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120-641: Attested words in documents written in Slavonic , Latin , or Hungarian over the current territory of Romania prior to the 16th century bridge the period between Common Romanian and the first written documents. The literary stage begins with the oldest preserved Romanian writings such as Neacșu's letter and the Rhotacizing Texts. Religious literary texts written in Romanian appear first during this period of time, followed by historical chronicles and

240-401: A bare noun or a prenominal adjective and its grammaticalization in structures of the type omul cel bun - "the good man" is an innovation of Romanian among Eastern Romance languages . Grammar of functional elements such as lui stabilised to their current form together with other form-distribution specialization such as of demonstratives acesta , acela . In the verbal domain,

360-489: A liturgical language to this day. As the oldest attested Slavic language, OCS provides important evidence for the features of Proto-Slavic , the reconstructed common ancestor of all Slavic languages. The name of the language in Old Church Slavonic texts was simply Slavic ( словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ , slověnĭskŭ językŭ ), derived from the word for Slavs ( словѣ́нє , slověne ), the self-designation of

480-497: A unifier towards the middle of the 19th century. Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th-century chroniclers, and even in that of the Transylvanian School around 1800. What they emphasized, apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself, were the idea of Christendom and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf. The conqueror's ambition is likewise frequently cited as

600-453: A couple of them. Numerous printing houses functioned, either intermittently or continuously, over the next two centuries in cities like Alba Iulia , Brașov , Bucharest , Buzău , Câmpulung , Cluj-Napoca , Iași , Sebeș , Sibiu , Snagov , and Târgoviște . Some books were printed outside the Romanian language area for example the Psalter versified by Archbishop Dosoftei of Moldova

720-481: A full-scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces. He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Báthory's 40,000-man army (led by Stephen Bocskai ) and counterattacked the Ottomans, freeing the towns of Târgoviște (8 October), Bucharest (12 October) and Brăila , temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty. The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596 when Michael made several incursions south of

840-615: A manuscript in Old Church Slavonic narrating main Moldavian events from 1359 up to 1519, the nobleman Grigore Ureche (ca. 1590–1647) writes the first chronicle in Romanian, recognising the linguistic connection between Latin and Romanian, and the unity of the language spoken in Moldavia and across the Carpathian Mountains. His work was continued by Miron Costin and Ion Neculce , and it peaked with Dimitrie Cantemir who

960-721: A member of the Greek noble family Kantakouzenoi , present in Wallachia and Moldavia, and allegedly descended from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos . She was born in the Greek region of Epirus and she may have been the sister of the famous Greek magnate Michael Kantakouzenos Şeytanoğlu , as well as the cousin of Iane Cantacuzino  [ ro ] . Michael could probably speak Greek too, besides Romanian. Michael's political rise

1080-529: A motivation for his action, occupying in the interpretative schema the place that was later to be occupied by the Romanian idea . In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin , Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia, "the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians", and not even highly appreciated by his own Wallachians : "The Wallachians became tired of

1200-638: A number of archaicisms preserved until the early 20th century (the articulation of yat as / æ / in Boboshticë , Drenovë , around Thessaloniki, Razlog , the Rhodopes and Thrace and of yery as / ɨ / around Castoria and the Rhodopes, the presence of decomposed nasalisms around Castoria and Thessaloniki, etc.), the dialect is posited to have been part of a macrodialect extending from the Adriatic to

1320-699: A peace finally emerged in January 1597, but this lasted for only a year and a half. Peace was again reached in late 1599, when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies. In 1599, Michael won the Battle of Șelimbăr against Andrew Báthory and soon entered Gyulafehérvár (today Alba Iulia, Romania), becoming the imperial governor (i.e. de facto ruler) of Transylvania, under Habsburg suzerainty. A few months later, Michael's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital, Iași . The Moldavian leader Ieremia Movilă fled to Poland and Michael

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1440-617: A princely burial in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Gyulafehérvár . With his enemy dead, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Gyulafehérvár and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop Demeter Naprágyi , later depicted as a seminal event in Romanian historiography . Historian István Szamosközy , keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before

1560-649: A result of earlier alternations between short and long vowels in roots in Proto-Indo-European , Proto-Balto-Slavic and Proto-Slavic times, and of the fronting of vowels after palatalized consonants, the following vowel alternations are attested in OCS: /ь/ : /i/;  /ъ/ : /y/ : /u/; /e/ : /ě/ : /i/; /o/ : /a/; /o/ : /e/; /ě/ : /a/; /ъ/ : /ь/; /y/ : /i/; /ě/ : /i/; /y/ : /ę/. Vowel:∅ alternations sometimes occurred as

