Army Group Antonescu:
47-835: Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Air war Operation München ( Romanian : Operațiunea München ) was the Romanian codename of a joint German - Romanian offensive during the German invasion of the Soviet Union in World War II , with the primary objective of recapturing Bessarabia , Northern Bukovina and the Hertsa region , ceded by Romania to the Soviet Union a year before ( Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina ). The operation started during
94-538: A rocket (although these too can also be guided ). Missiles have four system components: targeting and/or missile guidance , flight system, engine, and warhead. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes: surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles ( ballistic , cruise , anti-ship , anti-tank , etc.), surface-to-air missiles (and anti-ballistic ), air-to-air missiles , and anti-satellite weapons . All known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside
141-575: A rocket engine , jet engine , or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are generally referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is " any thrown object ", such as objects thrown at players by rowdy spectators at a sporting event. The advent of the unmanned aerial vehicle has dramatically revolutionised aerial warfare with multiple nations developing and/or purchasing UAV fleets. Several benchmarks have already occurred, including
188-599: A Soviet monitor near the village of Copana Balca. The Romanian monitor attacked, scoring a direct hit against her Soviet counterpart. The Soviet warship returned fire with no result before retreating. On 14 July, Mihail Kogălniceanu attacked the Soviet monitor Udarnyy at Izmail . Like on the previous day, the Romanian monitor scored a direct hit against her Soviet foe, despite the latter's fierce return fire. Udarnyy continued firing while retreating, but yet again, no damage
235-480: A UAV-fighter jet dogfight , probes of adversary air defense with UAVs, replacement of an operational flight wing's aircraft with UAVs, control of UAVs qualifying the operator for 'combat' status, UAV-control from the other side of the world, jamming and/or data-hijacking of UAVs in flight, as well as proposals to transfer fire authority to AI aboard a UAV. UAVs have quickly evolved from surveillance to combat roles. The growing capability of UAVs has thrown into question
282-486: A position from which an attack can be made on another aircraft. It relies on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvring (BFM) to gain an advantage over an aerial opponent. Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry , set up to be moved by aircraft and "dropped" into battle, typically by parachute . Thus, they can be placed behind enemy lines, and have the capability to deploy almost anywhere with little warning. The formations are limited only by
329-653: A skirmish with troops of the Danube flotilla. Later that year, the Sfatul Țării of Chișinău , which claimed to be the representative of the whole of Bessarabia , voted to formally unite the region with Romania . This union was recognized by the United Kingdom, France and Italy in the Treaty of Paris , but not by the Soviet Union which had territorial claims over Bessarabia. In 1940, and again during World War II , it
376-420: Is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft . This role can fulfil a variety of requirements, including the collection of imagery intelligence , observation of enemy maneuvers and artillery spotting . Air combat manoeuvring (also known as ACM or dogfighting ) is the tactical art of moving, turning and situating a fighter aircraft in order to attain
423-440: Is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating the enemy by destroying their morale or their economic ability to produce and transport materiel to the theatres of military operations , or both. It is a systematically organized and executed attack from the air which can utilize strategic bombers , long- or medium-range missiles , or nuclear-armed fighter-bomber aircraft to attack targets deemed vital to
470-586: Is located in the Danube Delta on the right-bank of its Chilia branch . On the opposite side of the river belongs to Romania . The city is surrounded by several lakes among which are Yalpuh , Kuhurluy , Kotlabuh and many smaller ones. The city is located in area known as the Budjak steppe which is a southern portion of Bessarabia . The opposite bank of Danube elevates as the Tulcea Hills . Under
517-460: Is the only locality which constitutes Izmail urban hromada , one of the hromadas of Ukraine. In Russian historiography, Izmail is associated with the 18th century storming of the Ottoman fortress of Izmail by Russian general Alexander Suvorov . It was the capital of Izmail Oblast , but it is no longer, as Izmail Oblast joined Odesa Oblast in 1954. It is the largest Ukrainian port in
