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71-617: Palatinus Latinus 1447 is a computus and is assembled from several components, the earliest of which have been dated to around 813 and are shown by internal evidence to have been originally produced at the St. Alban's Abbey in Mainz . The Old Saxon material must have been written down later than an astronomical calculation dated to after 836, and the Genesis fragments are in three different hands which have been assigned on palaeographic evidence to

142-541: A moveable feast , the date of Easter is determined in each year through a calculation known as computus ( Latin for 'computation'). Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the Paschal full moon (a mathematical approximation of the first astronomical full moon , on or after 21 March – itself a fixed approximation of the March equinox ). Determining this date in advance requires

213-650: A Paschal table (attributed to pope Cyril of Alexandria ) covering the years 437 to 531. This Paschal table was the source which inspired Dionysius Exiguus , who worked in Rome from about 500 to about 540, to construct a continuation of it in the form of his famous Paschal table covering the years 532 to 616. Dionysius introduced the Christian Era (counting years from the Incarnation of Christ) by publishing this new Easter table in 525. A modified 84-year cycle

284-510: A Sunday. The Hebrew calendar does not have a simple relationship with the Christian calendars : it resynchronizes with the solar year by intercalating a leap month every two or three years, before the lunar new year on 1  Nisan . Later Jews adopted the Metonic cycle to predict future intercalations . A possible consequence of this intercalation is that 14 Nisan could occur before

355-599: A blissful heavenly vision. Although it has been suggested that the vision derives from a Germanic source—the relationship of the lord to his war-band or comitatus —the likeliest source appears to be Jewish apocryphal texts and the writings of Pope Gregory the Great or other contemporary biblical interpreters, including the Heliand . It also reflects the theological crisis in the Carolingian Empire in

426-506: A century year). This is a correction to the length of the tropical year, but should have no effect on the Metonic relation between years and lunations. Therefore, the epact is compensated for this (partially – see epact ) by subtracting one in these century years. This is the so-called solar correction or "solar equation" ("equation" being used in its medieval sense of "correction"). However, 19 uncorrected Julian years are

497-536: A correlation between the lunar months and the solar year , while also accounting for the month, date, and weekday of the Julian or Gregorian calendar . The complexity of the algorithm arises because of the desire to associate the date of Easter with the date of the Jewish feast of Passover which, Christians believe, is when Jesus was crucified. It was originally feasible for the entire Christian Church to receive

568-475: A day earlier than it would normally be, in order to keep Easter before April 26, as explained below. In the year 2100, the difference will increase by another day. The epacts are used to find the dates of the new moon in the following way: Write down a table of all 365 days of the year (the leap day is ignored). Then label all dates with a Roman numeral counting downwards, from "*" (0 or 30), "xxix" (29), down to "i" (1), starting from 1 January, and repeat this to

639-557: A little longer than 235 lunations. The difference accumulates to one day in about 308 years, or 0.00324 days per year. In one cycle, the epact decreases due to the solar correction by 19 × 0.0075 = 0.1425 on average, so a cycle is equivalent to 235−0.1425/30 = 234.99525 months, whereas there are actually 19 × 365.2425 / 29.5305889 ≈ 234.997261 synodic months. The difference of 0.002011 synodic months per 19-year cycle, or 0.003126 days per year, necessitates an occasional lunar correction to

710-486: A longer written history beginning with the retaining of oral poetry, and the Anglo-Saxon translator of Genesis B has tightened up the loose connections by using more subordinate clauses. The metre is also less varied than in the Heliand . In some places, Genesis B has been further revised in the manuscript to make it more Anglo-Saxon in syntax, word forms, and (late West Saxon) spelling. Metrically and grammatically,

781-442: A multiple of 30. This is a problem if compensation is only done by adding months of 30 days. So after 19 years, the epact must be corrected by one day for the cycle to repeat. This is the so-called saltus lunae ("leap of the moon"). The Julian calendar handles it by reducing the length of the lunar month that begins on 1 July in the last year of the cycle to 29 days. This makes three successive 29-day months. The saltus and

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852-461: A new cycle. At the time of the reform, the epacts were changed by 7, even though 10 days were skipped, in order to make a three-day correction to the timing of the new moons. The solar and lunar corrections work in opposite directions, and in some century years (for example, 1800 and 2100) they cancel each other. The result is that the Gregorian lunar calendar uses an epact table that is valid for

