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71-578: The Old Punch Bowl is a medieval timber-framed Wealden hall house on the High Street in Crawley , a town and borough in West Sussex , England . Built in the early 15th century, it was used as a farmhouse by about 1600, passing through various owners and sometimes being used for other purposes. Since 1929 it has been in commercial use—firstly as a tearoom , then as a bank, and since 1994 as

142-447: A bank branch . The alterations were sympathetic to the building's style: wood from an ancient demolished church at Treyford near Midhurst was used for internal fittings, and the entrance doorway and an extension at the rear were built of local stone. The extension, a large single-storey office, was built in 1963 and looked out over the remaining section of what used to be the tearoom's gardens and ponds. The bank attempted to maintain

213-555: A public house . When built, it was one of at least five similar hall houses in the ancient parish of Crawley; it is now one of the oldest and best-preserved buildings in Crawley town centre. The most important industries in the early history of Crawley were farming and iron smelting . The latter had taken place since the Iron Age in northern Sussex , where iron ore , lime and wood (for charcoal ) were readily available. By

284-586: A "particularly important building of more than special interest" and of national importance. It is one of twelve Grade II* structures, and 100 listed buildings of all grades , in the Borough of Crawley. The Old Punch Bowl is considered a "good example" of a Wealden hall house ; and Viscountess Wolseley's 1930s review of the historic houses of Sussex identified it as one of the county's two publicly accessible (rather than privately owned) mediaeval hall houses, along with Alfriston Clergy House . It has therefore been

355-399: A Letter of Intent although it is common. A PSA is a legal agreement between the seller and a single interested buyer which establishes the terms, conditions and timeline of the sale between the buyer and seller. A PSA may be a highly negotiated document with customized terms or may be a standardized contract similar to those used in residential transactions. Once a PSA is executed, the buyer

426-451: A building. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in many parts of the world, many styles of historic framing have developed. These styles are often categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers, and the roof framing details. A simple timber frame made of straight vertical and horizontal pieces with a common rafter roof without purlins . The term box frame

497-465: A commercial building may combine functions , such as offices on levels 2–10, with retail on floor 1. When space allocated to multiple functions is significant, these buildings can be called multi-use. Local authorities commonly maintain strict regulations on commercial zoning , and have the authority to designate any zoned area as such; a business must be located in a commercial area or area zoned at least partially for commerce. Commercial real estate

568-494: A different roof profile and more prominent jettying, and may even have been a separate building at first. The recessed central bays forming the main hall are still intact and clearly visible. The roof is now tiled, although Horsham stone was used previously and straw may have been used in the building's early history. It is hipped on the south side and gabled at the north, behind the modern chimney. The internal roof structure uses crown posts and queen posts throughout, with

639-566: A frame of load-bearing timber, creating spaces between the timbers called panels (in German Gefach or Fächer = partitions), which are then filled-in with some kind of nonstructural material known as infill . The frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building. Gallery of infill types: The earliest known type of infill, called opus craticum by the Romans, was a wattle and daub type construction. Opus craticum

710-497: A mixture of flat and arched tie-beams . Except in the south bay, all of the internal timbers are original, albeit with some reconditioning, and the 20th-century work uncovered them for the first time in many years. The windows are small and, on the upper floor, are just under the eaves . Two have 16th-century mullions , and one in the west face still has triangular holes in which metal bars were mounted to provide some security before window-glass became common. Hall houses predated

781-426: A set of criteria set out by the buyer. Types of buyers may include an owner-user, private investor, acquisitions , capital investment, or private equity firms . The buyer or its agents will perform an initial assessment of the physical property, location and potential profitability (if for investment) or adequacy of property for its intended use (if for owner-user). If it is determined the prospective investment meets

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852-467: Is another alternative where straw bales are stacked for nonload-bearing infill with various finishes applied to the interior and exterior such as stucco and plaster. This appeals to the traditionalist and the environmentalist as this is using "found" materials to build. Mudbricks also called adobe are sometimes used to fill in timber-frame structures. They can be made on site and offer exceptional fire resistance. Such buildings must be designed to accommodate