1680-858: A result of sporadic loss of weak yer , which later occurred in almost all Slavic dialects. The phonetic value of the corresponding vocalized strong jer is dialect-specific. As an ancient Indo-European language, OCS has a highly inflective morphology. Inflected forms are divided in two groups, nominals and verbs. Nominals are further divided into nouns, adjectives and pronouns. Numerals inflect either as nouns or pronouns, with 1–4 showing gender agreement as well. Nominals can be declined in three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), three numbers (singular, plural, dual ) and seven cases : nominative , vocative , accusative , instrumental , dative , genitive , and locative . There are five basic inflectional classes for nouns: o/jo -stems, a/ja -stems, i -stems, u -stems, and consonant stems. Forms throughout

1800-592: A series of books in Romanian, along with others in Old Church Slavonic. Most early books translated took from Old Church Slavonic texts. An exception, Palia de la Orăștie relied mostly on Hungarian language texts. Also rare at the beginning of the period are the texts written with the Latin alphabet , a Calvinist anthology of the Psalms written around 1570 and a Tatăl Nostru ("Pater Noster") published in 1593 in Krakow being

1920-573: A variant of the angular Glagolitic alphabet was preserved in Croatia . See Early Cyrillic alphabet for a detailed description of the script and information about the sounds it originally expressed. For Old Church Slavonic, the following segments are reconstructible. A few sounds are given in Slavic transliterated form rather than in IPA, as the exact realisation is uncertain and often differs depending on

2040-488: Is also likely to have preserved an extremely archaic type of accentuation (probably close to the Chakavian dialect of modern Serbo-Croatian ), but unfortunately, no accent marks appear in the written manuscripts. The South Slavic and Eastern South Slavic nature of the language is evident from the following variations: Old Church Slavonic also shares the following phonetic features only with Bulgarian : Over time,

2160-459: Is considered one of Romania's greatest national heroes. Since the 19th century, Michael the Brave has been regarded by Romanian nationalists as a symbol of Romanian unity, as his reign marked the first time all principalities inhabited by Romanians were under the same ruler. His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593. Two years later, war with the Ottomans began, a conflict in which

2280-401: Is given in the table below. Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Written evidence of Old Church Slavonic survives in a relatively small body of manuscripts , most of them written in

2400-541: Is known as Common Romanian . In the 9th century Common Romanian already had a structure very distinct from the other Romance languages, with major differences in grammar, morphology, and phonology and was a member of the Balkan language area . It contained around a hundred loans from Slavic languages , including words such as trup (body, flesh), as well as some Greek language loans via Vulgar Latin , but no Hungarian and Turkish words, as these peoples had yet to arrive in

2520-406: Is occasionally used by Western scholars in a regional context. According to Slavist Henrik Birnbaum , the term was introduced mostly by Macedonian scholars and it is anachronistic because there was no separate Macedonian language, distinguished from early Bulgarian, in the ninth century. The obsolete term Old Slovenian was used by early 19th-century scholars who conjectured that the language

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2640-574: Is preserved in the current phonology . The asyllabic final sound [u] 's devoicing was not complete in Old Romanian. Old Romanian retained the consonants [ʎ] and [ɲ] from Common Romanian, but with a limited distribution, mainly in the Banat - Hunedoara - Oltenia area. In addition, it also had two consonants, /nn/ and /rr/ , characterized as intense , after which the front vowels [e] and [i] underwent velarization. According to Kim Schulte

2760-574: Is the designation used by most Bulgarian-language writers. It was used in numerous 19th-century sources, e.g. by August Schleicher , Martin Hattala , Leopold Geitler and August Leskien , who noted similarities between the first literary Slavic works and the modern Bulgarian language. For similar reasons, Russian linguist Aleksandr Vostokov used the term Slav-Bulgarian . The term is still used by some writers but nowadays normally avoided in favor of Old Church Slavonic . The term Old Macedonian

2880-437: Is the number of loanwords from Romance languages (mainly French ) and from Latin , the end of the Old Romanian period coinciding with the activity of the Transylvanian School culminating with the publishing of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae , subscribed to the process of modernization of Romanian language . Prior to this, counting from the fifteenth century, about 1,100 words of Latin or Romance origin entered

3000-734: The Four Gospels of Târgoviște from 1512. The first printing house in Transylvania was established by magistrate Theobaldus Gryphius at Sibiu , a city that was experiencing the Lutheran reform. Here, in 1544, the Catehismul românesc ("Romanian Catechism") was printed, the first Romanian language book, by Filip Moldoveanu (also known as Philip the Painter or Philip Maler). Less than 20 years after, Deacon Coresi will print at Brașov

3120-534: The Aromanian dialects . Particular sound changes took place in Old Romanian such as merger of [ɲ] and [ʎ] as a glide and reclosure of the diphthong [ea] before an unstressed [e] (for example leage became lege ), and as such in Modern Romanian the [ea] alternant no longer appears when followed by [e] . Vowel centralization where [i] , [e] , [ea] acquired centralized articulations in

3240-662: The Banate of Buzău and Brăila in July 1598 and the new ban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian, Tatar , and Cossack moves, although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years. On 28 February 1600 Michael met with Polish envoys in Brassó. He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over

