55-605: Opekta was a German pectin and spice company that existed between 1928 and 1995. It is notable for its Dutch operation being based in the building at Prinsengracht 263 that later became the Anne Frank House . Opekta was based in Cologne and expanded into the Netherlands in 1933, at which time Otto Frank moved from Germany to Amsterdam to become managing director of the new Dutch operation. Otto Frank
110-406: A substrate that is selectively used by a host microorganism to produce a health benefit. In 2021, The Global Prebiotic Association (GPA) defined a prebiotic as a product or ingredient that is utilized in the microbiota producing a health or performance benefit. Compounds that can be classified as prebiotics must also meet the following criteria: Thus, consumption of prebiotics may facilitate
165-434: A backbone of the repeating disaccharide: 4)-α- D -galacturonic acid-(1,2)-α- L - rhamnose -(1. From many of the rhamnose residues, sidechains of various neutral sugars branch off. The neutral sugars are mainly D - galactose , L - arabinose and D -xylose, with the types and proportions of neutral sugars varying with the origin of pectin. Another structural type of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II), which
220-445: A category of carbohydrate consisting of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and inulins , while galactans consist of galactooligosaccharides . Resistant starch has been shown to shift the intestinal bacteria, as well as improve biomarkers for numerous health conditions. Other dietary fibers also fit the definition of prebiotics, such as pectin , beta-glucans , and xylooligosaccharides . The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA),
275-629: A daily intake limit for two types of pectin, known as E440(i) and Amidated Pectin E440(ii). The EU has established purity standards for these additives in the EU Commission Regulation (EU)/231/2012. Pectin can be used as needed in most food categories, a concept referred to as "quantum satis". The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conducted a re-evaluation of Pectin E440(i) and Amidated Pectin E440(ii) in 2017. The EFSA concluded that
330-399: A liquid extract, but is now most often used as dried powder, which is easier than a liquid to store and handle. Prebiotic (nutrition) Prebiotics are compounds in food that foster growth or activity of beneficial microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The most common environment concerning their effects on human health is the gastrointestinal tract, where prebiotics can alter
385-618: A medication to combat diarrhea – along with kaolinite . It has been used in gentle heavy metal removal from biological systems. Pectin is also used in throat lozenges as a demulcent . In cosmetic products, pectin acts as a stabiliser. Pectin is also used in wound healing preparations and speciality medical adhesives, such as colostomy devices. Sriamornsak revealed that pectin could be used in various oral drug delivery platforms, e.g., controlled release systems, gastro-retentive systems, colon-specific delivery systems and mucoadhesive delivery systems, according to its intoxicity and low cost. It
440-439: A particular application. The main use for pectin is as a gelling agent , thickening agent and stabiliser in food. In some countries, pectin is also available as a solution or an extract, or as a blended powder, for home jam making. The classical application is giving the jelly-like consistency to jams or marmalades , which would otherwise be sweet juices. Pectin also reduces syneresis in jams and marmalades and increases
495-668: A pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, syneresis or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels. Amidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermoreversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards remain liquid. High-ester pectins set at higher temperatures than low-ester pectins. However, gelling reactions with calcium increase as
550-415: A plant. Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth. During fruit ripening , pectin is broken down by the enzymes pectinase and pectinesterase , in which process the fruit becomes softer as the middle lamellae break down and cells become separated from each other. A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in
605-557: A prebiotic source. In addition to the food sources highlighted in the following table, raw oats, unrefined barley , yacón , and whole grain breakfast cereals are also classified as prebiotic fiber sources. The predominant type of prebiotic fiber may vary according to the food. For instance, oats and barley have high amounts of beta-glucans , fruit and berries contain pectins , seeds contain gums , onions and Jerusalem artichokes are rich in inulin and oligofructose , and bananas and legumes contain resistant starch . While there
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#1732783809662660-620: A three-dimensional molecular net that creates the macromolecular gel. The gelling-mechanism is called a low-water-activity gel or sugar-acid-pectin gel. While low-methoxy pectins need calcium to form a gel, they can do so at lower soluble solids and higher pH than high-methoxy pectins. Normally low-methoxy pectins form gels with a range of pH from 2.6 to 7.0 and with a soluble solids content between 10 and 70%. The non-esterified galacturonic acid units can be either free acids (carboxyl groups) or salts with sodium, potassium, or calcium. The salts of partially esterified pectins are called pectinates, if