923-743: Is attached to the peak of the timber frame after the frame is complete as a celebration. Historically, it was common for the master carpenter to give a speech, make a toast, and then break the glass. In Northern Europe, a wreath made for the occasion is more commonly used rather than a bough. In Japan, the "ridge raising" is a religious ceremony called the jotoshiki . In Germany, it is called the Richtfest . Commercial property Commercial buildings are buildings that are used for commercial purposes, and include office buildings , warehouses , and retail buildings (e.g. convenience stores , ' big box ' stores, and shopping malls ). In urban locations,

994-405: Is believed to have consisted of four bays under a single roof of straw, with the centre bays laid out as an open hall and the outer pair each having a staircase leading to first-floor level. The upper floor was jettied , giving an overhanging appearance. A timber skeleton would have been surrounded by walls of wattle and daub containing plenty of clay, which is the main component of the soil in

1065-429: Is commonly divided into five categories: Of these, only the first five are classified as being commercial buildings . Residential income property may also signify multifamily apartments. The basic elements of an investment are cash inflows, outflows, timing of cash flows, and risk. The ability to analyze these elements is key in providing services to investors in commercial real estate. Cash inflows and outflows are

1136-431: Is commonly required to submit an escrow deposit, which may be refundable under certain conditions, to a title company office or held by a brokerage in escrow. The transaction moves to the due diligence phase, where the buyer makes a more detailed assessment of the property. Purchase and sale agreements will generally include clauses which require the seller to disclose certain information for buyer's review to determine if

1207-464: Is dependent on market conditions, current tenants, and the likelihood that they will renew their leases year-over-year. It is important to be able to predict the probability that the cash inflows and outflows will be in the amounts predicted, what is the probability that the timing of them will be as predicted, and what the probability is that there may be unexpected cash flows, and in what amounts they might occur. The total value of commercial property in

1278-454: Is not well defined and has been used for any kind of framing (with the usual exception of cruck framing). The distinction presented here is that the roof load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also found even in plain timber frames. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent (U.S.) or crossframe (UK); the individual timbers are each called a blade. More than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in

1349-455: Is now confusingly applied to a Roman stone/mortar infill as well. Similar methods to wattle and daub were also used and known by various names, such as clam staff and daub, cat-and-clay, or torchis (French), to name only three. Wattle and daub was the most common infill in ancient times. The sticks were not always technically wattlework (woven), but also individual sticks installed vertically, horizontally, or at an angle into holes or grooves in

1420-510: Is readily available and log houses were favored, instead. Half-timbered construction in the Northern European vernacular building style is characteristic of medieval and early modern Denmark, England, Germany, and parts of France and Switzerland, where timber was in good supply yet stone and associated skills to dress the stonework were in short supply. In half-timbered construction, timbers that were riven (split) in half provided

1491-474: Is technically called a nave . However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U.S., the Netherlands , and Germany. Aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus . Half-timbering refers to a structure with

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1562-400: Is used to describe timber frames with an infill of stone rubble laid in mortar the Romans called opus incertum . A less common meaning of the term "half-timbered" is found in the fourth edition of John Henry Parker's Classic Dictionary of Architecture (1873) which distinguishes full-timbered houses from half-timbered, with half-timber houses having a ground floor in stone or logs such as

1633-521: The Kluge House which was a log cabin with a timber-framed second floor. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating framed structures of heavy timber jointed together with various joints, commonly and originally with lap jointing , and then later pegged mortise and tenon joints. Diagonal bracing is used to prevent "racking", or movement of structural vertical beams or posts. Originally, German (and other) master carpenters would peg

1704-644: The structural frame of load-bearing timber is left exposed on the exterior of the building it may be referred to as half-timbered , and in many cases the infill between timbers will be used for decorative effect. The country most known for this kind of architecture is Germany, where timber-framed houses are spread all over the country. The method comes from working directly from logs and trees rather than pre-cut dimensional lumber . Hewing this with broadaxes , adzes , and draw knives and using hand-powered braces and augers (brace and bit) and other woodworking tools, artisans or framers could gradually assemble

1775-624: The 12th century to the 19th century, and subsequently imported to North America, where it was common into the early 19th century. In a scribe frame, timber sockets are fashioned or "tailor-made" to fit their corresponding timbers; thus, each timber piece must be numbered (or "scribed"). Square-rule carpentry was developed in New England in the 18th century. It used housed joints in main timbers to allow for interchangeable braces and girts. Today, standardized timber sizing means that timber framing can be incorporated into mass-production methods as per