923-423: A period of from 100 to 300 years. The epact table listed above is valid for the 20th, 21st and 22nd century. As explained below, the dates of Easter repeat after 5.7 million years, and over this period the average length of an ecclesiastical month is 2,081,882,250/70,499,183 ≈ 29.5305869 days, which differs from the current actual mean lunation length (29,5305889 d: see Lunar month#Synodic month ) in

994-423: A slender crescent in the western sky after sunset) on the first day of the lunar month. The conjunction of Sun and Moon ("new moon") is most likely to fall on the preceding day, which is day 29 of a "hollow" (29-day) month and day 30 of a "full" (30-day) month. Historically , the paschal full moon date for a year was found from its sequence number in the Metonic cycle, called the golden number , which cycle repeats

1065-404: Is about 11 days shorter than the calendar year, which is either 365 or 366 days long. These days by which the solar year exceeds the lunar year are called epacts ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : ἐπακταὶ ἡμέραι , translit.   épaktai hēmérai , lit.  "intercalary days"). It is necessary to add them to the day of the solar year to obtain the correct day in the lunar year. Whenever

1136-472: Is an exception. The month ending in March normally has 30 days, but if 29 February of a leap year falls within it, it contains 31. As these groups are based on the lunar cycle , over the long term the average month in the lunar calendar is a very good approximation of the synodic month , which is 29.530 59 days long. There are 12 synodic months in a lunar year, totaling either 354 or 355 days. The lunar year

1207-416: Is given by the formula That is, the year number Y in the Christian era is divided by 19, and the remainder plus 1 is the golden number. (Some sources specify that you add 1 before taking the remainder; in that case, you need to treat a result of 0 as golden number 19. In the formula above we take the remainder first and then add 1, so no such adjustment is necessary.) Cycles of 19 years are not all

1278-406: Is no problem since they are the same. This does not move the problem to the pair "25" and "xxvi", because the earliest epact 26 could appear would be in year 23 of the cycle, which lasts only 19 years: there is a saltus lunae in between that makes the new moons fall on separate dates. The Gregorian calendar has a correction to the tropical year by dropping three leap days in 400 years (always in

1349-563: Is one day less: in years 1, 6, and 17 of the cycle the date is only 18 days later, and in years 7 and 18 it is only 10 days earlier than in the previous year. In the Eastern system , the Paschal full moon is usually four days later than in the West. It is 34 days later in 5 of the 19 years, and 5 days later in years 6 and 17, because in those years, the Gregorian system puts the Paschal full moon

1420-460: Is the first one in the year to have its fourteenth day (its formal full moon ) on or after 21 March. Easter is the Sunday after its 14th day (or, saying the same thing, the Sunday within its third week). The paschal lunar month always begins on a date in the 29-day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive. Its fourteenth day, therefore, always falls on a date between 21 March and 18 April inclusive (in

1491-533: Is too late: The full moon would fall on 19 April, and Easter could be as late as 26 April. In the Julian calendar the latest date of Easter was 25 April, and the Gregorian reform maintained that limit. So the paschal full moon must fall no later than 18 April and the new moon on 5 April, which has epact label "xxv". 5 April must therefore have its double epact labels "xxiv" and "xxv". Then epact "xxv" must be treated differently, as explained in

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1562-714: The University of Leipzig , found and identified the fragments on a visit to the Vatican Library. Photographs were made and the first edition of the Old Saxon poem, by Zangemeister with Wilhelm Braune and with an introduction by Rudolf Kögel , was completed by the end of the year. Sievers did revise his original hypothesis that the same poet was responsible for both Heliand and Genesis . The manuscript preserves three fragments: These correspond respectively to lines 790–817a, 151–337, and 27–150 of

1633-782: The previous section . Tarnhelm The Tarnhelm is a magic helmet in Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen (written 1848–1874; first perf. 1876). It was crafted by Mime at the demand of his brother Alberich . It is used as a cloak of invisibility by Alberich in Das Rheingold . It also allows one to change one's form: Finally, it allows one to travel long distances instantly , as Siegfried does in Götterdämmerung , Act II. The stage directions in Das Rheingold and Siegfried describe it as

