147-458: Operation Antler may refer to: Operation Antler (nuclear tests) , a series of nuclear tests conducted at Maralinga, Australia, between 14 September and 9 October 1957. Operation Antler (Porton Down investigation) , the investigation into events at Porton Down in the period from 1939 to 1989 Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
294-614: A Bristol Freighter on 17 October 1953, two days after the Totem 1 test at Emu Field. The site, initially known as X.300, was nowhere near as good as the Nevada Test Site, with its excellent communications, but was considered acceptable. It was flat and dry, but not affected by dust storms like Emu Field, and the geologists were confident that the desired 2.5 million imperial gallons (10 megalitres) per annum could be obtained by boring. Rainwater tanks were recommended, and it
441-566: A Canberra bomber flew through the cloud to collect samples. Along with a secondary cloud that formed between 5,000 and 7,000 metres (16,500 and 23,000 ft), it drifted eastward. The main cloud crossed the east coast at about 11:00 on 28 September, followed by the secondary between 12 and 18 hours later. Rain on 29 September deposited some fallout between Brisbane in Queensland and Lismore in New South Wales . The next test
588-551: A "tracer" for determining yield. This fuelled rumours that Britain had been developing a cobalt bomb . The Range staff found the pellets scattered over the landscape. They had not been informed of its use, and their nature was discovered only by accident by Harry Turner, the Australian Health Physics Representative (AHPR). The only member of the AWTSC informed about the decision to use cobalt
735-527: A 10-kilolitre-per-minute (350 cu ft/min) compressor mounted on a four-wheel drive 3-ton Bedford truck connected to the jackhammer part of the 4-inch wagon drill. Explosives were in the form of 2.3-kilogram (5 lb) tubes of plastic explosive left over from a Bureau of Mineral Resources seismic survey of the area. The bunker work proceeded so well that the task force was able to assist KCG with its pit excavation work. Some instrument bunkers contained 3-metre (10 ft) steel cubes. Getting them into
882-482: A 2,000-metre (6,500 ft) runway were built near the 42-kilometre (26 mi) peg. The track continued north over scrub-cover sand hills to the Teitkins Plain. There at a point that came to be known as Roadside, a control point was established for entry to the forward area where bombs were detonated. The UK MoS engaged a firm of British engineering consultants, Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners , to design
1029-456: A 20-kiloton-of-TNT (84 TJ) test codenamed Taranaki. Helping the Pixie test (which became known as Tadje) remain on the schedule was the deletion of Red Beard tests. It was decided that the third test would be of a Red Beard with a composite uranium-plutonium core, which had not yet been tested, while the pure plutonium Red Beard would go into production without further testing. Charles Adams
1176-613: A bomb aloft instead of two. Field trials were held at RAF Cardington in Bedfordshire in February 1957. Twelve were shipped to Maralinga, however inflated balloons were not kept in hangars as they had been at Cardington, but moored in the open. On 4 September a storm struck Maralinga, with lightning and wind gusts of up to 70 kilometres per hour (40 kn), and three balloons were ignited and completely destroyed. Adams requested that another balloon and spare rigging be despatched from
1323-494: A cable plough towed by a Caterpillar D8 tractor. In some cases the limestone was too hard for the plough and the cable was buried by using a grader to cover the cable to the required depth. A similar procedure was followed for laying 2,400 metres (8,000 ft) of power cable. Some 1,300 scaffold frames were erected for mounting instrumentation, held in place by 33,000 anchor pipes. Bunkers ranging in size up to 45 cubic metres (1,600 cu ft) were excavated with explosives and
1470-479: A commercial design, which were used to assess blast damage. A tented camp was built for observers at the 11-mile (18 km) post by the 23rd Construction Squadron. Pressed for time, Magee became involved in a series of disputes with the Woomera Range commander, who tried to divert his sappers onto other tasks. In June, the range commander ordered the surveyors to return to Adelaide, which would have brought
1617-452: A crater 49 metres (160 ft) wide and 12 metres (40 ft) deep. The fallout crossed the east coast 25 to 30 hours after the detonation. Kite was an air drop using a Blue Danube device with a low-yield core, the only air drop conducted during Operation Buffalo. Originally the air drop was supposed to be the last test of Operation Buffalo, but after the Marcoo shot Penney decided to swap
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#17327870048951764-594: A different purpose. The UK's first nuclear weapon, Blue Danube , was large and cumbersome, being 7.3 metres (24 ft) long and 1.5 metres (5 ft) wide, and weighed 4,500 kilograms (10,000 lb), so only the Royal Air Force (RAF) V-bombers could carry it. In November 1953, the RAF and Royal Navy issued an Operational Requirement , OR.1127, for a smaller, lighter weapon with similar yield that could be carried by tactical aircraft. A second requirement for
1911-429: A few days of unfavourable weather it was rescheduled for 23 September. Once again the politicians arrived but returned disappointed. This put Penney under great pressure. On the one hand, if Maralinga was to be used for many years then riding roughshod over Australian concerns about safety at an early date was inadvisable; on the other, there was the urgent need to test Red Beard in time for the upcoming Operation Grapple ,
2058-406: A generous meal allowance of GBP £1 (equivalent to AUD$ 127 in 2022) per day, resulting in a diet of steak, ham, turkey, oysters and crayfish. In June, Beale flew in two planeloads of journalists, including Chapman Pincher and Hugh Buggy for a press conference. The task force completed all its work on 29 July, two days ahead of schedule, although KCG still had a few remaining tasks. By 1959,
2205-521: A height of 150 metres (490 ft) at 15:27. The yield was 3 kilotons of TNT (13 TJ). The pilot, Squadron Leader Edwin Flavell , and the bomb aimer, Flight Lieutenant Eric Stacey, were awarded the Air Force Cross in the 1957 New Year Honours . Fallout was minimal. Two clouds formed, a low-level one at about 2,100 metres (7,000 ft) that dropped all its radioactive material inside
2352-580: A legal tender in payment of debts". Australian coins are now produced at the Royal Australian Mint in Canberra . Before Federation in 1901, the six colonies that comprised Australia had separate currencies, all of which closely replicated the British currency system , and were usually exchangeable with each other on a one-to-one basis. Hence Federation was not seen as urgently requiring
2499-616: A light-weight bomb arose with the British Government's decision in July 1954 to proceed with a British hydrogen bomb programme . Hydrogen bombs required an atomic bomb as a primary, and one was incorporated in the British hydrogen bomb design, known as Green Granite . In response, Aldermaston developed a new warhead called Red Beard that was half the size of Blue Danube and weighed one-fifth as much, mainly through innovation in
2646-664: A long way from the nearest major settlements of Darwin and Cairns ; while the area north of Emu Field had scarce water, few roads and was on the axis of the Long Range Weapons Establishment (LRWE), which meant that there would be a competing claim on the use of the area. Group Captain George Pither conducted an aerial survey of the area north of the Trans-Australian Railway between Ooldea and Cook, South Australia . This