1846-444: The 15th century, the industry had declined to some extent but was still locally significant. Although there is no direct structural evidence, a building used in the industry may have occupied the site before the present structure; slag remnants have been unearthed on the land outside it. Furthermore, the site is very close to the ancient junction of the east–west and northeast–southwest trackways and rudimentary roads which ran between

1917-522: The 5- to 25-cm (2- to 10-in) range. The methods of fastening the frame members also differ. In conventional framing, the members are joined using nails or other mechanical fasteners, whereas timber framing uses the traditional mortise and tenon or more complex joints that are usually fastened using only wooden pegs. Modern complex structures and timber trusses often incorporate steel joinery such as gusset plates, for both structural and architectural purposes. Recently, it has become common practice to enclose

1988-487: The Canadian Military Engineers undertook to construct airplane hangars using this timber construction system in order to conserve steel. Wood hangars were constructed throughout North America and employed various technologies including bowstring , Warren , and Pratt trusses, glued laminated arches, and lamella roof systems. Unique to this building type is the interlocking of the timber members of

2059-455: The Crawley area. All of these characteristics were typical of "Wealden" houses—a mediaeval style whose name reflects their prevalence in the Weald , the area of southeast England in which Crawley is situated. A fifth bay, with a crown post roof, was added at the north end in the early 16th century. The building originally occupied 1 acre (0.4 ha), but its landholding gradually expanded as

2130-681: The German ständerbohlenbau , timbers as in ständerblockbau , or rarely cob without any wooden support. The wall surfaces on the interior were often "ceiled" with wainscoting and plastered for warmth and appearance. Brick infill sometimes called nogging became the standard infill after the manufacturing of bricks made them more available and less expensive. Half-timbered walls may be covered by siding materials including plaster , weatherboarding , tiles , or slate shingles. The infill may be covered by other materials, including weatherboarding or tiles , or left exposed. When left exposed, both

2201-503: The UK. Several types of cruck frames are used; more information follows in English style below and at the main article Cruck . Aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more structural load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the same concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church , where the center aisle

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2272-700: The United States was approximately $ 6 trillion in 2018. The relative strength of the market is measured by the US Commercial Real Estate Index which is composed of eight economic drivers and is calculated weekly. According to Real Capital Analytics, a New York real estate research firm, more than $ 160 billion of commercial properties in the United States are now in default , foreclosure , or bankruptcy . In 2024, office leasing volume rose to its highest level since 2020, but roughly 60% of active office leases went into effect prior to

2343-451: The assembly was held together with through-bolts. The through-bolts only held the assembly together but were not load-carrying. Shear plate connectors were used to transfer loads between timber members and metal. Shear plate connectors resembled large washers, deformed on the side facing the timber in order to grip it, and were through-fastened with long bolts or lengths of threaded rod. A leading manufacturer of these types of timber connectors

2414-442: The buyer's criteria, they may signal their intent to move forward with a letter of intent (LOI) . Letters of Intent are used to outline the major terms of an offer in order to avoid unnecessary costs of drafting legal documents in the event the parties do not agree to the terms as drafted. Once a Letter of Intent is signed by both parties, a purchase and sale agreement (PSA) is drafted. Not all commercial property transactions utilize

2485-470: The buyer's purchase decision specified in the PSA. In competitive real estate markets, buyers may waive contingencies in order to make an offer more appealing to a buyer. The PSA will usually require the seller to provide due diligence information to the seller in a timely manner and limit the buyer's time to terminate the deal based on its due diligence review findings. If the buyer terminates the transaction within

2556-429: The character and ambience of the building by filling the rooms with rare antiques; staff often had to rebuff tourists who wanted to buy them. National Provincial Bank and Westminster Bank merged in the 1960s to form National Westminster Bank , and the branch was renamed accordingly. Although a larger branch was opened a short distance away on The Boulevard, the original branch stayed open until 1992. The freehold of

2627-469: The complete skeletal framing of the building. Europe is full of timber-framed structures dating back hundreds of years, including manors, castles, homes, and inns, whose architecture and techniques of construction have evolved over the centuries. In Asia, timber-framed structures are found, many of them temples. Some Roman carpentry preserved in anoxic layers of clay at Romano-British villa sites demonstrate that sophisticated Roman carpentry had all

