated on that, but

27968-425: The time, Ohio was a growing political power in the Union, with 19 U.S. representatives and two senators. In contrast, Michigan, still a territory, had only a single non-voting delegate. Ohio was a crucial swing state in presidential elections, and it would have been devastating to the fledgling Democratic Party to lose its electoral votes. Jackson calculated that his party's best interest would be served by keeping

28152-481: The time, but it established the legal basis for the conflict that would erupt 30 years later. The location of the border was contested throughout the early 19th century. Residents of the Port of Miami —which would later become Toledo—urged the Ohio government to resolve the border issue. The Ohio legislature, in turn, passed repeated resolutions and requests asking Congress to take up the matter. In 1812, Congress approved

28336-586: The town to save it"), and the killing of civilians in such incidents as the My Lai massacre . In 1974, the documentary Hearts and Minds sought to portray the devastation the war was causing to the South Vietnamese people and won an Academy Award for Best Documentary amid considerable controversy. The South Vietnamese government also antagonized many of its citizens with the suppression of political opposition through such measures as holding large numbers of political prisoners, torturing political opponents, and holding

28520-418: The two sides to the brink of all-out war . In response to allegations that Michigan's militia fired upon Ohioans, Lucas called a special session of Ohio's legislature on June 8 to pass several more controversial acts, including the establishment of Toledo as the county seat of Lucas County, the establishment of a Court of Common Pleas in the city, a law to prevent the forcible abduction of Ohio citizens from

28704-469: The two states' governors, Woodbridge N. Ferris of Michigan and Frank B. Willis of Ohio, shook hands at the border. Traces of the original Ordinance Line can still be seen in northwestern Ohio and northern Indiana. The northernmost boundaries of Ottawa and Wood counties follow it, as well as many township boundaries in Fulton and Williams counties. Many old north–south roads are offset as they cross

28888-452: The units were then assigned to serve in the regular Army as replacements. On April 22, 1951, the 987th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, a National Guard unit from Stark County, Ohio, was assigned by IX Corps, Eight Army, to provide support to a two-divisional attack "Reconnaissance-in-Force" in the north central part of the Korean peninsula, just below the 38th Longitudinal Parallel. After

29072-422: The use of the National Guard in labor disputes in many other states, the Ohio Guard's non-partisan approach alleviated numerous potentially explosive labor conflicts. As the year 1939 brought yet another world war, the Ohio Guard found itself in a moderate state of readiness and under the leadership of Major General Robert S. Beightler . When President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared a state of emergency and brought

29256-408: The victors often being the most popular or the one best able to furnish a ready supply of sour mash. With the advent of war with Great Britain in 1812, there was renewed interest in beefing up the size and effectiveness of the militia. Ohio Governor Josiah Meigs formed three regiments of Ohio militia in response to the proposed invasion to drive the British, and their Indian allies, from Canada (With

29440-523: The war and blamed Western media for losing the war in Southeast Asia. Early organized opposition was led by American Quakers in the 1950s, and in November 1960, 1,100 Quakers undertook a silent protest vigil. The group "ringed the Pentagon for parts of two days". Protests began bringing attention to the draft on May 5, 1965. Student activists at the University of California, Berkeley marched on

29624-622: The war and the perceived social injustice of the draft propelled involvement in antiwar groups. In March 1965, King first criticized the war during the Selma March when he told a journalist that "millions of dollars can be spent every day to hold troops in South Vietnam and our country cannot protect the rights of Negroes in Selma". In 1965, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) became

29808-487: The war had turned out to be "harder, longer, more complicated" than expected. Donovan ended his editorial by writing that the war was "not worth winning," as South Vietnam was "not absolutely imperative" to maintain American interests in Asia, which made it impossible "to ask young Americans to die for." In 1967, the continued operation of the draft system, then calling for as many as 40,000 men for induction each month, fueled