2793-404: A low-yield Blue Danube core with less fissile material was substituted, reducing the yield to 3 kilotons of TNT (13 TJ). Titterton and Dwyer were on hand for the shot. On 11 October 1956, Valiant B.1 WZ366 of No. 49 Squadron RAF became the first RAF aircraft to drop a live atomic bomb. It fell about 91 metres (100 yd) left and 55 metres (60 yd) short of the target, detonating at
2940-479: A new currency be introduced (from February 1963), to be modelled on South Africa's replacement of the South African pound with the rand (worth 10 shillings or 1 ⁄ 2 pound). The Menzies government announced its support for decimalisation in July 1961, but delayed the process in order to give further consideration to the implementation process. In April 1963, Holt announced that a decimal currency
3087-506: A new work force caused a cascading series of delays. Assembling a labour force of 1,000 from scratch in such a remote location proved difficult, even when KCG was offering wages as high as AU £40 a week (equivalent to AUD$ 3,182 in 2022). The Australian Government elected to create a tri-service task force to construct the test installations. The Australian Army's Engineer in Chief, Brigadier Ronald McNicoll designated Major Owen Magee ,
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#17327870048953234-519: A permanent test site, which were: Elmhirst suggested that a site might be found in Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria or north of Emu Field, where it could be connected by road and rail to Oodnadatta , and where water could more easily be found than at Emu Field. Stevens rated both as unsuitable; Groote Eylandt was wooded and rocky, with a pronounced rainy season, no port facilities, and
3381-582: A quarry were established at Watson , about 40 km (25 mi) west of Ooldea, and Beadell's bush track from Watson to Emu became the main line of communications for the project. It ran north to the edge of the Nullarbor Plain , then over sand hills and the Leisler Range, a mallee , spinifex and quandong covered escarpment, rising to an altitude of 300 metres (1,000 ft). Range headquarters, known as The Village, and an airstrip with
3528-505: A ship that was delayed due to the tests, and there were concerns about the cost of delays, said to be up to AU £10,000 per postponement, and whether Maralinga was a suitable site after all. Finally, the test was carried out at 17:00 on 27 September without the politicians. Conditions were suitable but "by no means ideal". It would have been preferable if the wind had been more southerly, and there had been more wind shear above 4,600 metres (15,000 ft). The prevailing conditions meant that
3675-453: A single, unified currency. For another 10 years, colonial banknotes and coins continued to be the main circulating currencies. In 1902, a select committee of the House of Representatives , chaired by George Edwards , had recommended that Australia adopt a single, national decimal currency, with a pound divided into ten florins and each florin comprising 100 cents. However, the recommendation
3822-462: A small committee would not command sufficient public confidence, and accepted all five. A notable omission was the lack of a meteorologist, and Leonard Dwyer , the director of the Bureau of Meteorology was later added. The Atomic Weapons Tests Safety Committee (AWTSC) was officially formed on 21 July 1955. Menzies told parliament that "no conceivable injury to life, men or property could emerge from
3969-400: A small warhead called Pixie, four different versions of Red Beard, and a round designed to test the principle of radiation implosion. Initially it was planned to test Blue Fox (later renamed Indigo Hammer) in both boosted and unboosted form, but the disappointing results of boosting thus far meant that the benefit of boosting would be too small to warrant it, and this version was discarded. Pixie
4116-693: A specific minor trial. After 1960, proposals also had to be referred to Martin in his role as the Australian Defence Scientific Advisor. Radiological safety was the responsibility of the AHPR. Ultimately, the minor trials had far greater long-term environmental impact than the major tests, although these effects were limited to the range areas. AUD The Australian dollar ( sign : $ ; code : AUD ; also abbreviated A$ or sometimes AU$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies ; and also referred to as
4263-481: A strong interest in the new technology. On 27 September 2012, the Reserve Bank of Australia stated that it had ordered work on a project to upgrade the current banknotes. The upgraded banknotes would incorporate a number of new future proof security features and include tactile features like Braille dots for ease of use of the visually impaired. All persons featured on the first polymer series were retained on
4410-628: A test ban. Nonetheless, Operation Buffalo had attracted little international attention. The British Government rejected calls for a moratorium on testing, and announced at the US-UK talks in Bermuda in March 1957 that it would press on with the Operation Grapple hydrogen bomb tests. Martin's proposal was accepted, and the composition of the new NRAC was announced on 7 July 1957. John Moroney
4557-404: A tracer for determining yield, resulting in rumours that Britain was developing a cobalt bomb . The site was left contaminated with radioactive waste , and an initial cleanup was attempted in 1967. The McClelland Royal Commission , an examination of the effects of the minor trials and major tests, delivered its report in 1985, and found that significant radiation hazards still existed at many of
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4704-528: A view about the stability in value of the British pound. From 1946 to 1971, Australia maintained a peg under the Bretton Woods system , a fixed exchange rate system that pegged the U.S. dollar to gold, but the Australian dollar was effectively pegged to sterling until 1967 at £1 sterling = A£1 5s = A$ 2.50 = US$ 2.80. In 1967 Australia did not follow the pound sterling devaluation and remained fixed to
4851-478: A wholly owned subsidiary of the Reserve Bank of Australia. Note Printing Australia prints polymer notes or simply supplies the polymer substrate for a growing number of other countries including Bangladesh , Brunei , Chile , Kuwait , Malaysia , Mexico , Nepal , New Zealand , Papua New Guinea , Romania , Samoa , Singapore , Solomon Islands , Sri Lanka and Vietnam . Many other countries are showing
4998-697: Is a reserve currency and one of the most traded currencies in the world. Other factors in its popularity include a relative lack of central bank intervention, and general stability of the Australian economy and government. In January 2011 at the World Economic Forum in Davos , Switzerland , Alexey Ulyukaev announced that the Central Bank of Russia would begin keeping Australian dollar reserves. Australian notes are legal tender throughout Australia by virtue of section 36(1) of
5145-814: Is legal tender in its external territories: Christmas Island , Cocos (Keeling) Islands , and Norfolk Island ; and is also official currency in Kiribati , Nauru , and Tuvalu . It was legal tender in Papua New Guinea until 31 December 1975 when it was replaced by the kina , and in Solomon Islands until 1977 when it was replaced by the Solomon Islands dollar . In 1966, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 and 2 cents (bronze); 5, 10, and 20 cents ( cupronickel ; 75% copper, 25% nickel); and 50 cents (silver, then cupronickel). The 50-cent coins in 80% silver were no longer minted after March 1968 due to