1704-466: The resurrection of Jesus , which Christians believe to have occurred on the third day (inclusive) after the beginning of Passover . In the Hebrew lunisolar calendar, Passover begins at twilight on the 14th day of Nisan . Nisan is the first month of spring in the northern hemisphere , with the 14th corresponding to a full moon. By the 2nd century, many Christians had chosen to observe Easter only on

1775-434: The 14th day fall between 21 March and 18 April inclusive, thus spanning a period of (only) 29 days. A new moon on 7 March, which has epact label "xxiv", has its 14th day (full moon) on 20 March, which is too early (not following 20 March). So years with an epact of "xxiv", if the lunar month beginning on 7 March had 30 days, would have their paschal new moon on 6 April, which

1846-565: The 16th century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days. The Gregorian Easter has been used since 1583 by the Roman Catholic Church and was adopted by most Protestant churches between 1753 and 1845. German Protestant states used an astronomical Easter between 1700 and 1776, based on the Rudolphine Tables of Johannes Kepler , which were in turn based on astronomical positions of

1917-467: The 30) epact labels assigned to it. The reason for moving around the epact label "xxv/25" rather than any other seems to be the following: According to Dionysius (in his introductory letter to Petronius), the Nicene council, on the authority of Eusebius , established that the first month of the ecclesiastical lunar year (the paschal month) should start between 8 March and 5 April inclusive, and

1988-486: The 6th figure after the decimal point. This corresponds to an error of less than a day in the phase of the moon over 40,000 years, but in fact the length of a day is changing (as is the length of a synodic month), so the system is not accurate over such periods. See the article ΔT (timekeeping) for information on the cumulative change of day length. This method of computation has several subtleties: Every other lunar month has only 29 days, so one day must have two (of

2059-484: The Anglo-Saxon Genesis B . Stylistically, Genesis even more than the Heliand shows that it is the product of a written tradition: although it retains features of Germanic oral heroic poetry such as alliteration and formulaic diction, it is discursive and uses long, connected clauses, and the language shows signs of developing towards the use of particles rather than case endings. Anglo-Saxon poetry had

2130-596: The Anglo-Saxon poem shows few signs of being a translation. The poem diverges from the story of the Fall as told in the Vulgate . Adam is tempted by a demon in the guise of an angel, not by a "serpent" as in the Bible, and Eve plays a much more active role: Adam is tempted first and refuses, and the tempter tells her to persuade him by telling him the forbidden fruit bestows divine powers; she instead proves it to him by recounting

2201-524: The Anglo-Saxon work were originally a separate poem, which he named 'Genesis B' to distinguish it from the remainder, Genesis A, and that this was an Anglo-Saxonised version of a lost Old Saxon poem corresponding to the Genesis poem referred to in the Latin preface to the Heliand . His inference, made on metrical and linguistic grounds, was confirmed in 1894 when Karl Zangemeister , the professor of Classics at

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2272-596: The British Isles. The British tables used an 84-year cycle, but an error made the full moons fall progressively too early. The discrepancy led to a report that Queen Eanflæd , on the Dionysian system – fasted on her Palm Sunday while her husband Oswiu , king of Northumbria, feasted on his Easter Sunday. As a result of the Irish Synod of Magh-Lene in 630, the southern Irish began to use

2343-556: The Dionysian tables, and the northern English followed suit after the Synod of Whitby in 664. The Dionysian reckoning was fully described by Bede in 725. It may have been adopted by Charlemagne for the Frankish Church as early as 782 from Alcuin , a follower of Bede. The Dionysian/Bedan computus remained in use in western Europe until the Gregorian calendar reform, and remains in use in most Eastern Churches, including

2414-484: The Gregorian Easter, were delayed one week so they were on the same Sunday as the Gregorian Easter. Germany's astronomical Easter was one week before the Gregorian Easter in 1724 and 1744. Sweden's astronomical Easter was one week before the Gregorian Easter in 1744, but one week after it in 1805, 1811, 1818, 1825, and 1829. Two modern astronomical Easters were proposed but never used by any Church. The first

2485-457: The Gregorian or Julian calendar, for the Western and Eastern system, resp.), and the following Sunday then necessarily falls on a date in the range 22 March to 25 April inclusive. However, in the Western system Easter cannot fall on 22 March during the 300-year period 1900–2199 (see below). In the solar calendar Easter is called a moveable feast since its date varies within a 35-day range. But in