715-584: Is a less frequent, complex, highly branched polysaccharide. Rhamnogalacturonan II is classified by some authors within the group of substituted galacturonans since the rhamnogalacturonan II backbone is made exclusively of D -galacturonic acid units. The molecular weight of isolated pectine greatly varies by the source and the method of isolation. Values have been reported as low as 28 kDa for apple pomace up to 753 kDa for sweet potato peels. In nature, around 80 percent of carboxyl groups of galacturonic acid are esterified with methanol . This proportion
770-444: Is also used to a small extent. From these materials, pectin is extracted by adding hot dilute acid at pH values from 1.5 to 3.5. During several hours of extraction, the protopectin loses some of its branching and chain length and goes into solution. After filtering, the extract is concentrated in a vacuum and the pectin is then precipitated by adding ethanol or isopropanol. An old technique of precipitating pectin with aluminium salts
825-537: Is decreased to a varying degree during pectin extraction. Pectins are classified as high- versus low-methoxy pectins (short HM-pectins versus LM-pectins), with more or less than half of all the galacturonic acid esterified. The ratio of esterified to non-esterified galacturonic acid determines the behaviour of pectin in food applications – HM-pectins can form a gel under acidic conditions in the presence of high sugar concentrations, while LM-pectins form gels by interaction with divalent cations, particularly Ca , according to
880-474: Is esterified with methanol) in the colon . Pectin has been observed to have some function in repairing the DNA of some types of plant seeds, usually desert plants. Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in pectin, create a mucilage layer that holds in dew that helps the cell repair its DNA. Consumption of pectin has been shown to slightly (3–7%) reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels. The effect depends upon
935-522: Is needed, so that diet products can be made. Water extract of aiyu seeds is traditionally used in Taiwan to make aiyu jelly , where the extract gels without heating due to low-ester pectins from the seeds and the bivalent cations from the water. Pectin is used in confectionery jellies to give a good gel structure, a clean bite and to confer a good flavour release. Pectin can also be used to stabilise acidic protein drinks, such as drinking yogurt, to improve
990-751: Is no broad consensus on an ideal daily serving of prebiotics, recommendations typically range from 4 to 8 grams (0.14–0.28 oz) for general digestive health support, to 15 grams (0.53 oz) or more for those with active digestive disorders. Given an average 6 grams (0.21 oz) serving, below are the amounts of prebiotic foods required to achieve a daily serving of prebiotic fiber: Preliminary research has demonstrated potential effects on calcium and other mineral absorption, immune system effectiveness, bowel acidity, reduction of colorectal cancer risk, inflammatory bowel disease ( Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis ), hypertension and defecation frequency. Prebiotics may be effective in decreasing
1045-500: Is no longer used (apart from alcohols and polyvalent cations, pectin also precipitates with proteins and detergents). Alcohol-precipitated pectin is then separated, washed, and dried. Treating the initial pectin with dilute acid leads to low-esterified pectins. When this process includes ammonium hydroxide (NH 3 (aq)), amidated pectins are obtained. After drying and milling, pectin is usually standardised with sugar, and sometimes calcium salts or organic acids, to optimise performance in
1100-485: The Bifidobacteria bacterial population in breastfed infants, and to strengthen the infant immune system. Furthermore, human milk oligosaccharides help establish a healthy intestinal microbiota composition in newborns. Indigestible carbohydrate compounds classified as prebiotics are a type of fermentable fiber, and thus can be classified as dietary fiber . However, not all dietary fiber can be classified as
1155-487: The E numbers E440(i) for non-amidated pectins and E440(ii) for amidated pectins. There are specifications in all national and international legislation defining its quality and regulating its use. Pectin was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot , though the action of pectin to make jams and marmalades was known long before. To obtain well-set jams from fruits that had little or only poor quality pectin, pectin-rich fruits or their extracts were mixed into
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#17327838096621210-400: The abscission zone of the petioles of deciduous plants at leaf fall. Pectin is a natural part of the human diet , but does not contribute significantly to nutrition . The daily intake of pectin from fruits and vegetables can be estimated to be around 5 g if approximately 500 g of fruits and vegetables are consumed per day. In human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in