3360-592: The Battle of Mirăslău , forcing the prince to leave Transylvania and retreat to Wallachia with his remaining troops, while the forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered Moldavia and defeated the forces loyal to Michael the Brave, restoring Ieremia Movilă on the throne. The Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski also advanced in eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia . Michael

3480-594: The Black Sea , and covering southern Albania, northern Greece and the southernmost parts of Bulgaria. Because of the very short time between Rastislav 's request and the actual mission, it has been widely suggested that both the Glagolitic alphabet and the translations had been "in the works" for some time, probably for a planned mission to the Bulgaria . The language and the Glagolitic alphabet, as taught at

3600-680: The Christianization of the Slavs . It is thought to have been based primarily on the dialect of the 9th-century Byzantine Slavs living in the Province of Thessalonica (in present-day Greece ). Old Church Slavonic played an important role in the history of the Slavic languages and served as a basis and model for later Church Slavonic traditions, and some Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches use this later Church Slavonic as

3720-585: The Common Slavic period, such as intrasyllabic synharmony and the law of open syllables . For consonant and vowel clusters and sequences of a consonant and a vowel, the following constraints can be ascertained: As a result of the first and the second Slavic palatalizations, velars alternate with dentals and palatals. In addition, as a result of a process usually termed iotation (or iodization ), velars and dentals alternate with palatals in various inflected forms and in word formation. In some forms

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3840-655: The Cyrillic script developed early on at the Preslav Literary School, where it superseded Glagolitic as official in Bulgaria in 893. The texts written during this era exhibit certain linguistic features of the vernaculars of the First Bulgarian Empire . Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably Croatia , Serbia , Bohemia , Lesser Poland , and principalities of

3960-593: The First Bulgarian Empire during the late 10th and the early 11th centuries. The language has an Eastern South Slavic basis in the Bulgarian-Macedonian dialectal area, with an admixture of Western Slavic (Moravian) features inherited during the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia (863–885). The only well-preserved manuscript of the Moravian recension, the Kiev Missal , or

4080-570: The Kantakouzenos – Asen branch of Asen dinasty : two meeting, standing lions supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures. There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Slavonic using Romanian Cyrillic alphabet " IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI ", meaning " Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands ". Second, placed along

4200-563: The Kievan Rus' – while retaining characteristically Eastern South Slavic linguistic features. Later texts written in each of those territories began to take on characteristics of the local Slavic vernaculars, and by the mid-11th century Old Church Slavonic had diversified into a number of regional varieties (known as recensions ). These local varieties are collectively known as the Church Slavonic language . Apart from use in

4320-494: The Mihai Viteazul National College (Ploiești)  [ ro ] , the Mihai Viteazul National College (Slobozia) and Mihai Viteazul National College (Galați) The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavian urus , above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Byzantine coat of arms, belonging to

4440-606: The Partium region. Michael was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledge Habsburg overlordship. The Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă had been an old enemy of Michael, having incited Andrew Báthory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication. His brother, Simion Movilă , claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595. Aware of the threat the Movilăs represented, Michael had created

4560-576: The Polish chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of the King of Poland , Sigismund III Vasa . He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă , one of Michael's greatest enemies. Movilă had deposed Ștefan Răzvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595. Having to face this new threat, Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become

4680-623: The Turks in Iași and other parts of Moldavia. Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire, taking the forts of Nicopolis , Ribnic, and Chilia and even reaching as far as Adrianople . In 1595, Sigismund Báthory staged an elaborate plot and had Aaron the Tyrant, voivode of Moldavia, removed from power. István Jósika (Báthory's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian) masterminded

4800-576: The liturgical language of many Christian Orthodox churches. Until the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow between 1652 and 1666, Church Slavonic was the mandatory language of the Russian Orthodox Church . Historians credit the 9th-century Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius with standardizing the language and undertaking the task of translating the Gospels and necessary liturgical books into it as part of

4920-664: The 9th and 11th century in Great Moravia and the First Bulgarian Empire. The language was standardized for the first time by the mission of the two apostles to Great Moravia from 863. The manuscripts of the Moravian recension are therefore the earliest dated of the OCS recensions. The recension takes its name from the Slavic state of Great Moravia which existed in Central Europe during the 9th century on

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5040-471: The Brave , Romania's highest military decoration , was named after Michael. Mihai Viteazul's name and portrait appear on at least two Romanian coins: 5 Lei 1991 (only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation), and on 100 Lei, which circulated through the 1990s. At least four major high schools in Romania bear his name: the Mihai Viteazul National College (Bucharest)

5160-603: The Brave continued to negotiate his official position in Transylvania, pleading for direct rule instead of being imperial governor. Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the Hungarian nobility of Transylvania rose against him in a series of revolts with the support of the Austrian army commanded by the Italian General Giorgio Basta , defeating Michael the Brave at

