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50-612: Old Novgorodian is of particular interest in that it has retained some archaic features which were lost in other Slavic dialects, such as the absence of second palatalization . Furthermore, letters provide unique evidence of the Slavic vernacular, as opposed to the Church Slavonic which dominated the written literature of the period. Most of the letters feature informal writing such as personal correspondence, instructions, complaints, news, and reminders. Such widespread usage indicates

100-498: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . Vehicle emissions reach 83% of total emissions from stationary and mobile sources. The volume of emissions of atmospheric pollutants from stationary sources in 2007 amounted to 16.5 thousand tons, including 7.1 thousand tons (43.2%) of carbon monoxide and 2.6 thousand tons (15.8%) of solids. The largest source of air pollution in Pskov is Pskov Poultry Farm LLC (1365.92 tons of pollutants were emitted) and

150-454: A high level of literacy, even among women and children. The preserved notes display the original spelling of the time; unlike some texts, they were not copied, rewritten or edited by later scribes. Today, the study of Novgorodian birch bark letters is an established scholarly field in Russian historical linguistics , with far-ranging historical and archaeological implications for the study of

200-414: A našego solova ne ostavili da bogo vamo radoste mi vašego solova voxi ne osotavimo Translation: Greeting from Gavrila Posenya to my brother-in-law, godfather Grigory, and my sister Ulita. Would you not like to give me the pleasure of riding into the city, not leaving our word? God give you happiness. We all do not leave your word. Slavic second palatalization The Slavic second palatalization

250-473: A nyne mę vŭ tomŭ ęla kŭnęgyni a nyne sę družina po mę poručila a nyne ka posŭli kŭ tomu muževi gramotu e li u nego roba a se ti xoču kone kupivŭ i kŭnęžŭ mužŭ vŭsadivŭ ta na sŭvody a ty atče esi ne vŭzalŭ kunŭ texŭ a ne emli ničŭto že u nego Translation (with added explanations not present in the original text in brackets): Letter from Zhiznomir to Mikula: You have bought a female slave in Pskov . And now

300-463: A peculiar Slavic vernacular , reflecting living speech, and almost entirely free of the heavy Church Slavonic influence seen in the literary language of the period. Some of the observed linguistic features are not found in any other Slavic dialect, representing important Proto-Slavic archaisms. Zaliznyak differentiates the Old Novgorod features that were already known before the discovery of

350-536: Is humid continental ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with maritime influences due to the city's relative proximity to the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland ; with relatively mild (for Russia) but still quite long winter and warm summer. Further west in Europe on the same latitude, winters are quite a bit milder and summer highs a bit cooler. Summer and fall have more precipitation than winter and spring. Pskov

400-405: Is a Proto-Slavic sound change that manifested as a regressive palatalization of inherited Balto-Slavic velar consonants that occurred after the first and before the third Slavic palatalizations. The second palatalization of velars is a direct consequence of the monophthongization of diphthongs , or more precisely, the change *aj > ē. While *kaj, *gaj and *xaj were in accordance with

450-548: Is incorporated as Pskov Urban Okrug . Pskov still preserves much of its medieval walls, built from the 13th century on. Its medieval citadel is called either the Krom or the Kremlin. Within its walls rises the 256-foot-tall (78 m) Trinity Cathedral , founded in 1138 and rebuilt in the 1690s. The cathedral contains the tombs of saint princes Vsevolod (died in 1138) and Dovmont (died in 1299). Other ancient cathedrals adorn

500-855: Is one of the oldest cities in Russia. During the Middle Ages , it served as the capital of the Pskov Republic and was a trading post of the Hanseatic League before it was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow and became an important border fortress in the Tsardom of Russia . Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia. The name of the city, originally Pleskov (historic Russian spelling Плѣсковъ , Plěskov ), may be loosely translated as "[the town] of purling waters". It