2698-436: The contribution to Europe's economy in 2012 can be estimated at €285 billion according to EPRA and INREV , not to mention social benefits of an efficient real estate sector. It is estimated that commercial property is responsible for securing around 4 million jobs across Europe. Typically, a broker will market a property on behalf of the seller. Brokers representing buyers or buyers' representatives identify property meeting

2769-519: The distinctive "half-timbered", or occasionally termed, " Tudor " style, or "black-and-white". The most ancient known half-timbered building is called the House of opus craticum . It was buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD in Herculaneum, Italy. Opus craticum was mentioned by Vitruvius in his books on architecture as a timber frame with wattlework infill. However, the same term

2840-443: The due diligence timeframe, the escrow deposit is commonly returned to the buyer. If the buyer has not terminated the agreement pursuant to the PSA contingencies, the escrow deposit becomes non-refundable and failure to complete the purchase will result in the escrow deposit funds to be transferred to the seller as a fee for failure to close. The parties will proceed to close the transaction in which funds and title are exchanged. When

2911-636: The famous street known as The Shambles exemplifies this, where jettied houses seem to almost touch above the street. Historically, the timbers would have been hewn square using a felling axe and then surface-finished with a broadaxe . If required, smaller timbers were ripsawn from the hewn baulks using pitsaws or frame saws. Today, timbers are more commonly bandsawn, and the timbers may sometimes be machine- planed on all four sides. The vertical timbers include: The horizontal timbers include: When jettying, horizontal elements can include: The sloping timbers include: Historically were two different systems of

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2982-476: The farmyard, barns and associated buildings. They converted the main building into a single entity again, and oversaw a wide-ranging restoration which brought much of the old timber-framing into view again. Urgent structural repairs were carried out as well. Later in 1929, the Messers sold the building to a Captain L. Young, who applied to change its function from residential to commercial use. Significant work

3053-614: The first people to publish the term "half-timbered" was Mary Martha Sherwood (1775–1851), who employed it in her book, The Lady of the Manor , published in several volumes from 1823 to 1829. She uses the term picturesquely: "...passing through a gate in a quickset hedge, we arrived at the porch of an old half-timbered cottage, where an aged man and woman received us." By 1842, half-timbered had found its way into The Encyclopedia of Architecture by Joseph Gwilt (1784–1863). This juxtaposition of exposed timbered beams and infilled spaces created

3124-649: The framing and infill were sometimes done in a decorative manner. Germany is famous for its decorative half-timbering and the figures sometimes have names and meanings. The decorative manner of half-timbering is promoted in Germany by the German Timber-Frame Road , several planned routes people can drive to see notable examples of Fachwerk buildings. Gallery of some named figures and decorations: The collection of elements in half timbering are sometimes given specific names: According to Craven (2019),

3195-522: The framing. The coating of daub has many recipes, but generally was a mixture of clay and chalk with a binder such as grass or straw and water or urine . When the manufacturing of bricks increased, brick infill replaced the less durable infills and became more common. Stone laid in mortar as an infill was used in areas where stone rubble and mortar were available. Other infills include bousillage , fired brick , unfired brick such as adobe or mudbrick , stones sometimes called pierrotage , planks as in

3266-508: The invention of chimneys, and a wattle-and-daub smoke hood was used until the first chimney was added to the central bay in around 1600. This has been described as a "fine example of a [late] Tudor chimney". Timber framing Timber framing ( German : Fachwerkbauweise ) and "post-and-beam" construction are traditional methods of building with heavy timbers , creating structures using squared-off and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden pegs. If

3337-470: The joinery industry, especially where timber is cut by precision computer numerical control machinery. A jetty is an upper floor which sometimes historically used a structural horizontal beam, supported on cantilevers, called a bressummer or 'jetty bressummer' to bear the weight of the new wall, projecting outward from the preceding floor or storey. In the city of York in the United Kingdom,

3408-414: The joints with allowance of about 1 inch (25 mm), enough room for the wood to move as it ' seasoned ', then cut the pegs, and drive the beam home fully into its socket. To cope with variable sizes and shapes of hewn (by adze or axe) and sawn timbers, two main carpentry methods were employed: scribe carpentry and square rule carpentry. Scribing or coping was used throughout Europe, especially from