29992-409: The war in Vietnam was a civil war that ought to have determined the fate of the country. Media coverage of the war also shook citizens at home as the television, which had become common in American homes in the 1950s, brought images of the wartime conflict to viewers in their homes. Newscasters, like NBC's Frank McGee, stated that the war was all but lost as a "conclusion to be drawn inescapably from

30176-521: The war lay with liberal intellectuals and technical experts who were providing, what he saw as, pseudo scientific justification for the policies of the US government. The Time Inc. magazines Time and Life maintained a very pro-war editorial stance until October 1967, when the editor-in-chief Hedley Donovan came out against the war. Donovan wrote in an editorial in Life that the United States had gone into Vietnam for "honorable and sensible purposes", but

30360-406: The war on moral grounds, appalled by the devastation and violence of the war. Others claimed the conflict was a war against Vietnamese independence or an intervention in a foreign civil war ; others opposed it because they felt it lacked clear objectives and appeared to be unwinnable. Many anti-war activists themselves were Vietnam veterans , as evidenced by the organization Vietnam Veterans Against

30544-585: The war. As the Vietnam War continued to escalate, public disenchantment grew, and a variety of different groups were formed or became involved in the movement. African-American leaders of earlier decades, like W. E. B. Du Bois , were often anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist. Paul Robeson weighed in on the Vietnamese struggle in 1954, calling Ho Chi Minh "the modern day Toussaint Louverture , leading his people to freedom." These figures were driven from public life by McCarthyism, however, and black leaders were more cautious about criticizing US foreign policy as

30728-469: The war. US military officials had previously reported successful prosecution of counter-insurgency in South Vietnam. While the Tet Offensive resulted in a significant victory for the US and allied militaries by bringing the Viet Cong into open battle and dismantling them as a fighting force, the American media, including respected figures like Walter Cronkite , interpreted events such as the attack on

30912-572: The wealthy, and the secure, while we create a hell for the poor". King's speech attracted much controversy at the time, with many feeling that it was ungrateful for him to attack the president who had done the most for civil rights for African Americans since Abraham Lincoln had abolished slavery a century before. Liberal newspapers such as the Washington Post and the New York Times condemned King for his "Beyond Vietnam" speech, while

31096-459: The white left to escalate their resistance to the military draft in a manner similar to the black movement. Some participants in ghetto rebellions of the era had already associated their actions with opposition to the Vietnam War, and SNCC first disrupted an Atlanta draft board in August 1966. According to historians Joshua Bloom and Waldo Martin, SDS's first Stop the Draft Week of October 1967

31280-569: Was pulling out of the race on March 31 in a televised speech. He also announced the initiation of the Paris Peace Negotiations with Vietnam in that speech. On August 4, 1969, US representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuan Thuy initiated secret peace negotiations at the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris. After breaking with Johnson's pro-war stance, Robert F. Kennedy entered

31464-405: Was "inspired by Black Power [and] emboldened by the ghetto rebellions." SNCC appears to have originated the popular anti-draft slogan: "Hell no! We won't go!" On April 4, 1967, King gave a much-publicized speech entitled " Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence " at the Riverside Church in New York, attacking President Johnson for "deadly Western arrogance," declaring that "we are on the side of

31648-429: Was 20 miles (32 km) up the Detroit River from Lake Erie, and faced the difficult barrier of the Great Black Swamp to the south. Because of this, Detroit was less suited to new transportation projects such as canals, and later railroads, than was Toledo. From this perspective on the rapidly developing Midwest of the 1820s and 1830s, both states had much to gain by controlling the land in the Toledo Strip. In addition,

31832-575: Was a sense that the objective of preventing a communist takeover of a pro-Western government in South Vietnam was a noble goal. Many Americans were also concerned about maintaining dignity in the event of disengaging from the war or, as President Richard M. Nixon later described it, "achieving Peace with Honor." Additionally, instances of Viet Cong atrocities were widely reported, most notably in an article that appeared in Reader's Digest in 1968 titled The Blood-Red Hands of Ho Chi Minh . However, anti-war feelings also began to rise. Many Americans opposed