550-513: Is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions , it also serves as the administrative center of Pskovsky District , even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the City of Pskov —an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the City of Pskov

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600-565: The Estonian War of Independence when the White Russian commander Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz became the military administrator of Pskov. He personally ceded most of his responsibilities to a democratically elected municipal duma and focused on both cultural and economical recovery of the war-impoverished city. He also put an end to censorship of press and allowed for creation of several socialist associations and newspapers. Under

650-471: The German occupation from 9 July 1941 until 23 July 1944. The Germans operated a forced labour camp for Jewish men and women. In February 1944, thousands of people were killed during Russian bombings of the city. A huge portion of the population died during the war, and Pskov has since struggled to regain its traditional position as a major industrial and cultural center of western Russia. Pskov

700-546: The Great Northern War in the early 18th century spelled the end of Pskov's traditional role as a vital border fortress and a key to Russia's interior. As a consequence, the city's importance and well-being declined dramatically, although it served as a seat of separate Pskov Governorate since 1777. In 1897, the ethnic make-up, by mother tongue, was 80.0% Russian, 5.7% Polish , 4.7% Jewish, 4.3% German, 2.4% Latvian, 2.1% Estonian. During World War I , Pskov became

750-517: The Hanseatic League . Pskov's independence was formally recognized by Novgorod in 1348. Several years later, the veche promulgated a law code (called the Pskov Charter ), which was one of the principal sources of the all-Russian law code issued in 1497. Already in the 13th century German merchants were present in Zapskovye area of Pskov and the Hanseatic League had a trading post in

800-620: The Mirozhsky Monastery (completed by 1152), famous for its 12th-century frescoes , St. John's (completed by 1243), and the Snetogorsky monastery (built in 1310 and stucco-painted in 1313). Pskov is exceedingly rich in tiny, squat, picturesque churches, dating mainly from the 15th and the 16th centuries. There are many dozens of them, the most notable being St. Basil's on the Hill (1413), St. Kozma and Demian's near

850-661: The affrication normally brought on by the second palatalization. Pskov Pskov (Russian: Псков , IPA: [pskof] ; see also names in other languages ) is a city in northwestern Russia and the administrative center of Pskov Oblast , located about 20 kilometers (12 mi) east of the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River . Population: 193,082 ( 2021 Census ) ; 203,279 ( 2010 Census ) ; 202,780 ( 2002 Census ) ; 203,789 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . Pskov

900-497: The 15th century alone. At one point, five stone walls ringed it, making the city practically impregnable. A local school of icon -painting flourished, and the local masons were considered the best in Russia. Many peculiar features of Russian architecture were first introduced in Pskov. Finally, in 1510, the city was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow . Three hundred families were deported from Pskov to central Russia, and merchants and military families from Muscovy were settled in

950-766: The Bridge (1463), St. George's from the Downhill (1494), Assumption from the Ferryside (1444, 1521), and St. Nicholas' from Usokha (1536). The 17th-century residential architecture is represented by merchant mansions , such as the Salt House, the Pogankin Palace, and the Trubinsky mansion. Among the sights in the vicinity of Pskov are Izborsk , a seat of Rurik 's brother in the 9th century and one of

1000-720: The Pskov Heating Networks SE (478.12 tons). All rivers flowing through the territory of the Pskov Oblast, including the city of Pskov, are characterized by increased concentrations of total iron , copper ions, and hardly oxidizable organic compounds in the water. The following indicators characterize air pollution in Pskov: Since the late 1990s, the Clean Water project officially registered by United Russia in 2006 has been implemented. Improving

1050-621: The Russian Middle Ages. The first birch bark letter was found on July 26, 1951, by Nina Fedorovna Akulova. At least 1025 have been unearthed since, 923 in Novgorod alone. Almost all of them were written with styluses of bronze and iron , and never ink . The letters were preserved due to the swampy soil which isolated them from oxygen . Many letters are found buried amidst the layers under streets which were previously paved with logs. The short birch-bark texts are written in