3479-490: The main furnaces and forges in the area, at places such as Ifield and Bewbush . These ancient tracks were superseded by the High Street, on a north–south alignment, after the Norman Conquest in the 11th century. The present building is known to date from the early to mid-15th century. Little is known about its earliest history—for example, its name was not recorded until the mid-16th century. Its original layout

3550-409: The money that is put into, or received from, the property including the original purchase cost and sale revenue over the entire life of the investment. An example of this sort of investment is a real estate fund. Cash inflows include the following: Cash outflows include: The timing of cash inflows and outflows is important to know in order to project periods of positive and negative cash flows. Risk

3621-459: The necessary techniques for this construction. The earliest surviving (French) half-timbered buildings date from the 12th century. Important resources for the study and appreciation of historic building methods are open-air museums . The topping out ceremony is a builders' rite , an ancient tradition thought to have originated in Scandinavia by 700 AD. In the U.S., a bough or small tree

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3692-706: The number of knots, the moisture content, the temperature, the grain direction, the number of holes, and other factors. There are design specifications for sawn lumber, glulam members, prefabricated I-joists , composite lumber , and various connection types. In the United States, structural frames are then designed according to the Allowable Stress Design method or the Load Reduced Factor Design method (the latter being preferred). The techniques used in timber framing date back to Neolithic times, and have been used in many parts of

3763-484: The owners acquired more land in Crawley, Ifield and Worth parishes. By 1600, several barns and similar buildings—all with thatched roofs —surrounded it, and the property had become a farm called Bristows Meads, nominally owned by a member of the wealthy Stydolf family from Headley in neighbouring Surrey . Ownership and tenancy was very complex at that time, however, and the Stydolf family did not occupy it. Instead it

3834-508: The pandemic. In Europe, approximately half of the €960 billion of debt backed by European commercial real estate is expected to require refinancing in the next three years, according to PropertyMall, a UK‑based commercial property news provider. Additionally, the economic conditions surrounding future interest rate hikes; which could put renewed pressure on valuations , complicate loan refinancing, and impede debt servicing could cause major dislocation in commercial real estate markets. However,

3905-480: The panels span considerable distances and add rigidity to the basic timber frame. An alternate construction method is with concrete flooring with extensive use of glass. This allows a solid construction combined with open architecture. Some firms have specialized in industrial prefabrication of such residential and light commercial structures such as Huf Haus as low-energy houses or – dependent on location – zero-energy buildings . Straw-bale construction

3976-419: The poor thermal insulating properties of mudbrick, however, and usually have deep eaves or a veranda on four sides for weather protection. Timber design or wood design is a subcategory of structural engineering that focuses on the engineering of wood structures. Timber is classified by tree species (e.g., southern pine, douglas fir, etc.) and its strength is graded using numerous coefficients that correspond to

4047-529: The position of posts and studs: Ridge-post framing is a structurally simple and ancient post and lintel framing where the posts extend all the way to the ridge beams. Germans call this Firstsäule or Hochstud . In the 1930s a system of timber framing referred to as the "modern timber connector method" was developed. It was characterized by the use of timber members assembled into trusses and other framing systems and fastened using various types of metal timber connectors. This type of timber construction

4118-402: The property was then bought by Greene King Brewery , who converted it into a public house and reinstated the name "The Old Punch Bowl". Internal and external alterations were made, including the removal of the bank's stone-built extension; this was replaced by outside seating and a patio area. The Old Punch Bowl was listed at Grade II* by English Heritage on 21 June 1948; this defines it as

4189-728: The roof trusses and supporting columns and their connection points. The timber members are held apart by "fillers" (blocks of timber). This leaves air spaces between the timber members which improves air circulation and drying around the members which improves resistance to moisture borne decay. Timber members in this type of framing system were connected with ferrous timber connectors of various types. Loads between timber members were transmitted using split-rings (larger loads), toothed rings (lighter loads), or spiked grid connectors. Split-ring connectors were metal rings sandwiched between adjacent timber members to connect them together. The rings were fit into circular grooves on in both timber members then