2556-566: The Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar is used. For this reason, the Catholic Church and Protestant churches (which follow the Gregorian calendar) celebrate Easter on a different date from that of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy (which follow the Julian calendar). It was the drift of 21 March from the observed equinox that led to the Gregorian reform of the calendar , to bring them back into line. Easter commemorates

2627-607: The Sun and Moon observed by Tycho Brahe at his Uraniborg observatory on the island of Ven , while Sweden used it from 1739 to 1844. This astronomical Easter was the Sunday after the full moon instant that was after the vernal equinox instant using Uraniborg time ( TT + 51 ) . However, it was delayed one week if that Sunday was the Jewish date Nisan   15, the first day of Passover week, calculated according to modern Jewish methods. This Nisan   15 rule affected two Swedish years, 1778 and 1798, that instead of being one week before

2698-404: The astronomical Easter one month before the Gregorian Easter in 1924, 1943, and 1962, but one week after it in 1927, 1954, and 1967. The 1997 version would have placed the astronomical Easter on the same Sunday as the Gregorian Easter for 2000–2025 except for 2019, when it would have been one month earlier. The Easter cycle groups days into lunar months, which are either 29 or 30 days long. There

2769-402: The cycle in use since 1900 and until 2199), then an epact of 25 puts the ecclesiastical new moon on April 4 (having the label "25"), otherwise it is on April 5 (having label "xxv"). An epact of 25 giving April 4 can only happen if the golden number is greater than 11. In which case it will be 11 years after a year with epact 24. So for example, in 1954 the golden number was 17, the epact was 25,

2840-469: The date for Easter directly from the March equinox. In The Reckoning of Time (725), Bede uses computus as a general term for any sort of calculation, although he refers to the Easter cycles of Theophilus as a "Paschal computus ." By the end of the 8th century, computus came to refer specifically to the calculation of time. The calculations produce different results depending on whether

2911-531: The date of Easter each year through an annual announcement by the pope . By the early third century, however, communications in the Roman Empire had deteriorated to the point that the church put great value in a system that would allow the clergy to determine the date for themselves, independently yet consistently. Additionally, the church wished to eliminate dependencies on the Hebrew calendar , by deriving

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2982-419: The day of the full moon . It is the day of the lunar month on which the moment of opposition ("full moon") is most likely to fall. The Gregorian method derives new moon dates by determining the epact for each year. The epact can have a value from * (0 or 30) to 29 days. It is the age of the moon in days (i.e. the lunar date) on 1 January reduced by one day. The "new moon" is most likely to become visible (as

3053-579: The eastern fringes of the Roman empire, by the tenth century all had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March, although Bede had already noted its drift in 725 – it had drifted even further by the 16th century. Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by the 19-year cycle. That approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by

3124-411: The ecclesiastical new moon was reckoned on April 4, the full moon on April 17. Easter was on April 18 rather than April 25 as it would otherwise have been, such as in 1886 when the golden number was 6. This system automatically intercalates seven months per Metonic cycle. Label all the dates in the table with letters "A" to "G", starting from 1 January, and repeat to the end of the year. If, for instance,

3195-589: The end of the 3rd century. Although a process based on the 19-year Metonic cycle was first proposed by Bishop Anatolius of Laodicea around 277, the concept did not fully take hold until the Alexandrian method became authoritative in the late 4th century. The Alexandrian computus was converted from the Alexandrian calendar into the Julian calendar in Alexandria around 440, which resulted in

3266-425: The end of the year. However, in every second such period count only 29 days and label the date with xxv (25) also with xxiv (24). Treat the 13th period (last eleven days) as long, therefore, and assign the labels "xxv" and "xxiv" to sequential dates (26 and 27 December respectively). Add the label "25" to the dates that have "xxv" in the 30-day periods; but in 29-day periods (which have "xxiv" together with "xxv") add

3337-405: The epact for the year is entered. If the epact for the year is for instance 27, then there is an ecclesiastical new moon on every date in that year that has the epact label "xxvii" (27). If the epact is 25, then there is a complication, introduced so that the ecclesiastical new moon will not fall on the same date twice during a Metonic cycle. If the epact cycle in force includes epact 24 (as does

3408-515: The epact reaches or exceeds 30, an extra intercalary month (or embolismic month) of 30 days must be inserted into the lunar calendar: then 30 must be subtracted from the epact. Charles Wheatly provides the detail: "Thus beginning the year with March (for that was the ancient custom) they allowed thirty days for the moon [ending] in March, and twenty-nine for that [ending] in April; and thirty again for May, and twenty-nine for June &c. according to