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1100-613: The Soviet government, large parts of the city were rebuilt, many ancient buildings, particularly churches, were demolished to give space for new constructions. During World War II , in June 1940, the Soviet 8th Army invaded Estonia and Latvia from the city. The medieval citadel provided little protection against modern artillery of the Wehrmacht, and Pskov suffered substantial damage during

1150-700: The basis of two instances lacking second palatalization of velars and the ending -e in nominative singular of masculine o-stems, and all the remaining East Slavic dialects on the other. (between end of 11th century and 1110s; excavated 1954) Original text (with added word division): грамота ѡтъ жизномира къ микоуле коупилъ еси робоу плъскове а ныне мѧ въ томъ ѧла кънѧгыни а ныне сѧ дроужина по мѧ пороучила а ныне ка посъли къ томоу моужеви грамотоу е ли оу него роба а се ти хочоу коне коупивъ и кънѧжъ моужъ въсадивъ та на съводы а ты атче еси не възалъ коунъ техъ а не емли ничъто же оу него Transliteration: gramota otŭ žiznomira kŭ mikule kupilŭ esi robu plŭskove

1200-641: The best known lines in the Russian language . The national poet of Russia is buried in the ancient cloister at the Holy Mountains nearby. Unfortunately, the area presently has only a minimal tourist infrastructure , and the historic core of Pskov requires serious investments to realize its great tourist potential. On 7 July 2019, the Churches of the Pskov School of Architecture was inscribed as

1250-418: The birch bark letters and those that have been ascertained after their study during the last few decades such as the following: Features of the Old Novgorod dialect ascertained by the philological study in the last decades are: Often the orthography is domestic (as opposed to bookish), using ъ and о on the one hand and ь and е on the other synonymously (about 50% of birchbark manuscripts from

1300-442: The city. At this time Pskov had at least 6,500 households and a population of more than 30,000; it was one of the three biggest cities of Muscovy, alongside Moscow and Novgorod. The deportation of noble families to Moscow under Ivan IV in 1570 is a subject of Rimsky-Korsakov 's opera Pskovityanka (1872). Pskov still attracted enemy armies and it withstood a prolonged siege by a 50,000-strong Polish-Lithuanian army during

1350-568: The development was convergent rather than divergent, with regard to other northern East Slavic dialects . According to Zaliznyak, the discovery of Old Novgorod dialect suggests that earlier conceptions which held East Slavic as a relatively homogeneous linguistic grouping, have been dispelled by a view advancing it instead as an area of much greater dialectal diversity. Zaliznyak divides the East Slavic area into two dialectal groupings: Proto-Novgorodian-Pskovian on one side, singled out chiefly on

1400-453: The environments in which it operated varied. In Russian, Slovak and (in nouns) Slovene, the results of the second palatalization were later removed at morpheme boundaries (i.e. before inflectional endings) due to paradigmatic leveling by analogy. In Ukrainian and Belarusian, however, the effects of second palatalization are still evident in such cases. Compare: For Northwest Russian varieties ( Novgorod , Pskov ), according to Zaliznyak ,

1450-525: The final stage of the Livonian War (1581–1582). The king of Poland Stephen Báthory undertook some thirty-one attacks to storm the city, which was defended mainly by civilians. Even after one of the city walls was broken, the Pskovians managed to fill the gap and repel the attack. "A big city, it is like Paris", wrote Báthory's secretary about Pskov. The estimates of the population of Pskov land in

1500-634: The headquarters for Russia's Northern Front , commanded by Nikolai Ruzsky . On 15 March 1917, aboard the Imperial train , Tsar Nicholas II abdicated here. After the Russo-German Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference (22 December 1917 – 3 March 1918), the Imperial German Army invaded the area. Pskov was also occupied by the Estonian army between 25 May 1919 and 28 August 1919 during