4260-408: The subject of several architectural studies. As originally built, the structure was a partly open-plan hall house with four bays . The bays at the north and south ends had joists to support exterior jettying , which originally extended about 18 inches (46 cm) over the floor below. The overhang was lessened by later building work. A fifth bay was added at the north end before 1550. This has

4331-451: The tenancy, stayed for several decades and became an important part of Crawley life in his role as a tax officer. By the early 19th century the property had become known as Mitchells Farm, superseding its previous name. The variants "The Mychells" and "Mychells Farm" were also known. In the late 19th century, the building was divided into two houses, and was sometimes described as "The Old Houses" in commercial postcards. One of these houses

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4402-557: The term: was used informally to mean timber-framed construction in the Middle Ages. For economy, cylindrical logs were cut in half, so one log could be used for two (or more) posts. The shaved side was traditionally on the exterior and everyone knew it to be half the timber. The term half-timbering is not as old as the German name Fachwerk or the French name colombage , but it is the standard English name for this style. One of

4473-545: The terms of the agreement are still acceptable. The buyer may have the right to terminate the transaction and/or renegotiate the terms, often referred to as "contingencies". Many purchase agreements are contingent on the buyer's ability to obtain mortgage financing and buyer's satisfactory review of specific due diligence items. Common due diligence items include property financial statements , rent rolls, vendor contracts, zoning and legal uses, physical and environmental condition, traffic patterns and other relevant information to

4544-600: The timber structure entirely in manufactured panels such as structural insulated panels (SIPs). Although the timbers can only be seen from inside the building when so enclosed, construction is less complex and insulation is greater than in traditional timber building. SIPs are "an insulating foam core sandwiched between two structural facings, typically oriented strand board" according to the Structural Insulated Panel Association. SIPs reduce dependency on bracing and auxiliary members, because

4615-616: The world during various periods such as ancient Japan, continental Europe, and Neolithic Denmark, England, France, Germany, Spain, parts of the Roman Empire , and Scotland. The timber-framing technique has historically been popular in climate zones which favour deciduous hardwood trees, such as oak . Its northernmost areas are Baltic countries and southern Sweden. Timber framing is rare in Russia, Finland, northern Sweden, and Norway, where tall and straight lumber, such as pine and spruce,

4686-445: Was let to various occupants. By the 1670s, a farmer called John Wybourne occupied Bristows Meads (also known as Bristow Meads by this time). He expanded the farm by renting more land, and one field later became known as Wybourne Field. The property passed out of Stydolf ownership in the early 18th century, and entered local ownership for the first time in 1785 when an Ifield family acquired it. Soon after this, John Mitchell took up

4757-484: Was also added as part of these alterations, which took place in 1930. During that year, it reopened as "Ye Olde Punch Bowle" tearoom. The tearoom had a short life but was successful and popular, especially during the Second World War when it doubled as a military mess , dance-hall and YMCA meeting place. It was sold for £2,500 in 1952 to National Provincial Bank , who refurbished it and converted it into

4828-425: Was opened up to form a shop by its tenants. Meanwhile, the landholding had risen to 70 acres (28 ha) throughout Crawley and Worth parishes, and the farm was at one point the largest dairy farm in the area. The condition of the main building deteriorated in the early 20th century as it passed through more owners. In 1929, a Mrs E. Messer and her husband bought the two houses in quick succession, and also acquired

4899-502: Was the Timber Engineering Company, or TECO, of Washington, DC. The proprietary name of their split-ring connectors was the "TECO Wedge-Fit". Timber-framed structures differ from conventional wood-framed buildings in several ways. Timber framing uses fewer, larger wooden members, commonly timbers in the range of 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in), while common wood framing uses many more timbers with dimensions usually in

4970-400: Was undertaken to alter the building and its surroundings to create a tearoom with a rural ambience. The interior was opened out, a single entrance door was created, the old barns and outbuildings were either removed or integrated with the main building, and 0.5 acres (0.2 ha) of ornamental gardens were planted. The large chimney breast which now dominates the north face of the building

5041-482: Was used for various building types including warehouses, factories, garages, barns, stores/markets, recreational buildings, barracks, bridges, and trestles. The use of these structures was promoted because of their low construction costs, easy adaptability, and performance in fire as compared to unprotected steel truss construction. During World War II, the United States Army Corps of Engineers and

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