3479-434: The epact. In the Gregorian calendar, this is done by adding 1 eight times in 2,500 (Gregorian) years (slightly more than 2500 × 0.003126, or about 7.8), always in a century year: this is the so-called lunar correction (historically called "lunar equation"). The first one was applied in 1800, the next is in 2100, and will be applied every 300 years except for an interval of 400 years between 3900 and 4300, which starts

3550-405: The epacts only from 8 March to 5 April. As an example, if the epact is 27, an ecclesiastical new moon falls on every date labeled xxvii . The ecclesiastical full moon falls 13 days later. From the table above, this gives new moons on 4 March and 3 April, and so full moons on 17 March and 16 April. Then Easter Day is the first Sunday after the first ecclesiastical full moon on or after 21 March. In

3621-497: The equinox, irrespective of actual astronomical observation. In 395, Theophilus published a table of future dates for Easter, validating the Alexandrian criteria. Thereafter, the computus would be the procedure of determining the first Sunday after the first ecclesiastical full moon falling on or after 21 March. The earliest known Roman tables were devised in 222 by Hippolytus of Rome based on eight-year cycles. Then 84-year tables were introduced in Rome by Augustalis near

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3692-539: The equinox, which some third-century Christians considered unacceptable (this cannot happen in the fixed calendar in use today). Consequently, it was decided to separate the dating of Easter from the Hebrew calendar, by identifying the first full moon following the March equinox. By the time of the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325), the Church of Alexandria had designated 21 March as an ecclesiastical date for

3763-441: The example, this paschal full moon is on 16 April. If the dominical letter is E, then Easter day is on 20 April. The label " 25 " (as distinct from "xxv") is used as follows: Within a Metonic cycle, years that are 11 years apart have epacts that differ by one day. A month beginning on a date having labels "xxiv" and "xxv" written side by side has either 29 or 30 days. If the epacts 24 and 25 both occur within one Metonic cycle, then

3834-549: The first Sunday of the year is on 5 January, which has letter "E", then every date with the letter "E" is a Sunday that year. Then "E" is called the dominical letter (DL) for that year – from dies dominica (Latin for 'the Lord's day'). The dominical letter cycles backward one position every year. In leap years, after 24 February, the Sundays fall on the previous letter of the cycle, so leap years have two dominical letters:

3905-419: The first for before, the second for after the leap day. In practice, for the purpose of calculating Easter, this need not be done for all 365 days of the year. For the epacts, March comes out exactly the same as January, because 31+28 days = 30+29 epacts, so one need not calculate January or February. To avoid the need to calculate the dominical letters for January and February, start with D for 1 March. You need

3976-447: The label "25" to the date with "xxvi". The distribution of the lengths of the months and the length of the epact cycles is such that each civil calendar month starts and ends with the same epact label, except for February and, one might say, for August, which starts with the double label "xxv"/"xxiv" but ends with the single label "xxiv". This table is called the calendarium . The ecclesiastical new moons for any year are those dates when

4047-597: The later of the two, because it alludes to Heliand . Its composition has been located by some scholars at the Abbey of Fulda , a Frankish centre on the edge of Saxon territory, and by others at the Abbey of Werden , in the centre of the Saxon area. In 1875, preparatory to publishing an edition of the Heliand , Eduard Sievers argued in a monograph on it and the Anglo-Saxon Genesis that lines 235–851 of

4118-407: The lunar calendar, Easter is always the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, and is no more "moveable" than any holiday that is fixed to a particular day of the week and week within a month, such as Thanksgiving . As reforming the computus was the primary motivation for the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582, a corresponding computus methodology was introduced alongside

4189-430: The lunar month took the name of the Julian month in which it ended. The nineteen-year Metonic cycle assumes that 19 tropical years are as long as 235 synodic months. So after 19 years the lunations should fall the same way in the solar years, and the epacts should repeat. Over 19 years the epact increases by 19 × 11 = 209 ≡ 29 ( mod 30) , not 0 (mod 30) . That is, 209 divided by 30 leaves a remainder of 29 instead of being