1550-489: The knights, the Pskovians elected a Lithuanian prince, named Daumantas , a Roman Catholic converted to Orthodox faith and known in Russia as Dovmont, as their military leader and prince in 1266. Having fortified the town, Daumantas routed the Teutonic Knights at Rakvere and overran much of Estonia. His remains and sword are preserved in the local kremlin , and the core of the citadel, erected by him, still bears

Old Novgorod dialect - Misplaced Pages Continue

1600-427: The mid-12th to the late 14th century). The Novgorod material is divided by Zaliznyak into seven chronological groups: According to Zaliznyak , the Old Novgorod linguistic features, instead of being merely isolated deviations, represent a bundle of peculiar isoglosses. The deviations are more abundant in older birch bark letters than in the more recent finds. This fact indicates, contrary to what may be expected, that

1650-605: The middle of 16th century range from 150 to 300 thousand. Famines, epidemics (especially the epidemic of 1552) and the warfare led to a five-fold decrease of the population by 1582–1585 due to mortality and migration. The city withstood a siege by the Swedish in 1615. The successful defence of the city led to the peace negotiations culminating in the Treaty of Stolbovo . Peter the Great 's conquest of Estonia and Livonia during

1700-561: The most formidable fortresses of medieval Russia; the Pskov Monastery of the Caves , the oldest continually functioning monastery in Russia (founded in the mid-15th century) and a magnet for pilgrims from all over the country; the 16th-century Krypetsky Monastery ; Yelizarov Convent , which used to be a great cultural and literary center of medieval Russia; and Mikhaylovskoye , a family home of Alexander Pushkin where he wrote some of

1750-476: The name of "Dovmont's town". In 1341 the city recognized overlordship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , in 1347 it switched allegiance to the Novgorod Republic , and the following year it became the capital of the newly independent Pskov Republic . By the 14th century, the town functioned as the capital of a de facto sovereign republic . Its most powerful force was the merchants who traded with

1800-528: The oldest Old Church Slavonic canon monuments, Lechitic languages , and the Ohrid dialects of Macedonian . Other Slavic languages have younger /z/. Second palatalization alternates s-consonant clusters specifically: In South Slavic languages the second palatalization operates even if medial *w (> OCS v ) is present between the velar and the diphthong (or its reflex), whereas in West Slavic languages

1850-529: The original *kvě/gvě clusters are preserved. Although words with groups cv, zv resulting from the second palatalization are found in East Slavic languages, they are likely to be a consequence of the Church Slavonic influence, since there is evidence of preservation of the original groups in Ukrainian and Belarusian and in some Russian dialects. Compare: In natively coined and inherited Slavic words,

1900-413: The princess for the time the stolen slave would be needed as " corpus delicti " in a lawsuit to find out who the thief was. ) And I want to buy a horse and have the magistrate (the "prince's man") sit on it and initiate a svod ( the legal procedure to trace a whole buying chain back to the original seller and ultimately the thief ). And if you have not taken the money, do not take anything from him ( i.e.

1950-424: The princess has arrested me for it. ( Obviously she has recognized the slave as having been stolen from her, and Zhiznomir is somehow connected with the affair, maybe as Mikula's family member or business partner. ) But now druzhina has guaranteed for me. And now send a letter to that man (whom you have bought the slave from) and ask him whether he has another female slave. ( This other slave would have to be given to

2000-524: The principle of so-called intrasyllabic synharmony that operated during the Common Slavic period, the resulting *kē, *gē, and *xē defied the intrasyllabic synharmony. Namely, the velars ended up in front of the front vowel ē, and this contradicted the Proto-Slavic phonotactical constraints. This anomaly was resolved by palatalizing the velars, just as during the first palatalization. However,

2050-419: The quality of drinking water is planned to be carried out by gradually abandoning surface water intake from the Velikaya River and transitioning to the extraction of water from underground sources. However, underground water intake leads to the clogging of hot water supply systems (up to complete obstruction) in those facilities where this water enters due to its increased hardness. The climate of Pskov