5292-669: The Australian Financial Review in October 1978, based in part on a leaked Cabinet submission. In June 1993, New Scientist journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article titled "Britain's dirty deeds at Maralinga" and several related articles. In 2007, Maralinga: Australia's Nuclear Waste Cover-up by Alan Parkinson documented the unsuccessful clean-up at Maralinga. Popular songs about the Maralinga story have been written by Paul Kelly and Midnight Oil . During
5439-515: The Australian Labor government led by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Treasurer Paul Keating floated the dollar, with the exchange rate reflecting the balance of payments as well as supply and demand on international money markets. The decision was made on 8 December 1983 and announced on 9 December 1983. In the two decades that followed, its highest value relative to the US dollar
5586-852: The Avro Shackletons were based at RAAF Base Pearce near Perth in Western Australia. There were 170 men in 22 scientific groups, including 39 Australians and 17 Canadians. Another 450 Australian and British personnel formed the Maralinga Range Support Unit (MARSU) under the command of Colonel R. Durance from the Australian Army. He was succeeded by Colonel G. D. Solomon in 1959, Colonel J. K. Lynch in 1961, Colonel W. G. Henderson in 1962, Colonel A. F. Swinburne in 1963, and Colonel J. G. Ochiltree in 1964. Test procedures were streamlined based on
5733-547: The Lyons government , recommended that Australia adopt "a system of decimal coinage ... based upon the division of the Australian pound into 1000 parts ". This recommendation was not accepted either. In February 1959, treasurer Harold Holt appointed a Decimal Currency Committee, chaired by Walter D. Scott , to examine the merits of decimalisation. The committee reported in August 1960 in favour of decimalisation and proposed that
5880-776: The Nevada Test Site in the United States, but by 1953 it was no closer to securing access to it than it had been in 1950. When William Penney , the Chief Superintendent Armament Research, visited South Australia in October 1952, he gave the Australian Government a summary of the requirements of a permanent test site. In May 1953, the UK Chiefs of Staff Committee were advised that one was needed. They delegated
6027-592: The Rawlinson Ranges was a complicating factor because it was outside MacDougall's jurisdiction, being just across the border in Western Australia, where the legal environment was different, and the Aboriginal people there had little contact with white people. Another patrol officer position was created, one with powers under the 1954 Western Australian Native Welfare Act, which was filled by a Sydney University graduate, Robert Macaulay. Operation Buffalo
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6174-533: The Reserve Bank Act 1959 without an amount limit. Section 16 of the Currency Act 1965 similarly provides that Australian coins intended for general circulation are also legal tender, but only for the following amounts: However, being legal tender does not necessarily oblige businesses to accept cash. The Reserve Bank states that businesses can set commercial terms for a transaction that requires
6321-466: The U.S. dollar at A$ 1 = US$ 1.12. With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, Australia converted the traditional peg to a fluctuating rate against the US dollar. In September 1974, Australia valued the dollar against a basket of currencies called the trade weighted index (TWI) in an effort to reduce the fluctuations associated with its tie to the US dollar. The daily TWI valuation
6468-782: The Venona project revealed the extent of Soviet espionage activities in Australia. The creation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949 excluded Australia from the Western Alliance. On 3 October 1952 the United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon in Operation Hurricane in the Montebello Islands off the coast of Western Australia . A year later the first nuclear tests on
6615-446: The dollar or Aussie dollar ) is the official currency and legal tender of Australia , including all of its external territories , and three independent sovereign Pacific Island states : Kiribati , Nauru , and Tuvalu . In April 2022 , it was the sixth most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market and as of Q4 2023 the seventh most-held reserve currency in global reserves . The Australian dollar
6762-533: The pit design, principally the use of an "air lens". Instead of the core being immediately inside the tamper , there was an air gap between them, with the core suspended on thin wires. This allowed the tamper to gain more momentum before striking the core. The concept had been developed by the Manhattan Project in 1945 and 1946, and permitted a reduction in both the size of the core and the amount of explosives required to compress it. The first test on
6909-554: The traditional owners , the Maralinga Tjarutja people. The last part of the land remaining in the Woomera Prohibited Area was returned to free access in 2014. By the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British nuclear tests. Some journalists investigated the subject and political scrutiny became more intense. Journalist Brian Toohey ran a series of stories in
7056-549: The Australian Government had not set limits on fallout, the AWTSC accepted the recommendations of the NRAC. The result was that the permissible limits were double that of those set for the Operation Buffalo tests. As a result of the balloon detonation, the fireball did not touch the ground, and fallout was limited in both volume and extent. The use of balloons was thus revealed to be far more difficult than anticipated, but
7203-406: The Australian authorities would be kept fully informed. Maralinga was to be developed as a joint facility, co-funded by the British and Australian Governments. The range covered 52,000 square kilometres (20,000 sq mi), with a 260-square-kilometre (100 sq mi) test area. With savings arising from the relocation of buildings, stores and equipment from Emu Field taken into account,
7350-451: The Australian dollar varies significantly during the business cycle, rallying during global booms as Australia exports raw materials, and falling during recessions as mineral prices slump or when domestic spending overshadows the export earnings outlook. This movement is in the opposite direction to other reserve currencies, which tend to be stronger during market slumps as traders move value from falling stocks into cash. The Australian dollar
7497-449: The Australian dollar were issued in 1966. The $ 1, $ 2, $ 10 and $ 20 notes had exact equivalents in the former pound notes. The $ 5 note was issued in 1967, the $ 50 was issued in 1973 and the $ 100 was issued in 1984. The $ 1 banknote was replaced by a $ 1 coin in 1984, while the $ 2 banknote was replaced by a smaller $ 2 coin in 1988. Although no longer printed, all previous notes of the Australian dollar remain legal tender. Shortly after
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#17327870048957644-695: The Australian mainland were carried out in Operation Totem at Emu Field in the Great Victoria Desert in South Australia , with a detonation on 15 October and a second two weeks later on 27 October. The Australian Minister for Supply , Howard Beale , stated in 1955 that "England has the know how; we have the open spaces, much technical skill and a great willingness to help the Motherland. Between us we should help to build