1265-475: The health claims made for marketing purposes. Common prebiotics used in food manufacturing include beta-glucan from oats , resistant starch from grains and beans, and inulin from chicory root . The definition of prebiotics and the food ingredients that can fall under this classification, has evolved since its first definition in 1995. In its earliest definition, the term prebiotics was used to refer to non-digestible food ingredients that were beneficial to
1320-541: The Austrian chemists Robert Feix and Richard Fackeldey. Pectin Pectin ( Ancient Greek : πηκτικός pēktikós : "congealed" and "curdled") is a heteropolysaccharide , a structural polymer contained in the primary lamella, in the middle lamella , and in the cell walls of terrestrial plants . The principal chemical component of pectin is galacturonic acid (a sugar acid derived from galactose ) which
1375-788: The Catastrophe for People and the Environment , quote research conducted by the Ukrainian Center of Radiation Medicine and the Belarusian Institute of Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology, concluded, regarding pectin's radioprotective effects, that "adding pectin preparations to the food of inhabitants of the Chernobyl-contaminated regions promotes an effective excretion of incorporated radionuclides " such as cesium-137 . The authors reported on
1430-538: The cell wall, pectin is up to 90% digestible by bacterial enzymes. Ruminant nutritionists recommend that the digestibility and energy concentration in forages be improved by increasing pectin concentration in the forage. In cigars, pectin is considered an excellent substitute for vegetable glue and many cigar smokers and collectors use pectin for repairing damaged tobacco leaves on their cigars. Yablokov et al. , writing in Chernobyl: Consequences of
1485-461: The composition of organisms in the gut microbiome . Dietary prebiotics are typically nondigestible fiber compounds that pass undigested through the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract and help growth or activity of advantageous bacteria in the colon by acting as substrates for them. They were first identified and named by Marcel Roberfroid in 1995. Depending on the jurisdiction, they may have regulatory scrutiny as food additives for
1540-672: The degree of esterification falls. Similarly, lower pH-values or higher soluble solids (normally sugars) increase gelling speeds. Suitable pectins can therefore be selected for jams and jellies, or for higher-sugar confectionery jellies. Pears, apples, guavas, quince , plums, gooseberries, and oranges and other citrus fruits contain large amounts of pectin, while soft fruits, like cherries, grapes, and strawberries, contain small amounts of pectin. Typical levels of pectin in fresh fruits and vegetables are: The main raw materials for pectin production are dried citrus peels or apple pomace , both by-products of juice production. Pomace from sugar beets
1595-417: The degree of esterification is below 5 percent the salts are called pectates, the insoluble acid form, pectic acid. Some plants, such as sugar beet , potatoes and pears, contain pectins with acetylated galacturonic acid in addition to methyl esters. Acetylation prevents gel-formation but increases the stabilising and emulsifying effects of pectin. Amidated pectin is a modified form of pectin. Here, some of
1650-408: The diet may result in an increase in fermentation , leading to increased gas production, bloating or bowel movement . Production of SCFA and fermentation quality are reduced during long-term diets of low fiber intake. Until bacterial flora are gradually established to rehabilitate or restore intestinal bacteria, nutrient absorption may be impaired and colonic transit time temporarily increased with
1705-611: The fermentation and metabolism of plant-derived oligosaccharides, or prebiotics. These pathways in Bifidobacteria ultimately produce short chain fatty acids , which have diverse physiological roles in body functions. Prebiotic sources must be proven to confer a benefit to the host in order to be classified as a prebiotic. Fermentable carbohydrates derived from fructans and xylans are one well documented example of prebiotics. Resistant starch from starchy foods are also well documented prebiotics and have historically been
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1760-447: The galacturonic acid is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide . These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use. Thiolated pectin exhibits substantially improved gelling properties since this thiomer is able to crosslink via disulfide bond formation. These high gelling properties are advantageous for various pharmaceutical applications and applications in food industry. To prepare
1815-431: The gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber . In non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice pectin has been shown to increase the incidence of autoimmune type 1 diabetes. A study found that after consumption of fruit the concentration of methanol in the human body increased by as much as an order of magnitude due to the degradation of natural pectin (which