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#1732782937710564-1229: Is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines in warfare . Aerial warfare includes bombers attacking enemy installations or a concentration of enemy troops or strategic targets ; fighter aircraft battling for control of airspace ; attack aircraft engaging in close air support against ground targets; naval aviation flying against sea and nearby land targets; gliders , helicopters and other aircraft to carry airborne forces such as paratroopers ; aerial refueling tankers to extend operation time or range; and military transport aircraft to move cargo and personnel. Historically, military aircraft have included lighter-than-air balloons carrying artillery observers ; lighter-than-air airships for bombing cities; various sorts of reconnaissance , surveillance , and early warning aircraft carrying observers, cameras, and radar equipment; torpedo bombers to attack enemy vessels; and military air-sea rescue aircraft for saving downed airmen . Modern aerial warfare includes missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles . Surface forces are likely to respond to enemy air activity with anti-aircraft warfare . The history of aerial warfare began in ancient times, with
611-548: The use of planes and zeppelins for strategic bombing also emerged . The rise of fighter aircraft and of air-to-air combat led to a realisation of the desirability of achieving air superiority . Closer integration of attacking aircraft with ground operations ("battlefield support") also developed during World War I . During World War II (1939-1945), the use of strategic bombing increased, while airborne forces , missiles, and early precision-guided munitions were introduced. Aircraft carriers gained particular importance in
658-696: The Danube Delta , on its Chilia branch . It is also the largest city of the Ukrainian Budjak area. As such, Izmail is a center of the food processing industry and a popular regional tourist destination . It is also a base of the Ukrainian Navy and the Ukrainian Sea Guard units operating on the river. The World Wildlife Fund 's Isles of Izmail Regional Landscape Park is located nearby. Population: 69,932 (2022 estimate). The fortress of Izmail, then known as Licovrissi ,
705-480: The Köppen climate classification , Izmail falls within either a hot-summer humid continental climate ( Dfa ) if the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm is used or a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is used. Izmail experiences four distinct seasons and generous precipitation year-round, typical for the inland South . Summers are hot and humid, with temperatures somewhat moderated by
752-544: The Tulcea Tactical Group , fought several naval engagements against the Soviet Navy. These battles resulted in the damaging of two Soviet monitors and two armored motor gunboats, as well as the sinking of another armored motor gunboat. The two damaged Soviet gunboats were the result of an action preceding the operation by several days. On 13 July, the Romanian monitor Mihail Kogălniceanu encountered
799-807: The 1790 storm of Izmail. After Russia lost the Crimean War , the town returned to the Principality of Moldavia , which would soon become part of the Romanian Principalities . Russia gained control of Izmail again after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 . With the breakup of the Russian Empire in 1917 and in the aftermath of World War I , the city was occupied by the Romanian Army on 22 January 1918, after
846-584: The Romanian 15th Marine Infantry Battalion, Romanian losses amounting to 468 troops. The remnants of the battalion, supported by one armed boat and two motorboats, managed to defend Stipoc Island against further Soviet attacks. The Romanian 17th Marine Infantry Battalion managed to hold the Periprava sector all throughout the Operation and the preceding days, repelling numerous Soviet attacks. During this time, its artillery also sank four Soviet armored boats. On
893-658: The Russian ultimatum . The defeat was seen as a catastrophe in the Ottoman Empire, while in Russia it was glorified in the country's first national anthem , Let the thunder of victory sound! . Suvorov "announced the capture of Ismail in 1791 to the Tsarina Catherine in a doggerel couplet, after the assault had been pressed from house to house, room to room, and nearly every Muslim man, woman and child in
940-481: The Soviet counteroffensive was repulsed with heavy losses. By 26 July, the Romanians had established air supremacy over Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. They flew a total of 5,100 missions, claiming 88 enemy aircraft shot down in aerial combat plus 108 destroyed on the ground for the cost of 58 of their own aircraft. An additional 59 Soviet aircraft were shot down by Romanian flak . Air war Aerial warfare
987-456: The Soviets from the sky before decimating Soviet ground forces (artillery, troops, transports and tanks). In one instance, IAR-80 pilot Vasile Claru ran out of ammunition after destroying three of the six Polikarpovs pursuing him. Consequently, he rammed his plane into a fourth, killing a deputy Soviet squadron commander (M. Shamanov), but Claru himself didn't survive the crash either. Ultimately,
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#17327829377101034-422: The city had been killed in three days of uncontrolled massacre, 40,000 Turks dead, a few hundred taken into captivity. For all his bluffness, Suvorov later told an English traveler that when the massacre was over he went back to his tent and wept." At the end of the war, Izmail was returned to the Ottoman Empire, but Russian forces took it for the third time on 14 September 1809. After it was ceded to Russia with