7791-576: The Australians would demand access to even more information than in Operation Totem. This had implications for Britain's relationship with the United States. Sharing information with the Australians would make it harder to secure Britain's ultimate goal, of restoring the wartime nuclear Special Relationship with the United States, and gaining access to information pertaining to the design and manufacture of US nuclear weapons. A railhead and
7938-758: The Commander, Royal Australian Engineers , Western Command , to lead this task force. He joined a party headed by Lieutenant Colonel John Blomfield, the MoS Atomic Weapons representative in Australia, on a site inspection, and then flew to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) at Aldermaston in the UK in a Royal Air Force (RAF) Handley Page Hastings to review the plans. These were still incomplete, but it gave Magee sufficient information to prepare estimates of
8085-488: The Commonwealth X-ray and Radium Laboratory as its other members, would be responsible for the safety of nuclear weapons tests, while a National Radiation Advisory Committee (NRAC) consider public health more generally. This reflected growing disquiet among the scientific community and the public at large over the effects of all atmospheric nuclear weapons testing, not just those in Australia, and growing calls for
8232-436: The Maralinga sites. It recommended another cleanup, which was completed in 2000 at a cost of AUD $ 108 million (equivalent to $ 192 million in 2022). Debate continued over the safety of the site and the long-term health effects on the traditional Aboriginal custodians of the land and former personnel. In 1994, the Australian Government paid compensation amounting to $ 13.5 million (equivalent to $ 26.6 million in 2022) to
8379-495: The Maralinga village would have accommodation for 750 people, with catering facilities that could cope with up to 1,600. There were laboratories and workshops, shops, a hospital, church, power station, post office, bank, library, cinema and swimming pool. There were also playing areas for tennis, Australian football, cricket and golf. Leslie Martin , the scientific adviser at the Department of Defence , could see no issues with
8526-481: The Middle East and Far East. The Australian Government had hopes of collaboration with Britain on both nuclear power and nuclear weapons, and was particularly interested in developing the former, as the country was then thought to have no oil and only limited supplies of coal. Plans for nuclear power were considered along with hydroelectricity as part of the post-war Snowy Mountains Scheme , but Australia
8673-786: The Mosaic Executive (Mosex) or Buffalo Executive (Buffalex) as appropriate. Sir William Penney was appointed scientific director for Operation Buffalo, with Roy Pilgrim, the head of Aldermaston's Trials Division, as his deputy. Group Captain Cecil (Ginger) Weir was appointed Task Force Commander. Planning was completed by June 1956. Except for the air drop, all tests were scheduled for 07:00 Central Standard Time . About 1,350 personnel would be present, including 200 scientists from Aldermaston and Harwell, 70 from other UK departments, 50 Canadians and 30 Australians. There would be 500 RAF and RAAF personnel, and 250 Australian Army servicemen to run
8820-747: The Native Patrol Officer at Woomera on 4 November 1947, with responsibility for ensuring that Aboriginal people were not harmed by the LRWE's rocket testing program. He was initially assigned to the Department of Works and Housing but was transferred to the Department of Supply in May 1949. As the range of the rockets increased, so too did the range of his patrols, from 576 kilometres (358 mi) in October 1949 to 3,486 kilometres (2,166 mi) in March and April 1952. MacDougall felt that his situation
8967-411: The Northern Territory and Newcastle in New South Wales. The highest reading recorded by the ground survey was at Ingomar, South Australia, about 310 kilometres (190 mi) from the test site. The July 1956 Suez Crisis brought US-UK relations to a low ebb, rendering the prospect of the use of US facilities in the near future remote. On 20 September 1956, the UK High Commissioner informed Menzies of
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#17327870048959114-409: The Operation Mosaic G2 test. In the event, it was available, and G2 went ahead as scheduled. Various tests of the effects of nuclear weapons were considered, but only one thought to be worth the effort was a test of a ground burst. These were known to produce more fallout and less effect than air bursts, and had therefore been avoided by the Americans, but such a test might produce useful information that
9261-407: The RAF complained that that codename had already been allocated to the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire aircraft engine. The name was briefly changed to Volcano until the Australians objected, and then to Antler. At the AWTSC meeting on 7 December 1956, Martin suggested that the committee be reconstituted. A three-person Maralinga Safety Committee chaired by Titterton, with Dwyer and D. J. Stevens from
9408-576: The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), and a civilian from the Department of Works and Housing . Their first task was establishing their own camp, with tents, showers and toilets. A team from the South Australian Department of Mines sank a series of 90-to-350-metre (300 to 1,150 ft) bores to provide water. Like that at Emu Field, the bore water was brackish . Two Army skid-mounted 11-kilolitre-per-day (3,000 US gal/d) Cleaver-Brooks thermocompression distillation units provided water for drinking and cooking. Work on
9555-435: The Second World War but the proposed use of balloons to carry warheads to a higher altitude than achievable with a tower was an innovation for Operation Antler. Use of balloons did away with the engineering effort to build towers, and allowed a test site to be re-used, saving on the effort to construct instrumentation sites and lay cables. Most importantly, whereas low-level detonations sucked up contaminated radioactive dirt from
9702-495: The UK might trade with them. A ground test was therefore included in the schedule. A fourth test was an operational test. While the physics package of Blue Danube had been tested, there had been no test of the device in its operational form, so one was included in the Operation Buffalo program. The interdepartmental Atomic Trials Executive in London, chaired by Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Morgan , assumed responsibility for both Operation Mosaic and Operation Buffalo, sitting as
9849-433: The UK to Australia. Australian and British troops fought together in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953 and the Malayan Emergency that went from 1948 to 1960. Australia still maintained close defence ties with Britain through the Australia New Zealand and Malaya (ANZAM) area, which was created in 1948. Australian war plans of this era continued to be integrated with those of Britain, and involved reinforcing British forces in
9996-410: The UK's intention to continue minor trials in March through October 1957, with another major test series in September and October. The main implication was that the range would be in use for most of the year. A minimum of 228 personnel would be required all year round, rising to 354 from March to July, and 400 from July to October. The codename Sapphire was initially allocated to the 1957 test series, but
10143-448: The UK. Taranaki was tentatively scheduled for 7 October, but high upper-level winds caused a postponement. It was eventually decided to fire at 16:15 on 9 October. The yield was around 26.6 kilotons of TNT (111 TJ), somewhat higher than expected, but the cloud rose to 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) with a secondary cloud forming at 3,000 metres (10,000 ft), which was much lower than the 8,600 metres (28,300 ft) expected. Since