5280-568: The Brave then left for Prague , seeking audience with Emperor Rudolf II; however, the emperor refused to allow him audience. But General Giorgio Basta 's governance of Transylvania faced significant opposition from the Hungarian nobility, leading to the reinstallation of Sigismund Báthory , who turned his back on Emperor Rudolf II and declared submission to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth after receiving substantial military support. This led to Emperor Rudolf II accepting Michael

5400-502: The Brave's audience and providing him with 100,000 florins to rebuild his army. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătrașcu, drove Simion Movilă out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael the Brave, allied with Giorgio Basta, defeated the Hungarian army at the Battle of Guruslău . A few days later Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself, assassinated Michael by order of

5520-700: The Byzantine missionary contingent in 886. Exiled students of the two apostles then brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the Bulgarian Empire , being at least some of them Bulgarians themselves. Boris I of Bulgaria ( r.  852–889 ) received and officially accepted them; he established the Preslav Literary School and the Ohrid Literary School . Both schools originally used the Glagolitic alphabet, though

5640-642: The Danube at Vidin , Pleven , Nicopolis , and Babadag , where he was assisted by the local Bulgarians during the First Tarnovo Uprising . During late 1596, Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from the Tatars , who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest and Buzău . By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack, the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought. Michael

5760-433: The Danube on 4 August 1595. As his army was outnumbered, Michael avoided carrying the battle in open field, and decided to give battle on a marshy field located near the village of Călugăreni on the Neajlov river. The Battle of Călugăreni started on 13 August and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha . Despite the victory, he retreated to his winter camp in Stoienești because he had too few troops to mount

5880-427: The Diet met on 10 October, Transylvanian nobles elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania . As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf, then to himself and thirdly to his son. Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian diet as only imperial governor subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, he was nonetheless ruler of Transylvania. In Transylvania Michael used

6000-529: The East it had a status analogous to that of Latin in Western Europe , but had the advantage of being substantially less divergent from the vernacular tongues of average parishioners. Some Orthodox churches, such as the Bulgarian Orthodox Church , Russian Orthodox Church , Serbian Orthodox Church , Ukrainian Orthodox Church and Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric , as well as several Eastern Catholic Churches, still use Church Slavonic in their services and chants. Initially Old Church Slavonic

6120-429: The Great Moravian Academy ( Slovak : Veľkomoravské učilište ), were used for government and religious documents and books in Great Moravia between 863 and 885. The texts written during this phase contain characteristics of the West Slavic vernaculars in Great Moravia. In 885 Pope Stephen V prohibited the use of Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia in favour of Latin . King Svatopluk I of Great Moravia expelled

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6240-427: The Habsburg Emperor Rudolf II. Michael was born in 1558. He claimed to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian Prince Pătrașcu cel Bun (Pătrașcu the Good), of the Drăculești branch of the House of Basarab ; some historians believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule. His real father was most likely a Greek merchant. His mother was Theodora Kantakouzene  [ ro ] ,

6360-399: The Habsburg Emperor; the killing took place near Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601. According to Romanian historian Constantin C. Giurescu : Never in Romanian history was a moment of such highness and glory so closely followed by bitter failure. The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states,

6480-516: The Kiev Folia, is characterised by the replacement of some South Slavic phonetic and lexical features with Western Slavic ones. Manuscripts written in the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396) have, on the other hand, few Western Slavic features. Though South Slavic in phonology and morphology, Old Church Slavonic was influenced by Byzantine Greek in syntax and style, and is characterized by complex subordinate sentence structures and participial constructions. A large body of complex, polymorphemic words

6600-409: The Old Romanian had a tapped ɾ and trill r . Like in Modern Romanian, there were complex patterns of allomorphy, in particular affecting the lexical root. Voiced dental alveolar affricate [d͡z] > [z] is found in Muntenia, Oltenia, and central Transylvanian varieties (as well as in the Istro-Romanian and the Megleno-Romanian dialects) but not overall in Moldova, Maramureș, Banat, and in

6720-443: The Ottomans continued until 26 June 1599, when Michael, lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war, signed a peace treaty. In April 1598, Sigismund resigned as Prince of Transylvania in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II (who was also the King of Hungary ); reversed his decision in October 1598; and then resigned again in favor of Cardinal Andrew Báthory , his cousin. Báthory had strong ties to

6840-449: The Prince fought the Battle of Călugăreni , resulting in a victory against an army nearly three times the size of the army of Michael the Brave, considered one of the most important battles of his reign. Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle, Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies, Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II . The war continued until

6960-516: The Romanian inhabitants, who were primarily peasants but, nevertheless, constituted a significant proportion of the population. Michael demonstrated his support by upholding the Union of the Three Nations , which recognized only the traditional rights and privileges of the Hungarians, Székelys and Saxons , but he did not recognize the rights of the Romanians. Indeed, while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania, he also invited some Székelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in

7080-450: The Slavic countries, Old Church Slavonic served as a liturgical language in the Romanian Orthodox Church , and also as a literary and official language of the princedoms of Wallachia and Moldavia (see Old Church Slavonic in Romania ), before gradually being replaced by Romanian during the 16th to 17th centuries. Church Slavonic maintained a prestigious status, particularly in Russia , for many centuries – among Slavs in