1870-404: The gel strength of low-calorie jams. For household use, pectin is an ingredient in gelling sugar (also known as "jam sugar") where it is diluted to the right concentration with sugar and some citric acid to adjust pH. For various food applications, different kinds of pectins can be distinguished by their properties, such as acidity, degree of esterification, relative number of methoxyl groups in
1925-557: The gut, such as clostridia . Fermentation is the main mechanism of action by which prebiotics are used by beneficial bacteria in the colon. Both Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus are bacterial populations which use saccharolytic metabolism to break down substrates. The bifidobacterial genome contains many genes that encode for carbohydrate-modifying enzymes as well as genes that encode for carbohydrate uptake proteins. The presence of these genes indicates that Bifidobacteria contain specific metabolic pathways specialized for
1980-411: The health of the host. Based on the previous classifications, plant-derived carbohydrate compounds called oligosaccharides as well as resistant starch are the main source of prebiotics that have been identified. Specifically, fructans and galactans are two oligosaccharide sources which have been found to stimulate the activity and growth of beneficial bacterial colonies in the gut. Fructans are
2035-552: The highest source of prebiotics in the diet, as 4-10% of starch in mixed diets has been shown to reach the large intestine. One study reported that individuals consuming a traditional diet in Africa consumed 38 grams of resistant starch/day. An endogenous source of prebiotics in humans is human breast milk , which contains oligosaccharides structurally similar to galactooligosaccharides , referred to as human milk oligosaccharides. Human milk oligosaccharides were found to increase
2090-730: The host in terms of improving digestion (including but not limited to enhancing mineral absorption) and the effectiveness and intrinsic strength of the immune system. Both Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus have been shown to have differing prebiotic specificity and to selectively ferment prebiotic fiber based on the enzymes characteristic of the bacterial population. Thus, Lactobacilli prefer inulin and fructooligosaccharides, while Bifidobacteria display specificity for inulin, fructooligosaccharides, xylooligosaccharides and galactooligosaccharides. Studies have also shown that prebiotics, besides helping growth of beneficial gut bacteria, can also inhibit detrimental and potentially pathogenic microbes in
2145-519: The host through their selective stimulation of specific bacteria within the colon . Further research has suggested that selective stimulation has not been scientifically demonstrated. As a result of research suggesting that prebiotics could impact microorganisms outside of the colon, in 2016 the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) produced the following definition of prebiotics:
2200-436: The idealized 'egg box' model, in which ionic bridges are formed between calcium ions and the ionised carboxyl groups of the galacturonic acid. In high-methoxy pectins at soluble solids content above 60% and a pH value between 2.8 and 3.6, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions bind the individual pectin chains together. These bonds form as water is bound by sugar and forces pectin strands to stick together. These form
2255-593: The inventor of the maps, Clayton Hutton , mixed a little pectin with the ink and at once the pectin coagulated the ink and prevented it from running, allowing small topographic features to be clearly visible. At the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food Additives and in the European Union , no numerical acceptable daily intake (ADI) has been set, as pectin is considered safe. The European Union (EU) has not set
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2310-433: The molecules, etc. For instance, the term "high methoxyl" refers to pectins that have a large proportion of the carboxyl groups in the pectin molecule that are esterified with methanol, compared to low methoxyl pectins: For conventional jams and marmalades that contain above 60% sugar and soluble fruit solids, high-ester (high methoxyl) pectins are used. With low-ester (low methoxyl) pectins and amidated pectins, less sugar
2365-493: The mouth-feel and the pulp stability in juice based drinks and as a fat substitute in baked goods. Typical levels of pectin used as a food additive are between 0.5 and 1.0% – this is about the same amount of pectin as in fresh fruit. In medicine, pectin increases viscosity and volume of stool so that it is used against constipation and diarrhea . Until 2002, it was one of the main ingredients used in Kaopectate –
2420-647: The number of infectious episodes needing antibiotics and the total number of infections in children aged 0–24 months. No good evidence shows that prebiotics are effective in preventing or treating allergies. While research demonstrates that prebiotics lead to increased production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), more research is required to establish a direct causal connection. Prebiotics may be beneficial to inflammatory bowel disease or Crohn's disease through production of SCFA as nourishment for colonic walls, and mitigation of ulcerative colitis symptoms. The sudden addition of substantial quantities of prebiotics to