10290-400: The US Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) ended technical co-operation. Fearing a resurgence of United States isolationism , and Britain losing its great power status, the British Government restarted its own development effort, under the cover name " High Explosive Research ". In the 1950s Britain was still Australia's largest trading partner, although it was overtaken by Japan and
10437-411: The United Kingdom conducted seven nuclear tests at the Maralinga site in South Australia , part of the Woomera Prohibited Area about 800 kilometres (500 mi) north west of Adelaide . Two major test series were conducted: Operation Buffalo in 1956 and Operation Antler the following year. Approximate weapon yields ranged from 1 to 27 kilotons of TNT (4 to 100 TJ ). The Maralinga site
10584-515: The United States by the 1960s. Britain and Australia still had strong cultural ties, and Robert Menzies , the Prime Minister of Australia from 1949 to 1966, was strongly pro-British. Most Australians were of British descent, and Britain was still the largest source of immigrants to Australia, mainly because British ex-servicemen and their families qualified for free passage, and other British migrants received subsidised passage on ships from
10731-418: The agenda was therefore of the new Red Beard design. OR.1127 also specified a requirement for the device to have variable yields, which Aldermaston attempted to achieve through the addition of small amounts of thermonuclear material, a process known as "boosting". A 91-metre (300 ft) tower was built at Maralinga for a boosted weapon test in case sufficient lithium deuteride could not be produced in time for
10878-731: The anticipated advantages were realised, and balloons would subsequently be used successfully in the Operation Grapple tests on Christmas Island in the Pacific. In addition to the major tests, some 550 minor trials were also carried out between 1953 and 1963. These experiments were subcritical tests involving testing of nuclear weapons or their components, but not nuclear explosions. The four series of minor trials were codenamed Kittens, Tims, Rats and Vixens, and involved experiments with plutonium, uranium, polonium and beryllium . They were called "Minor Trials" until October 1958, when they were renamed "Assessment Tests" The name change were made in
11025-570: The banking system and cash in circulation in other countries or held as a foreign exchange reserve . Section 51(xii) of the Constitution of Australia gives the Commonwealth (federal) Parliament the power to legislate with respect to "currency, coinage, and legal tender". The states are not allowed to coin money, in accordance with section 115 which provides that "[a] State shall not coin money, nor make anything but gold and silver coin
11172-671: The camp. Observers would include politicians, journalists, and six American officials, including Major General Leland S. Stranathan from the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , Alvin C. Graves from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory , Frank H. Shelton from Sandia Laboratories and Brigadier General John G. Shinkle from the White Sands Missile Range . The first test, codenamed One Tree,
11319-691: The changeover, substantial counterfeiting of $ 10 notes was detected. This provided an impetus for the Reserve Bank of Australia to develop new note technologies jointly with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation , culminating in the introduction of the first polymer banknote in 1988. Australia was the first country to produce polymer banknotes , more specifically made of polypropylene polymer, which were produced by Note Printing Australia . These revolutionary polymer notes are cleaner than paper notes, are more durable and easily recyclable. The first polymer banknote
11466-465: The circulating two dollar, one dollar, and 20 cent coins. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of decimal currency , the 2006 mint proof and uncirculated sets included one- and two-cent coins. In early 2013, Australia's first triangular coin was introduced to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of Parliament House. The silver $ 5 coin is 99.9% silver, and depicts Parliament House as viewed from one of its courtyards. The first paper issues of
11613-412: The cost of developing Maralinga as a permanent site was estimated to cost AU £1.9 million, compared with AU £3.6 million for Emu Field. The British Government welcomed Australian financial assistance, and Australian participation avoided the embarrassment that would have come from building a UK base on Australian soil. On the other hand, it was recognised that Australian participation would likely mean that
11760-502: The defences of the free world, and make historic advances in harnessing the forces of nature." Neither the Montebello Islands nor Emu Field were considered suitable as permanent test sites, although Montebello was used again in 1956 for Operation Mosaic . Montebello could be accessed only by sea, and Emu Field had problems with its water supply and dust storms. The British Government's preferred permanent test site remained
11907-553: The early part of the Second World War, Britain had a nuclear weapons project, code-named Tube Alloys , which the 1943 Quebec Agreement merged with the American Manhattan Project to create a combined American, British, and Canadian project. The British Government expected that the United States would continue to share nuclear technology, which it regarded as a joint discovery, after the war, but
12054-583: The east coast of the Australian continent, followed in 1977 by a coin for Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee , the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer in 1981, the Brisbane Commonwealth Games in 1982, and the Australian Bicentenary in 1988. Issues expanded into greater numbers in the 1990s and the 21st century, responding to collector demand. Commemorative designs have also been featured on
12201-400: The end of China's large-scale purchases of Australian commodities in 2013, however, the Australian dollar's value versus the US dollar has since plunged to $ 0.88 as of end-2013, and to as low as $ 0.57 in March 2020. As of 2024, it has traded at a range of $ 0.63 to $ 0.68. In 2016, the Australian dollar was the fifth most traded currency in world foreign exchange markets , accounting for 6.9% of
12348-476: The experience in Operation Buffalo so that it took six hours to set up a tower test and eight for a balloon test. This allowed the testers to take advantage of transient but suitable weather conditions. Invitations to send observers were sent out to all nations with defence cooperation agreements with Britain, which included NATO countries, and fourteen accepted. Australia would send 24 observers, along with Beale's party of 20 parliamentarians. A media contingent of 20
12495-488: The facilities had to be ready for use by the end of July. Magee provided Bloomfield with a list of required stores and equipment. These ranged from timber and nails to drafting gear and two 10-centimetre (4 in) wagon drills. The task force, which began assembling in February 1956, included a section from the Royal Australian Survey Corps , a troop of the 7th Field Squadron, detachments from
12642-540: The facilities themselves got off to a slow start, as KCG was running behind schedule, and unable to release promised earthmoving plant. Some graders were used by day by KCG and by night by the task force. A call to Blomfield resulted in a grader being shipped from Adelaide to Watson two days later. The arrival of a 23-man detachment of the Radiation Detection Unit of the Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers
12789-448: The fallout pattern would be long and narrow, and more concentrated over the nearest town in its path, which was Coober Pedy , 317 kilometres (197 mi) away. Some observers were surprised that the detonation seemed to be silent; the sound wave arrived a few seconds later. The yield was estimated at 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ). The cloud rose to 11,400 metres (37,500 ft), much higher than expected. After about eight minutes,
12936-636: The first time since becoming a freely traded currency, trading above US$ 1 for a few seconds. The currency then traded above parity for a sustained period of several days in November, and fluctuated around that mark into 2011. On 27 July 2011, the dollar hit a record high since floating, at $ 1.1080 against the US dollar. Some commentators speculated that its high value that year was related to Europe's sovereign debt crisis , and Australia's strong ties with material importers in Asia and in particular China . Since
13083-483: The former Australian, New Zealand, and British sixpence, shilling, and two shilling (florin) coins. Pre-decimal Australian coins remain legal tender for 10 cents per shilling. Before 2006 the old New Zealand 5, 10 and 20 cent coins were often mistaken for Australian coins of the same value, and vice versa, and therefore circulated in both countries. The UK replaced these coins with smaller versions from 1990 to 1993, as did New Zealand in 2006. Still, some confusion occurs with
13230-432: The ground and the vaporised tower, a high-altitude detonation created fallout only from the bomb itself, and were therefore much cleaner. While accepting this point, the AWTSC was apprehensive about the consequences of a runaway balloon carrying a live atomic bomb. Bill Saxby and J. T. Tomblin from Aldermaston and an RAF balloon expert visited the Nevada Test Site to observe the work Americans were doing with balloons, and it
13377-416: The holes was tricky because they weighed 30 long tons (30 t), and the largest available crane was a 25-long-ton (25 t) Coles crane. They were manoeuvred into place with the assistance of a TD 24 bulldozer. The Coles crane was also used to erect the two 30-metre (100 ft) shot towers. Concrete was made in situ , using local quarry dust, limestone and bore water. The Canadians erected metal sheds of
13524-459: The instrumentation only. The weapon was lowered into a concrete pit. This time the weather was good, but the aircraft bringing Beale and the politicians was delayed by fog in Canberra. It arrived at Maralinga at 15:40, and they had to be rushed to the viewing platform on Observation hill. The bomb was detonated precisely on time, at 16:30, with a yield of 1.5 kilotons of TNT (6.3 TJ). It left
13671-505: The intrinsic value of the silver content rising to exceed the face value of the coins. Aluminium bronze (92% copper, 6% aluminium, 2% nickel) 1 dollar coins were introduced in 1984, followed by aluminium bronze 2 dollar coins in 1988, to replace the banknotes of that value. In everyday Australian parlance, these coins collectively are referred to as "gold coins". 1 and 2 cent coins were discontinued in 1991 and withdrawn from circulation in 1992; since then cash transactions have been rounded to
13818-443: The labour and equipment that would be required. The job involved the erection of towers, siting of instrument mounts, grading of 310 km (190 mi) of tracks, laying control cables and power lines, and construction of bunkers and other facilities dispersed over an area of 210 km (80 sq mi) but sited to within an accuracy of 30 cm (1 ft). The work force could not be fully assembled before 1 March 1956, but
13965-478: The landscape of the desert, and many left Yalata to return to their traditional lands. A more successful tactic was to frighten them. The desert was said to be inhabited by wanampi , dangerous rainbow serpent spirits that lived in blowholes in the area. The noise of the nuclear tests was attributed to wanampi, as were the dangers of radiation. The decision to establish the Giles Weather Station in
14112-654: The larger-denomination coins in the two countries; Australia's $ 1 coin is similar in size to New Zealand's $ 2 coin, and the New Zealand $ 1 coin is similar in size to Australia's $ 2 coin. With a mass of 15.55 grams (0.549 oz) and a diameter of 31.51 millimetres ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 in), the Australian 50-cent coin is one of the largest coins used in the world today. The Royal Australian Mint also has an international reputation for producing quality numismatic coins. It has first issued commemorative 50-cent coins in 1970, commemorating James Cook 's exploration along
14259-435: The last two tests, making the air drop the third test. The air drop was the most difficult test, as the worst-case scenario involved the radar fuses failing and the bomb detonating on impact with the ground, which would result in severe fallout. The RAF therefore conducted a series of practice drops with high explosive bombs. In the end, in view of the AWTSC's concerns about the dangers of a 40-kiloton-of-TNT (170 TJ) test,
14406-571: The local people; it came from Garik, an extinct language originally spoken around Port Essington in the Northern Territory . On 2 August 1954, the High Commissioner of the United Kingdom to Australia lodged a formal request for a permanent proving ground for multiple series of nuclear tests expected to be conducted over the course of the next decade and a preliminary agreement between the Australian and British Governments
14553-462: The major tests. Operation Buffalo consisted of four tests; One Tree (12.9 kilotons of TNT (54 TJ)) and Breakaway (10.8 kilotons of TNT (45 TJ)) were detonated on towers, Marcoo (1.4 kilotons of TNT (5.9 TJ)) at ground level, and the Kite (2.9 kilotons of TNT (12 TJ)) was released by a Royal Air Force (RAF) Vickers Valiant bomber from a height of 11,000 metres (35,000 ft). This
14700-409: The minor trials. The new name lasted only until December 1959 before it was changed again to the "Maralinga Experimental Programme", as the term "test" was still considered to be too evocative of a nuclear test. Although the major tests were carried out with publicity, the conduct of the minor trials were more secretive, especially after 1958, as the British Government wished to avoid publicity during
14847-689: The names of five scientists: Butement; Martin; Ernest Titterton from the Australian National University in Canberra; Philip Baxter from the Australian Atomic Energy Commission ; and Cecil Eddy from the Commonwealth X-ray and Radium Laboratory. Butement, Martin and Titterton had already been observers at the Operation Mosaic and Operation Totem tests. The Department of Defence favoured a committee of three, but Menzies felt that such
14994-456: The nearest 5 cents . Australia's coins are produced by the Royal Australian Mint , which is located in the nation's capital, Canberra . Since opening in 1965, the Mint has produced more than 14 billion circulating coins, and has the capacity to produce more than two million coins per day, or more than 600 million coins per year. Current Australian 5, 10 and 20 cent coins are identical in size to
15141-429: The new currency would be called the "royal". This met with widespread public disapproval, and three months later it was announced that it would instead be named the "dollar". The pound was replaced by the dollar on 14 February 1966 with the conversion rate of A$ 2 = A£1. For example, a pre-decimal amount of nine pounds, sixteen shillings and sixpence (£9 16s 6d) became $ 19.65 in terms of dollars and cents. Since Australia