4260-445: The lunar phase on January 1 every 19 years. This method was modified in the Gregorian reform because the tabular dates go out of sync with reality after about two centuries. From the epact method, a simplified table can be constructed that has a validity of one to three centuries. The date of the Paschal full moon in a particular year is usually either 11 days earlier than in the previous year, or 19 days later. In 5 out of 19 years it

4331-424: The mid-9th century over free will and predestination , focussing on Gottschalk of Orbais . However, the poem also reflects Germanic concepts in the role of Eve as advisor to her husband, in the feud element of the Fall, and in the mention in Genesis B , presumably present in the Old Saxon original and also present in the Heliand , of Satan employing a hæleðhelm or helm of disguise . Computus As

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4402-419: The new (and full) moons would fall on the same dates for these two years. This is possible for the real moon but is inelegant in a schematic lunar calendar; the dates should repeat only after 19 years. To avoid this, in years that have epacts 25 and with a Golden Number larger than 11, the reckoned new moon falls on the date with the label 25 rather than xxv . Where the labels 25 and xxv are together, there

4473-466: The new calendar. The general method of working was given by Clavius in the Six Canons (1582), and a full explanation followed in his Explicatio (1603). Easter is the Sunday following the Paschal full moon date. The Paschal full moon date is the ecclesiastical full moon date on or after the ecclesiastical equinox on 21 March. The fourteenth day of the lunar month is ecclesiastically considered

4544-585: The old verses: Impar luna pari, par fiet in impare mense; In quo completur mensi lunatio detur. "For the first, third, fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh months, which are called impares menses , or unequal months, have their moons according to computation of thirty days each, which are therefore called pares lunae , or equal moons: but the second, fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth, and twelfth months, which are called pares menses , or equal months, have their moons but twenty nine days each, which are called impares lunae , or unequal moons." Thus

4615-414: The same length, because they may have either four or five leap years. But a period of four cycles, 76 years (a Callippic cycle ), has a length of 76 × 365 + 19 = 27,759 days (if it does not cross a century division). There are 235 × 4 = 940 lunar months in this period, so the average length is 27759   /   940 or about 29.530851 days. There are 76 × 6 = 456 usual nominal 30-day lunar months and

4686-457: The same number of usual nominal 29-day months, but with 19 of these lengthened by a day on leap days, plus 24 intercalated months of 30 days and four intercalated months of 29 days. Since this is longer than the true length of a synodic month, about 29.53059 days, the calculated Paschal full moon gets later and later compared to the astronomical full moon, unless a correction is made as in the Gregorian system (see below). The paschal or Easter-month

4757-416: The seven extra 30-day months were largely hidden by being located at the points where the Julian and lunar months begin at about the same time. The extra months commenced on 1 January (year 3), 2 September (year 5), 6 March (year 8), 3 January (year 11), 31 December (year 13), 1 September (year 16), and 5 March (year 19). The sequence number of the year in the 19-year cycle is called the " golden number ", and

4828-607: The third quarter of the 9th century. Both Genesis and Heliand appear to be in an artificial literary language, and hence can be placed in the context of a relatively brief period between about 819 and approximately the death of Louis the Pious in 840, when the native Saxon poetic tradition had waned and the Carolingians sought to interest the recently and forcibly converted Saxons in Christian stories. Genesis must be

4899-778: The vast majority of Eastern Orthodox Churches and Non-Chalcedonian Churches . The only Eastern Orthodox church which does not follow the system is the Finnish Orthodox Church, which uses the Gregorian. Having deviated from the Alexandrians during the 6th century, churches beyond the eastern frontier of the former Byzantine Empire, including the Assyrian Church of the East , now celebrate Easter on different dates from Eastern Orthodox Churches four times every 532 years. Apart from these churches on

4970-496: Was adopted in Rome during the first half of the 4th century. Victorius of Aquitaine tried to adapt the Alexandrian method to Roman rules in 457 in the form of a 532-year table, but he introduced serious errors. These Victorian tables were used in Gaul (now France) and Spain until they were displaced by Dionysian tables at the end of the 8th century. The tables of Dionysius and Victorius conflicted with those traditionally used in

5041-684: Was proposed as part of the Revised Julian calendar at a Synod in Constantinople in 1923 and the second was proposed by a 1997 World Council of Churches Consultation in Aleppo in 1997. Both used the same rule as the German and Swedish versions but used modern astronomical calculations and Jerusalem time ( TT + 2 21 ) without the Nisan   15 rule. The 1923 version would have placed

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