2475-411: The pectic group. Homogalacturonans are linear chains of α-(1–4)-linked D -galacturonic acid . Substituted galacturonans are characterised by the presence of saccharide appendant residues (such as D - xylose or D - apiose in the respective cases of xylogalacturonan and apiogalacturonan ) branching from a backbone of D -galacturonic acid residues. Rhamnogalacturonan I pectins (RG-I) contain
2530-557: The positive results of using pectin food additive preparations in a number of clinical studies conducted on children in severely polluted areas, with up to 50% improvement over control groups. During the Second World War, Allied pilots were provided with maps printed on silk, for navigation in escape and evasion efforts. The printing process at first proved nearly impossible because the several layers of ink immediately ran, blurring outlines and rendering place names illegible until
2585-573: The prebiotic concept was first introduced in 1995, the primary focus was on the effects that prebiotics confer on Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus . With improved mechanistic techniques in recent years, the current prebiotic targets have expanded to a wider range of microbes, including Roseburia spp., Eubacterium spp., Akkermansia spp., Christensenella spp., Propionibacterium spp. and Faecalibacterium spp. These bacteria have been highlighted as key probiotics and beneficial gut bacteria as they may have several beneficial effects on
2640-462: The primary cell walls of a plant, and are abundant in the green parts of terrestrial plants. Pectin is the principal component of the middle lamella , where it binds cells. Pectin is deposited by exocytosis into the cell wall via vesicles produced in the Golgi apparatus . The amount, structure and chemical composition of pectin is different among plants, within a plant over time, and in various parts of
2695-529: The recipe. During the Industrial Revolution , the makers of fruit preserves turned to producers of apple juice to obtain dried apple pomace that was cooked to extract pectin. Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, factories were built that commercially extracted pectin from dried apple pomace, and later citrus peel, in regions that produced apple juice in both the US and Europe. Pectin was first sold as
2750-531: The regulatory agency for product labeling, differentiates between "prebiotic" and "dietary fiber", stating that "a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of the food constituents which are the subject of the health claims and a beneficial physiological effect related to increasing numbers of gastrointestinal microbiota". Consequently, under EFSA rules individual ingredients cannot be labeled as prebiotics, but only as dietary fiber and with no implication of health benefits. When
2805-565: The source of pectin; apple and citrus pectins were more effective than orange pulp fibre pectin. The mechanism appears to be an increase of viscosity in the intestinal tract, leading to a reduced absorption of cholesterol from bile or food. In the large intestine and colon, microorganisms degrade pectin and liberate short-chain fatty acids that have positive influence on health ( prebiotic effect). Pectins, also known as pectic polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within
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#17327838096622860-642: The use of these food additives poses no safety concern for the general population. Furthermore, the agency stated that it is not necessary to establish a numerical value for the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). In the United States, pectin is generally recognised as safe for human consumption. In the International Numbering System (INS), pectin has the number 440. In Europe, pectins are differentiated into
2915-401: Was found that pectin from different sources provides different gelling abilities, due to variations in molecular size and chemical composition. Like other natural polymers, a major problem with pectin is inconsistency in reproducibility between samples, which may result in poor reproducibility in drug delivery characteristics. In ruminant nutrition, depending on the extent of lignification of
2970-641: Was in charge of the manufacturing and distribution of the pectin-based gelling preparations, to be used in jam making . The company continued to trade from the same building while Frank, his family (including his youngest daughter Anne Frank) and several other Jews hid from persecution stemming from the Nazi Occupation of the Netherlands during the Second World War . The Opekta company was based in Cologne , Germany, founded and owned by
3025-427: Was isolated and described by Henri Braconnot in 1825. Commercially produced pectin is a white-to-light-brown powder, produced from citrus fruits for use as an edible gelling agent , especially in jams and jellies, dessert fillings, medications, and sweets; as a food stabiliser in fruit juices and milk drinks, and as a source of dietary fiber . Pectin is composed of complex polysaccharides that are present in
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