15288-572: The prevailing view that the Australian dollar offers diversification benefits in a portfolio containing the major world currencies, especially because of its greater exposure to Asian economies and the commodities cycle. Economists posit that commodity prices are the dominant driver of the Australian dollar, and this means changes in exchange rates of the Australian dollar occur in ways opposite to many other currencies. For decades, Australia's balance of trade has depended primarily upon commodity exports such as minerals and agricultural products. This means
15435-403: The prohibited area, and a high-level one at 3,700 metres (12,000 ft) that deposited a negligible amount of fallout over South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. The final test, Breakaway, was of a boosted Red Beard device. The shot was conducted from a 30-metre (100 ft) tower. Once again there were delays due to unfavourable weather that pushed it back from 18 to 22 October. It
15582-467: The proposed tests, but recommended that in view of the prospect of tests being conducted at Maralinga on a regular basis, and rising concern worldwide over radioactive fallout from nuclear tests, that a permanent body be established to certify the safety of the tests. This was accepted, and the acting secretary of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet , Frederick Chilton , put forward
15729-447: The second polymer series. However, following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, the government has announced that the $ 5 note will be replaced with a design reflecting Indigenous history and culture. Prior to 1983, Australia maintained a fixed exchange rate . The Australian pound was initially at par from 1910 with the British pound or A£1 = UK£1; from 1931 it was devalued to A£1 = 16s sterling. This reflected its historical ties as well as
15876-485: The talks in Geneva that led to the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty . The minor trials were planned and carried out by the UK authorities with little or no Australian involvement other than logistical support. The British Government submitted proposals for trials to the AWTSC, but its role was limited to advising the Australian Government whether to approve a series of tests; unlike the major tests it had no right to veto
16023-614: The task of finding one to Air Marshal Sir Thomas Elmhirst , the chairman of the Totem Executive (Totex), which had been formed in the UK to coordinate the Operation Totem tests. He wrote to J. E. S. Stevens , the permanent secretary of the Australian Department of Supply, and the chairman of the Totem Panel that coordinated the Australian contribution to Operation Totem, and outlined the requirements of
16170-539: The test facilities and supervise their construction. The work was carried out by the Kwinana Construction Group (KCG) under a cost-plus contract . It had just finished the construction of an oil refinery near Fremantle , and it was hoped that it could move on to the new venture immediately, but the delay in obtaining Cabinet's approval meant that work could not start until mid-1955, by which time most of its work force had dispersed. The need to create
16317-462: The test of a British hydrogen bomb. Whether Buffalo or Grapple was more important was the subject of debate in the UK between Willis Jackson , who argued for Buffalo, and Bill Cook , who argued for Grapple. Jackson's view prevailed; Grapple would be postponed if need be. Australian journalists were critical of the cancellations. There were allegations that the delays had caused the deaths of cattle that had contracted Redwater fever while waiting for
16464-489: The test site. For this he employed three strategies. The first was to remove the incentive to go there. An important lure was the availability of rations at Ooldea and surrounding missions, so he had them closed. The Ooldea mission was closed in June 1952, and the reserve was revoked in February 1954. The inhabitants were moved to a new settlement at Yalata , but many ritual objects had been concealed and left behind. They preferred
16611-647: The tests". The Maralinga site was inhabited by the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara Aboriginal people, for whom it had a great spiritual significance. They lived through hunting and gathering activities, and moved over long distances between permanent and semi-permanent locations in groups of about 25, but coming together for special occasions. The construction of the Trans-Australian Railway in 1917 had disrupted their traditional patterns of movement. Walter MacDougall had been appointed
16758-506: The title Operation Antler . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Antler&oldid=1067546048 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Operation Antler (nuclear tests) Between 1956 and 1963,
16905-440: The use of a non-cash payment. However, a business may technically be required to accept cash if they are taken to court, but this is usually not a viable option for consumers. Australian notes and coins are also legal tender in the independent sovereign states of Kiribati , Nauru , and Tuvalu . Nauru never had its own currency. Tuvalu and Kiribati additionally had their respective Tuvaluan and Kiribati dollars at par with
17052-497: The wake of the international moratorium on nuclear testing, which began on 31 October 1958. It was feared that the term "minor trial" might connote that they were small nuclear explosions. The position of the British Government was that the minor trials were not covered by the moratorium, a view supported by the Americans, who continued their own program. Nonetheless, the British Government suspended all testing at Maralinga, including
17199-461: The work at Maralinga to a halt. Magee went over his head and appealed to the commander of Central Command , Major General Arthur Wilson , who flew up from Adelaide and sacked the range commander. Impressed by what he saw at Maralinga, Wilson arranged for the task force to receive a special Maralinga allowance of 16 Australian shillings per day (equivalent to AUD$ 64 in 2022), and additional leave of two days per month. The British Government added
17346-534: The world's daily share (down from 8.6% in 2013) behind the United States dollar , the euro , the Japanese yen and the pound sterling . The Australian dollar is popular with currency traders, because of the comparatively high interest rates in Australia, the relative freedom of the foreign exchange market from government intervention, the general stability of Australia's economy and political system, and
17493-521: Was $ 0.881 in December 1988. The lowest ever value of the dollar after it was floated was 47.75 US cents in April 2001. It returned to above 96 US cents in June 2008, and reached 98.49 later that year. Although the value of the dollar fell significantly from this high towards the end of 2008, it gradually recovered in 2009 to 94 US cents. On 15 October 2010, the dollar reached parity with the US dollar for
17640-558: Was Marcoo, a ground test using a Blue Danube device with a low-yield core. In the hope that sharing the results might lead to fuller cooperation, the test had been discussed with the Americans by the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, D.C., and they had been sufficiently interested to offer the use of American instrumentation and personnel. Fearful of giving away too much information, the British accepted
17787-415: Was Titterton, who did not inform the other members or Turner. Personnel handling these pellets were exposed to the active cobalt-60. The Biak test was scheduled for the following week, 21 September, but rain was forecast and the AWTSC cancelled the detonation. The meteorologists predicted a short break in the weather the following day, but with morning fog until 10:00. The fog cleared up by around 03:30. It