1081-443: The city's elevation . Winters are cool but variable, with an average of 48 freezing days per year. Before 1920, the population of Izmail was estimated at 37,000. During that time, approximately 11,000 of the population were Jewish , 8,000 Romanians and 6,000 Germans . Additional members of the population were Russians, Bulgarians , Turks and Cossacks . The city of Izmail, the largest city of Ukrainian southern Bessarabia, which
1128-457: The enemy's war-making capability. Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures (e.g. barrage balloons ). It may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries
1175-728: The entire region was under Romanian-German control. On 17 August, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina were formally re-integrated into the Romanian state. Mareșal Ion Antonescu Southern Front – General Colonel Ivan Tyulenev The combat operations in Southern Bessarabia were some of the most complex in the entire operation, involving artillery, warships, aviation, soldiers and marines from both sides. The Soviet Danube Flotilla consisted of 5 river monitors, 22 armed and armored motor boats and 7 minesweeping boats. The Romanian Danube Flotilla had 7 river monitors, but fewer, about 4, small armed small boats. Fighting in this sector of
1222-520: The fortress of Izmail in 1770, it was heavily refortified by the Turks, so as never to be captured again. The Sultan boasted that the fortress was impregnable, but during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 the Russian Army commander Alexander Suvorov successfully stormed it on 22 December 1790 . Ottoman forces inside the fortress had the orders to stand their ground to the end, haughtily declining
1269-465: The front started days before the operation, with a first skirmish between Soviet and Romanian warships on 23 June, when the Soviet vessels attempted to break the Romanian naval blockade. During the night of 9/10 July, the Soviet warships took advantage of the reduced visibility and managed to sneak out of the blockade. On 26 June, in support of the sea-borne Raid on Constanța , Soviet armored motor gunboats landed troops at Chilia Veche and captured most of
1316-447: The main effort has tended to be 'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare . Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight. In modern usage, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as
1363-542: The night of 22–23 July, the battalion occupied Tatarbunary . Ultimately, the losses of the Soviet Danube Flotilla amounted to two river monitors damaged, five armored motor boats sunk and one more damaged. On 18–19 July, the Flotilla withdrew from the Danube Delta . Thus, on 22 July, the Romanians occupied Reni , Izmail , Kiliia , and Vylkove . The Romanian naval formation involved in the operation,
1410-636: The night of 2–3 July 1941 and concluded successfully after 24 days of fighting. Axis formations involved included the Romanian Third Army (under the command of Petre Dumitrescu ) in the north; the German Eleventh Army and subordinated Romanian units (under the command of Eugen Ritter von Schobert ) in the center; and the Romanian Fourth Army (under the command of Nicolae Ciupercă ) in the south. The invasion
1457-545: The number and size of their aircraft, so given enough capacity a huge force can appear "out of nowhere" in minutes, an action referred to as vertical envelopment . Conversely, airborne forces typically lack the supplies and equipment for prolonged combat operations, and are therefore more suited for airhead operations than for long-term occupation; furthermore, parachute operations are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions. Advances in helicopter technology since World War II have brought increased flexibility to
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1504-468: The number of raions of Odesa Oblast to seven, the city of Izmail was merged into Izmail Raion. Following the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine , The monument to Alexander Suvorov in Izmail's city centre was placed in temporary storage on 12 November 2022, until city deputies decide where it will be kept permanently. On 27 September 2024, Izmail suffered a Russian missile and drone attack. The city
1551-440: The other two to retreat. Eight more Soviet aircraft were shot down during this battle and 40 more were strafed on the ground, but the Romanians lost 11 of their own aircraft to Soviet ground fire. On 12 July, responding to a powerful Red Army counteroffensive, the Romanians assembled an air fleet of 59 bombers (mostly of Italian and Polish construction) escorted by 54 fighters (including Romanian-made IAR-80s ). This mixed force swept
1598-407: The rest of Bessarabia by the 1812 Treaty of Bucharest , the town was rebuilt thoroughly. The Intercession Cathedral (1822–36), the churches of Nativity (1823), St. Nicholas (1833) and several others date back to that time. Izmail's oldest building is the small Turkish mosque , erected either in the 15th or 16th centuries, converted into a church in 1810 and currently housing a museum dedicated to
1645-466: The rule of Moldavia . In 1484, the Ottoman state conquered the territory, which became from that moment an Ottoman protectorate (under direct rule from 1538). Since the early 16th century it was the main Ottoman fortress in the Budjak region. In 1569 Sultan Selim II settled Izmail with his Nogai subjects, originally from the North Caucasus . After Russian general Nicholas Repnin took