Old Novgorod dialect - Misplaced Pages Continue

2100-420: The results of the second palatalization were different and not completely uniform across Slavic territory, indicating one of the first dialectal differences. Usually, this palatalization is described as gradual, with fronting to proper palatals occurring first and then (perhaps with those that were affected with the third palatalization) assibilation . Hence it is sometimes called sibilantization . In addition,

2150-439: The same area in the first half of 16th century which moved to Zavelichye after a fire in 1562. The wars with Livonian Order, Poland-Lithuania and Sweden interrupted the trade but it was maintained until the 17th century, with Swedish merchants gaining the upper hand eventually. The importance of the city made it the subject of numerous sieges throughout its history. The Pskov Krom (or Kremlin) withstood twenty-six sieges in

2200-549: The same environment as: The ultimate output of the third palatalization is thus the same as that of the preceding second palatalization. The difference of the palatalization of *x is dependent upon chronology and the Slavic dialect in question: In East and South Slavic it is /s/, and in West Slavic languages it is /š/. Slovak tends to match South Slavic in such instances, e.g. Čech "Czech", plural Česi "Czechs". Compare: The intermediary /dz/ has been preserved only in

2250-596: The same process operated before the new instances of *i deriving from *oj. The inherited velars *k (< PIE *k, * kʷ ) and *g (< PIE *g, * gʰ , * gʷ , * gʷʰ ) change before the Proto-Slavic diphthong *aj/āj (< PIE *oy, * h₂ey /ay), which itself must have become *ē by the time the second palatalization started to occur: Proto-Slavic velar fricative *x that was absent in PIE, and which arose primarily from PIE *s by means of RUKI law , from word-initial PIE #sk- as well as from Germanic and Iranian borrowings , changed in

2300-403: The second palatalization did not take place at all (E.g. Pskovian kev'  : OESl. cěvь : Old Novgorod *kělъ : OCS cělъ ). According to others, however, such apparent unchanged velars were actually palatalized dentals both in the older monuments and in the modern varieties (so such #k- would in fact be [t']). So the only exception with these varieties would be the non-occurrence of

2350-407: The second palatalization occurs only before the new *ě < *aj because the first palatalization already operated before all the other front vowels, but in loanwords, it operates before all front vowels. Compare: The second palatalization probably spread from the south of the Slavic speech area; it started to operate sometime between the end of the sixth and the middle of the seventh century AD, and

2400-533: The slave-trader, because otherwise the whole plan might leak out ). (1340s to 1380s; excavated 1972) Original text (with added word division): поколоно ѿ гаврили ѿ посени ко зати моемоу ко горигори жи коумоу ко сестори моеи ко оулите чо би есте поихали во городо ко радости моеи а нашего солова не ѡставили да бого вамо радосте ми вашего солова вохи не ѡсотавимо Transliteration: pokolono ot gavrili ot poseni ko zati mojemu ko gorigori ži kumu ko sestori mojei ko ulite čo bi este poixali vo gorodo ko radosti mojei

2450-507: Was historically known in English as Plescow . Its earliest mention comes in 903, which records that Igor of Kiev married a local lady, Olga (later Saint Olga of Kiev). Pskovians sometimes take this year as the city's foundation date, and in 2003 a great jubilee took place to celebrate Pskov's 1,100th anniversary. The first prince of Pskov was Vladimir the Great 's youngest son Sudislav . Once imprisoned by his brother Yaroslav , he

2500-535: Was not released until the latter's death several decades later. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the town adhered politically to the Novgorod Republic . In 1241, it was taken by the Teutonic Knights , but Alexander Nevsky recaptured it several months later during a legendary campaign dramatized in Sergei Eisenstein 's 1938 movie Alexander Nevsky . In order to secure their independence from

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