7200-407: The Turks, and signed treaties with his neighbours: Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania, Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia and the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II (see Holy League of Pope Clement VIII ). He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594, conquering several citadels near the Danube , including Giurgiu , Brăila , Hârșova , and Silistra , while his Moldavian allies defeated

7320-410: The Wallachian ruler. On 9 June 1598 a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II. According to the treaty, the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5,000-man army, as well as armaments and supplies. Shortly after the treaty was signed, the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besieged Nicopolis on 10 September 1598 and took control of Vidin . The war with

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7440-412: The Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni , Ceptura , and Bucov ( Battle of the Teleajăn River ). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia . Michael asked again for assistance from Emperor Rudolf II during a visit in Prague between 23 February and 5 March 1601, which was granted when

7560-414: The administration of Wallachia, where he wished to transplant Transylvania's far more advanced feudal system. Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachian voivode , on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed

7680-498: The alternations of /c/ with /č/ and of /dz/ with /ž/ occur, in which the corresponding velar is missing. The dental alternants of velars occur regularly before /ě/ and /i/ in the declension and in the imperative, and somewhat less regularly in various forms after /i/, /ę/, /ь/ and /r /. The palatal alternants of velars occur before front vowels in all other environments, where dental alternants do not occur, as well as in various places in inflection and word formation described below. As

7800-412: The area that a text originated from. For English equivalents and narrow transcriptions of sounds, see Old Church Slavonic Pronunciation on Wiktionary . For English equivalents and narrow transcriptions of sounds, see Old Church Slavonic Pronunciation on Wiktionary . Several notable constraints on the distribution of the phonemes can be identified, mostly resulting from the tendencies occurring within

7920-490: The city of Brassó (today Brașov, Romania). Sparing the city, he moved on to Kerc (today Cârța, Romania), where he joined forces with the Székelys . On 18 October Michael won a decisive victory against the army of prince-cardinal Andrew Báthory at the Battle of Șelimbăr , giving him control of Transylvania. As he retreated from the battle, Andrew Báthory was killed by anti-Báthory Székely on 3 November near Csíkszentdomokos (today Sândominic, Romania) and Michael gave him

8040-796: The compilers of the texts. This name is preserved in the modern native names of the Slovak and Slovene languages. The terms Slavic and Slavonic are interchangeable and either may be used correctly in English. The language is sometimes called Old Slavic , which may be confused with the distinct Proto-Slavic language . Bulgarian, Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene and Slovak linguists have claimed Old Church Slavonic; thus OCS has also been variously called Old Bulgarian , Old Croatian , Old Macedonian or Old Serbian, or even Old Slovak , Old Slovenian . The commonly accepted terms in modern English-language Slavic studies are Old Church Slavonic and Old Church Slavic . The term Old Bulgarian ( Bulgarian : старобългарски , German : Altbulgarisch )

8160-406: The concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist. A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael's politics, holding that Michael's lack of desire to join the principalities' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept. Several Romanian settlements named after him, such as: Michael is also commemorated by

8280-485: The conditional "she/he/they would go". Old Romanian presented aspects that were similar to other old Romance languages but have disappeared in the transition to Modern Romanian. The preposition de was used frequently for partitive constructions, similar to its use in French and Italian (for example in French: J’ai vu deux de ces garcons ) before gradually being replaced by din ( de + în ). Likewise, and like in other Romance languages, de marked

8400-447: The development of Slavonic liturgy. As part of preparations for the mission, in 862/863, the missionaries developed the Glagolitic alphabet and translated the most important prayers and liturgical books , including the Aprakos Evangeliar , the Psalter , and the Acts of the Apostles , allegedly basing the language on the Slavic dialect spoken in the hinterland of their hometown, Thessaloniki , in present-day Greece . Based on

8520-434: The early nineteenth century, replaced Old Romanian methods of indicating agreement or acceptance through non-specialised words such as așa , adevărat , bine or the repetition of the verb in the question (for example " Ai văzut pe Ion? " " Văzut! "). This generalization happened as a consequence of modeling of the Romanian syntax after the French one, mainly through translations of French language books, towards

8640-514: The emperor heard that General Giorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory , who accepted Ottoman protection. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătrașcu , drove Simion Movilă out of Wallachia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian army in Battle of Guruslău . A few days later, Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself, assassinated Michael by order of

8760-613: The end of the period. Old Church Slavonic Old Church Slavonic or Old Slavonic ( / s l ə ˈ v ɒ n ɪ k , s l æ ˈ v ɒ n -/ slə- VON -ik, slav- ON - ) is the first Slavic literary language and the oldest extant written Slavonic language attested in literary sources. It belongs to the South Slavic subgroup of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and remains