32016-430: Was active in blocking Michigan from attaining statehood, lobbying other states to vote against it. In January 1835, frustrated by the political stalemate, Michigan's territorial governor Stevens T. Mason called for a constitutional convention to be held in May of that year, despite Congress' refusal to approve an enabling act authorizing one. In February 1835, Ohio passed legislation that set up county governments in

32200-406: Was admitted to the Union as the 26th state, without the Toledo Strip but with the entire Upper Peninsula. The Toledo strip became a permanent part of Ohio. The Upper Peninsula was considered a worthless wilderness by almost all familiar with the area, valuable only for timber and fur trapping. However, the discovery of copper in the Keweenaw Peninsula and iron in the Central Upper Peninsula in

32384-486: Was anger at "the bombing of Hanoi and the mining of Haiphong Harbor ." The organization supported the Japanese Community Youth Center, members of the Asian Community Center, student leaders of Asian American student unions, and others. The BAACAW members consisted of many Asian Americans, and they were involved in anti-war efforts like marches, study groups, fundraisers, teach-ins , and demonstrations. During marches, Asian American activists carried banners that read "Stop

32568-495: Was directed towards peace-keeping and civic assistance missions. Of particular success were the efforts of the Ohio Guard in saving lives and aiding hard pressed local authorities during the winter blizzards of 1977 and 1978. Also of note was the extensive mission to Honduras which provided considerable infrastructure improvement and medical assistance to an impoverished nation while at the same time providing valuable training experience to Ohio Guard personnel. In organization terms,

32752-432: Was elected President of the United States in 1968 on the platform of ending the Vietnam War and the draft . Nixon began the drawdown of US troops in April 1969. Protests spiked after the announcement of the expansion of the war into Cambodia in April 1970. The Pentagon Papers were published in June 1971. The last draftees reported in late 1972, and the last US combat troops withdrew from Vietnam in March 1973. The draft,

32936-452: Was five times the poverty budget. Black anti-war groups opposed the war for similar reasons as white groups but often protested in separate events and sometimes did not cooperate with the ideas of white anti-war leadership. They harshly criticized the draft because poor and minority men were usually most affected by conscription. In 1965 and 1966, African Americans accounted for 25 percent of combat deaths, more than twice their proportion of

33120-428: Was fundamentally the same: "an east and west line drawn through the southerly extreme of Lake Michigan, running east ... until it shall intersect Lake Erie or the territorial line [with British North America , now Canada], and thence with the same through Lake Erie to the Pennsylvania line aforesaid". The most highly regarded map of the time, the " Mitchell Map ", showed the southerly extreme of Lake Michigan at

33304-461: Was going to require extensive militia involvement. Ohio played a significant role, raising several regiments of infantry and artillery batteries from existing militia units and volunteers. The 1st Ohio Volunteers comprised part of the army under Gen. Zachary Taylor and took part in the battlefield victories of Monterrey and Buena Vista . It was during the great Civil War however, that the Ohio National Guard can directly trace its start. Ohio played

33488-399: Was ill-suited for agriculture, a September 1836 special convention in Ann Arbor rejected the offer. As the year wore on, Michigan found itself deep in financial crisis, nearly bankrupt because of the high militia expenses. The government was spurred to action by the realization that a $ 400,000 surplus ($ 12 million in 2023 ) in the United States Treasury was about to be distributed to

33672-435: Was in charge of the survey, was a former Ohio governor, and employed William Harris to survey not the Ordinance Line, but the line described in the Ohio Constitution of 1802. When completed, the "Harris Line" placed the mouth of the Maumee River completely in Ohio, as intended by the drafters of the state constitution. When the results of the survey were made public, Michigan territorial governor Lewis Cass objected, writing in

33856-457: Was split between the two states. This decision was the last border adjustment, putting an end to years of debate. In modern times, although a general rivalry between Michiganders and Ohioans persists, overt conflict between the states is restricted primarily to the Michigan–Ohio State rivalry in collegiate American football and to a lesser degree to the rivalry between the Detroit Tigers and Cleveland Guardians in American League baseball;

#577422