1692-496: The scope of airborne operations, and air assaults have largely replaced large-scale parachute operations, and (almost) completely replaced combat glider operations. An airstrike or air strike is an offensive operation carried out by attack aircraft . Air strikes are mostly delivered from aircraft such as fighters , bombers , ground attack aircraft , and attack helicopters . The official definition includes all sorts of targets, including enemy air targets, but in popular use
1739-565: The survivability and capability of manned fighter jets. Izmail Izmail ( Ukrainian : Ізмаїл , pronounced [izmɐˈjil] ; Russian : Измаил ; Romanian : Ismail , Smil or Smeilu ; Bulgarian : Исмаил ) is a city and municipality on the Danube river in Odesa Oblast in south-western Ukraine . It serves as the administrative center of Izmail Raion , one of seven districts of Odesa Oblast, and
1786-457: The term is usually narrowed to a tactical (small-scale) attack on a ground or naval objective. Weapons used in an airstrike can range from machine gun bullets and missiles to various types of bombs . It is also commonly referred to as an air raid . In close air support , air strikes are usually controlled by trained observers for coordination with friendly ground troops in a manner derived from artillery tactics. Strategic bombing
1833-420: The town remained its administrative center until the oblast was merged to Odesa Oblast in 1954. Since 24 August 1991, Izmail has been part of independent Ukraine . Until 18 July 2020, Izmail was incorporated as a city of oblast significance and served as the administrative center of Izmail Raion though it did not belong to the raion. In July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced
1880-646: The trans-oceanic projection of air power . Ballistic missiles became of key importance during the Cold War , were armed with nuclear warheads , and were stockpiled by the United States and the Soviet Union to deter each other from using them . Drone warfare using relatively cheap unmanned equipment proliferated in the 21st century, particularly after the start of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020. Aerial reconnaissance
1927-609: The use of man-carrying kites in Ancient China . In the third century it progressed to balloon warfare . Airships (notably zeppelins ) served in military use in the early years of the 20th century. Heavier-than-air airplanes first went to war in the Italo-Turkish War in 1911, initially for aerial reconnaissance , and then for aerial combat to shoot down enemy reconnaissance planes. Aircraft continued to carry out these roles during World War I (1914-1918), where
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1974-637: Was also the same as the Izmail urban hromada , had 85,098 inhabitants in 2001, including 32,500 who identified themselves as ethnic Ukrainians (38.2%), 37,166 as ethnic Russians (43.67%), 8,609 as Bulgarians (10.1%), 3,670 as Moldovans (4.31%), 788 as Gagauz (2.42%) and 31 as Romanians (0.04%). In 2001, the population of the city of Izmail included 15,353 Ukrainian-speakers (18.04%), 1,538 Romanian-speakers (1.81%), 3,898 Bulgarian-speakers (4.58%), 63,180 Russian-speakers (74.24%), and 327 Gagauz-speakers (0.38%). Most ethnic Moldovans, Ukrainians, Bulgarians and Gagauz in
2021-514: Was built by Genoese merchants in the 12th century. It belonged for a short period of time to Wallachia (14th century) – as the territory north of the Danube was one of the possessions of the Basarabs (later the land being named after them, Bessarabia ). The town was first mentioned with the name Ismailiye , derived from the name of the Ottoman grand vizier Ayaşlı Ismail Pasha . The city
2068-603: Was followed by a genocide against the Jewish population of Bessarabia. The offensive started on 2 July, with Romanian forces striking north. On 5 July, Cernăuți , the capital of Northern Bukovina, was seized by the 3rd and 23rd Vânători de Munte Battalions. On 16 July, Chișinău , the Bessarabian capital, was seized after heavy fighting by Romanian forces spearheaded by the 1st Romanian Armored Division (Divizia 1 Blindată), equipped mainly with 126 R-2 light tanks. By 26 July,
2115-405: Was founded by a decree of Sultan Murad III , with a deed where he made the land around the crossing point, property of Habeshi Mehmed Agha which was the head of his harem. The city that Mehmed Agha founded was called after him Mehmedabad and in its significance it was even compared to Baghdad - although the scale, of course, is not the same. From the end of the 14th century, Izmail was under
2162-440: Was inflicted upon the Romanian warship. At some point during the Operation, Romanian armed barges shelled and sank an armored motor gunboat off Isaccea . The first Soviet-Romanian aerial combat was carried out by Sub-Lieutenant Teodor Moscu of Escadrila 51 . While flying over Southern Bessarabia, his Heinkel He 112 was attacked by a formation of five Polikarpov I-16 . The Romanian pilot swiftly shot down three of them, causing
2209-668: Was occupied by the Soviet Red Army and included (August 1940, as a result of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact ) in the Ukrainian SSR ; the region was occupied in 1941 by the Romanian Army participating in Operation Barbarossa . During the Soviet period following World War II , many Russians and Ukrainians migrated to the town, gradually changing its ethnic composition. Izmail Oblast was formed in 1940 and
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