8880-470: The end of the period. Notable are also the competition between analytic and synthetic forms. One example in the case of the preterite which continues the Latin perfect indicative and the compound past. The more numerous forms at the beginning of the Old Romanian period were the simple past ( Scriș eu, călugărița Mariia ) but gradually a distinction between "impersonal narration" and "discourse" develops with

9000-637: The executive rule of the country. Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and, if convicted for treason, their fortunes could no longer be confiscated. Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys, but was forced to comply. Prince Michael said in a conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki: ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves. He would try to avoid

9120-786: The expression serves only to confirm the absence of any Romanian idea . Samuil Micu , a member of the Transylvanian School wrote in his work Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians (written in the 1790s): "In the year 1593, Michael, who is called the Brave, succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia. He was a great warrior, who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians. And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf". Petre P. Panaitescu states that in Mihai's time,

9240-472: The following period. The effects of the standardization of the language did not only bring it closer to other Romance languages but also, haphazardly, strengthened some Slavic features, for example the particle da of Slavic origin (most likely Bulgarian and corresponding to English yes, French oui and so on) used mostly in the Wallachian dialect and which appears in Romanian language texts from

9360-597: The following signature on official documents: Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda, Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens, cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus". ("Michael, voivode of Wallachia, the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King, his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania.") When Michael entered Transylvania, he did not immediately free or grant rights to

9480-519: The form [ɨ] , [ə] , [a] also occasionally took particular forms in Old Romanian either as sporadically triggered by sibilants and by the affricates [t͡s] and [d͡z] ( *țeri > țări ) or affecting mid front vowels triggered by immediately preceding labial consonants but not when the immediately following vowel is a front one ( *vesku > vâsc ‘mistletoe’ but *veneri > vineri ‘Friday’). Unlike in Megleno-Romanian and

9600-553: The future subjunctive in the Ibero-Romance languages and formed by the perfect root followed by the suffix -re introduced by the particle să which could produce unique periphrases: Se fure faptu păcatu - "If he has committed sin". The synthetic conditional is found in Aromanian and the root+re form also in Istro-Romanian . The main difference between Old Romanian and Modern Romanian in terms of vocabulary

9720-572: The inflectional paradigm usually exhibit morphophonemic alternations. Fronting of vowels after palatals and j yielded dual inflectional class o  : jo and a  : ja , whereas palatalizations affected stem as a synchronic process (N sg. vlьkъ , V sg. vlьče ; L sg. vlьcě ). Productive classes are o/jo- , a/ja- , and i -stems. Sample paradigms are given in the table below: Adjectives are inflected as o/jo -stems (masculine and neuter) and a/ja -stems (feminine), in three genders. They could have short (indefinite) or long (definite) variants,

9840-450: The language adopted more and more features from local Slavic vernaculars, producing different variants referred to as Recensions or Redactions . Modern convention differentiates between the earliest, classical form of the language, referred to as Old Church Slavonic, and later, vernacular-coloured forms, collectively designated as Church Slavonic . More specifically, Old Church Slavonic is exemplified by extant manuscripts written between

9960-532: The language early on. In the case of the conditional there were numerous periphrases with the auxiliary vrea - "to want" - in combination with the imperfect or the compound past and which will give way to the conditional formed with auxiliary aș (also ară in Old Romanian). The vrea type conditional is still frequent in Banat. As in the other examples there was a synthetic conditional, similar to

10080-456: The language either directly, some with forms that were revisited during the modern period ( eleghie, elexie, comendă versus modern elegie, elecție, comandă ), or from contact languages such as German , Hungarian , Polish , Russian , and Ukrainian , or even Turkish. However, not all remained in the language, being often just an ephemeric apparition in the language use by an author or another. Others, as mentioned, were reinterpreted during

10200-404: The latter being formed by suffixing to the indefinite form the anaphoric third-person pronoun jь . Synthetic verbal conjugation is expressed in present, aorist and imperfect tenses while perfect, pluperfect, future and conditional tenses/moods are made by combining auxiliary verbs with participles or synthetic tense forms. Sample conjugation for the verb vesti "to lead" (underlyingly ved-ti )

10320-548: The monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery that had been destroyed by a fire. Mihai Viteazul , a film by Sergiu Nicolaescu , a well-known Romanian film director, is a representation of the life of the Wallachian ruler and his will to unite the three Romanian principalities ( Wallachia , Moldavia , and Transylvania ) as one domain. The Order of Michael

10440-407: The northern and western varieties of Aromanian , in Old Romanian preceding yod or central vowels acted on following central vowels which become fronted (for example cară - cărând ). The complex morphology of Romanian was already developed in Old Romanian period, with its vestigial inflexional case system comprising two case forms and determiners and desinences that mark the vocative, both in

10560-504: The obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign. During his reign, Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords, the most important of whom were Buzescu Brothers (Romanian: Frații Buzești ) and his own relatives on his mother's side, the Cantacuzinos. He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign; for example, he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats. From

10680-464: The operation. Ștefan Răzvan arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of 24 April (5 May) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at Gyulafehérvár with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle of Vinc . Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had played an active role in the anti-Ottoman coalition. Later on, in

10800-559: The other languages used in the Banat-Hunedoara area. Of them, Psaltirea Hurmuzaki , a translation of the Psalms , has been dated to the last decade of the 15th century - first decade of the 16th century by watermark, making it the oldest preserved manuscript in Romanian. From the second half of the 16th century and onwards Romanian starts to be used in the chronicles of Moldavia . Probably drawing from Letopisețul de la Bistrița ,

10920-478: The popular literary texts, and translations such as the narratives Varlaam și Ioasaf and Alexandria . The period is characterized by the advent of the printed books and the almost exclusive use of the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet . Latin gave way to Romance languages after the 7th century and the period of the local idiom when all Eastern Romance languages were still in contact with each other

11040-494: The prepositional genitive (ex: Curtea de Argeș ) along with the inflectional genitive that is used more frequently in Modern Romanian. It employed the determiner cel (from Latin: eccum ille ) as a proclitic definite article. Rarely and in particular conditions, an expletive pronominal subject in the form of el was used together with a fi - "to be": El venise atunce vremea troianilor de perit - "It

11160-550: The region. Before the 11th century, Common Romanian split in two geographically separated groups due to the settlement of Slavs in the area and the formation of the South Slavic states. One was in the northern part of the Balkan peninsula from which the Daco-Romanian branch of Common Romanian subsequently formed, the other one was in the south of the peninsula where the Aromanian branch of Common Romanian presumably

11280-459: The same city of Gyulafehérvár, Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael's behalf. From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics, the Treaty of Gyulafehérvár officialized what could be called a boyar regime , reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite. According to the treaty, a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the voivode in

11400-485: The singular and in the plural. Overall, derivational morphology in Romanian tends to be of a more agglutinative character than inflexional morphology. Compared to the modern language, Old Romanian had a higher degree of unpredictability of plural endings with feminine nouns taking either -e or -i ( inemă – inemi , but grădină – grădine ) and neuter nouns either -e or -uri ( veștmânt - veștminte / veșmânturi ). Verbal forms showed differences compared to

11520-539: The sovereign of Wallachia. On 25 September (5 October) Báthory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne. Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Báthory immediately to prevent invasion. He would later describe the events: I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army [marched into Transylvania] so that the foe should not crush me here. He left Târgoviște on 2 October, and 9 by October he had reached Prejmer in southern Transylvania, where he met envoys from

11640-422: The standard language. The simple perfect presented two variants in the first century of the period: the one preserved, with stress on the inflectional ending ( făcui - I did, mersei - I went), and one with stress on the root ( faciu - I did, merșu - I went). Synthetic and analytic forms were used for pluperfect, imperfect, and conditional for example mersere vs ară mearge could both express

11760-722: The standpoint of religious jurisdiction, the Treaty of Gyulafehérvár had another important consequence: it placed all the Eastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat of Târgoviște . During this period, the Ottoman army, based in Ruse , was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack. Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross

11880-426: The subjunctive, defined by the already fixed marker să with history traceable to Common Romanian (i.e. the same marker is used in the other Eastern Romance languages) and similar in evolution to the Greek particle na , tends to extend its use by replacing the infinitive in several contexts. The old language also showed the proliferation of numerous tense and aspect periphrases with a decreasing frequency towards

12000-567: The territory of today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Austria and southeastern Poland. Michael the Brave Michael the Brave ( Romanian : Mihai Viteazul [miˈhaj viˈte̯azul] or Mihai Bravu [ˈbravu] ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu , was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II , 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and de facto ruler of Transylvania (1599–1600). He

12120-419: The three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. This did not significantly delay his attack, however; on 14 April 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main thrust to Trotuș and Roman . He reached the capital of Iași on 6 May. The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă, who

12240-465: The two countries founded in the 14th century - for administrative and cultural purposes. The oldest preserved texts are Neacșu's letter which can be dated to 29th or 30 June 1521 based on the historical account it describes, and a number of manuscripts known together as Rhotacizing Texts (i.e.: showing rhotacism of intervocalic /n/). The Rhotacizing Texts are religious writings from Moldavia and carry evidence of being translations of manuscripts written in

12360-437: The two forms used in the same context to express the two different interpretations: În lume era, și lumea pren el s-au făcut, și lumea pe el nu cunoscu . Another example comes from the use of pluperfect and double compound perfect, between the synthetic form inherited from Latin of the type făcuse and the analytic form of the type era făcut which is likely correspondent to Slavonic pluperfect and which disappeared from

12480-559: The walls and across the Dniester to hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski 's camp. Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, who rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău , forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops. A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove

12600-720: The warful rule of Voivode Mihai". The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in The History of the Princes of Wallachia , attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu (1655–1729), which bundles together all Michael's adversaries without distinction. Romanians and foreigners alike: "He subjected the Turks, the Moldavians, and the Hungarians to his rule, as if they were his asses." The picturesque flavor of

12720-487: Was accompanied by his half-brother Radu Florescu, Radu Buzescu and several other supporters. After spending two weeks at the court of Sigismund Báthory , he left for Constantinople , where with help from his cousin Andronikos Kantakouzenos (the eldest son of Michael "Şeytanoğlu" Kantakouzenos ) and Patriarch Jeremiah II he negotiated Ottoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne. He

12840-406: Was based on the dialect of Pannonia . It is generally held that the language was standardized by two Byzantine missionaries, Cyril and his brother Methodius , for a mission to Great Moravia (the territory of today's eastern Czech Republic and western Slovakia; for details, see Glagolitic alphabet ). The mission took place in response to a request by Great Moravia 's ruler, Duke Rastislav for

12960-613: Was coined, first by Saint Cyril himself and then by his students at the academies in Great Moravia and the First Bulgarian Empire , to denote complex abstract and religious terms, e.g., ꙁълодѣꙗньѥ ( zъlodějanьje ) from ꙁъло ('evil') + дѣти ('do') + ньѥ (noun suffix), i.e., 'evil deed'. A significant part of them wеrе calqued directly from Greek. Old Church Slavonic is valuable to historical linguists since it preserves archaic features believed to have once been common to all Slavic languages such as: Old Church Slavonic

13080-517: Was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania , a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu . This theory became a point of reference for nationalists , as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state. To Romanian Romantic nationalists, he was regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes. He is known in Romanian historiography as Mihai Viteazul or, less commonly, Mihai Bravu . The prince began to be perceived as

13200-540: Was declared Prince of Moldavia . During this period, Michael the Brave changed his seal to represent his personal union of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania. The interests of the three neighbouring great powers – the Habsburg monarchy , the Ottoman Empire , and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – were damaged by Michael the Brave's achievements. Although he acknowledged the suzerainty of Rudolf II, Michael

13320-440: Was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans, but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Báthory and Rudolf II. On 7 January 1597 Hasan Pasha declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael's rule, but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack. Michael again requested Rudolf II's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to

13440-534: Was printed in Univ in 1673, and translations from Italian and German were printed in Milan around 1760 by the Romanian printer Vlad Boțulescu. Old Romanian had a phonemic inventory of seven vowel and twenty-nine consonants, yet differences existed from one subperiod to another. Stressed [ə] from Common Romanian developed into the vowel [ɨ] in the pre-literary stage of the language. The Old Romanian vowel system

13560-501: Was quite spectacular, as he became the Ban of Mehedinți in 1588, stolnic at the court of Mihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588, and Ban of Craiova in 1593 – during the rule of Alexandru cel Rău . The latter had him swear before 12 boyars that he was not of princely descent. Still, in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael, who was forced to flee to Transylvania. He

13680-407: Was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear-guard. Movilă took refuge in the castle of Hotin together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Báthory. The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before 11 June, Movilă managed to sneak out of

13800-477: Was spoken. Before the 16th century the language is thought to have been divided in varieties, without a standardised form. The earliest writings, with Cyrillic script , seem to have started in the second half of the 15th century but none of them have survived until today. Old Church Slavonic was primarily used instead by both the church and the Princely Chancery, in both Moldavia and Wallachia -

13920-573: Was sporadic and only gradually implemented from the reign of Michael the Brave . The printing press was introduced to Wallachia during the reign of Radu IV the Great (1467 - 1508), and placed in Târgoviște then the capital of the country. The leading work was done by Hieromonk Makarije and the first books, written in Slavonic, were the religious texts Liturgy Book from 1508, the Oktoih from 1510, and

14040-603: Was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital, Edward Barton , and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins. Michael was invested Prince by Sultan Murad III in September 1593 and started his effective rule on 11 October. Not long after Michael became Prince of Wallachia, he turned against the Ottoman Empire. The next year he joined the Christian alliance of European powers formed by Pope Clement VIII against

14160-508: Was the first to write a biography, and a novel ( Istoria ieroglifică ) in Romanian. In Wallachia the historical writing develops later and is represented mainly by stolnic Constantin Cantacuzino (ca. 1639–1716) and monk Radu Popescu (ca. 1655–1729), and Romanian language writing will even regress during Phanariote rule in particular in the epistolary segment. The use of Romanian in the 16th century in juridical and administrative spheres

14280-499: Was then time for the Trojans to die". Modern Romanian constructions lack the equivalent of French il and English it in such cases: Venise atunci vremea troianilor să piară . Among the segments that experienced the most changes during this period is the nominal domain. From the 16th century new determiners developed with idiosyncratic morphemic and distributional features. The determiner cel appeared frequently preceding

14400-580: Was written with the Glagolitic alphabet , but later Glagolitic was replaced by Cyrillic , which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire by a decree of Boris I of Bulgaria in the 9th century. Of the Old Church Slavonic canon , about two-thirds is written in Glagolitic. The local Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, known as Srbinčica , was preserved in Serbia and parts of Croatia , while

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