17934-432: Was a tower-mounted test of Red Beard , scheduled for 12 September. This was the main test to which the media were invited. Butement, Dwyer, Martin and Titterton from the AWTSC were present, and Beale arrived from Canberra with a delegation of 26 politicians, but weather conditions were unfavourable, and the test had to be postponed. The schedule was revised to allow for a morning (07:00) or evening (17:00) test, and after
18081-460: Was also accommodated. The Tadje test was scheduled for 12 September 1957, but was postponed to 13 and then 14 September due to the weather. Firing occurred at 14:35 on 14 September, in weather conditions that were almost ideal. The yield was about 1.5 kilotons of TNT (6.3 TJ) as expected. The cloud rose to 2,900 metres (9,500 ft), a little higher than predicted, and headed in a northerly direction. The Tadje test used cobalt-60 pellets as
18228-469: Was also used for minor trials, tests of nuclear weapons components not involving nuclear explosions. The tests codenamed "Kittens" were trials of neutron initiators ; "Rats" and "Tims" measured how the fissile core of a nuclear weapon was compressed by the high explosive shock wave; and "Vixens" investigated the effects of fire or non-nuclear explosions on atomic weapons. The minor trials, numbering around 550, ultimately generated far more contamination than
18375-585: Was an even smaller, lightweight (110-kilogram (250 lb)) warhead with a plutonium core under consideration for use with the Royal Navy's Seaslug missile . Its drawback was that it required enough plutonium to build two Red Beards, and plutonium was scarce and expensive. In February 1957, the Australian authorities were notified of plans for six tests, including three using balloons, with maximum yields of up to 80 kilotons of TNT (330 TJ). The UK had considerable experience with barrage balloons during
18522-486: Was appointed secretary of both committees. The AWTSC continued to report to the Minister of Supply, while the NRAC reported directly to the Prime Minister. The first round of Operation Grapple tests was unsuccessful in demonstrating a working hydrogen bomb design. This left plans for Operation Antler in disarray. By mid-June 1957, proposals for Antler included up to seven tests: of a surface-to-air warhead called Blue Fox,
18669-505: Was appointed the test director, with J. A. T. Dawson as his deputy, and J. T. Tomblin as the superintendent. Air Commodore W. P. Sutcliffe commanded the services, with Group Captain Hugh Disney in charge of the RAF component. This was by far the largest of the three service components, with 31 aircraft and about 700 men, including a 70-man balloon detachment. Most of the aircraft were based at RAAF Base Edinburgh near Adelaide, although
18816-595: Was changed in November 1976 to a periodically adjusted valuation. The highest valuation of the Australian dollar relative to the U.S. dollar was during the period of the peg to the U.S. dollar. On 9 September 1973, the peg was adjusted to US$ 1.4875, the fluctuation limits being changed to US$ 1.485–US$ 1.490; on both 7 December 1973 and 10 December 1973, the noon buying rate in New York City for cable transfers payable in foreign currencies reached its highest point of 1.4885 U.S. dollars to one dollar. In December 1983,
18963-470: Was decided to detonate at 10:00 despite forecasts that some fallout would be deposited on the Taranaki test site. The yield was around 6 kilotons of TNT (25 TJ) as expected, but the cloud rose much higher: 7,300 metres (24,000 ft) instead of the forecast 4,300 metres (14,000 ft), with a secondary cloud forming at 4,600 metres (15,000 ft). Weather conditions were good, but as feared, fallout
19110-566: Was deposited on the Taranaki site. While Tadje and Biak were fired from towers, Taranaki was the balloon test. A contract was let for 110,000-cubic-foot (3,100 m ) balloons, but it soon became clear that they could not be produced in time, so 70,000-cubic-foot (2,000 m ) balloons were substituted, of a type used by the Blue Joker project. These could bear loads of up to 4,000 kilograms (9,000 lb) in winds of up to 60 kilometres per hour (30 kn), but three were required to lift
19257-462: Was detonated at 00:05 on 22 October, with a yield of about 10 kilotons of TNT (42 TJ). As on previous tests, the fallout was measured using sticky paper, air sampling devices, and water sampled from rainfall and reservoirs. This time the cloud was tracked with the help of a Trans Australia Airlines (TAA) Douglas DC-4 diverted from its flight path. The cloud reached 11,000 metres (35,000 ft) but soon became widely dispersed between Darwin in
19404-480: Was estimated that if bore water could not be obtained, a water pipeline could be laid to bring water from Port Augusta . This was estimated to cost AU £ 53,000 to construct and AU £50,000 per annum to operate. On 25 November, Butement officially named the X.300 site "Maralinga" in a meeting at the Department of Supply. This was an Aboriginal word meaning "thunder", but not in the Western Desert language of
19551-444: Was expedited so they arrived in June, and were able to pitch in with the construction effort. In July, supplies coming from the UK were delayed by industrial action at the port of Adelaide. The work involved laying, testing and burying some 310 kilometres (190 mi) of control cable. Each 490-metre (1,600 ft) spool of cable weighed about 1 tonne (1 long ton), so where possible they were pre-positioned. The trenches were dug by
19698-521: Was followed by a ground reconnaissance in four land rovers and two four-wheel drive trucks by Pither, Wing Commander Kevin Connolly, Frank Beavis (an expert in soil chemistry), Len Beadell and the two truck drivers. An area was found north of Ooldea, and a temporary airstrip was created in two days by land rovers dragging a length of railway line to level it, where Penney, Flight Lieutenant Charles Taplin and Chief Scientist Alan Butement landed in
19845-604: Was introduced as a decimal currency on 14 February 1966 to replace the non-decimal Australian pound , with the conversion rate of two dollars to the pound (A£1 = A$ 2). It is subdivided into 100 cents . The $ symbol precedes the amount. On the introduction of the currency, the $ symbol was intended to have two strokes, but the version with one stroke has also always been acceptable. In 2023 , there were A$ 4.4 billion in coins and A$ 101.3 billion in notes of Australian currency in circulation , or around A$ 6,700 per person in Australia, which includes cash reserves held by
19992-520: Was issued in 1988 as a $ 10 note commemorating the bicentenary of European settlement in Australia. The note depicted on one side a young male Aboriginal person in body paint, with other elements of Aboriginal culture. On the reverse side was the ship Supply from the First Fleet, with a background of Sydney Cove, as well as a group of people to illustrate the diverse backgrounds from which Australia has evolved over 200 years. The first polymer series
20139-420: Was not a party to the 1948 Modus Vivendi , the nuclear agreement between the US and UK which superseded the wartime Quebec Agreement. This cut Australian scientists off from technical information to which they formerly had access. Britain would not share it with Australia for fear that it might jeopardise the far more important relationship with the United States, and the Americans were reluctant to do so after
20286-414: Was not acted upon. The Australian pound (A£) was introduced in 1910, at par with the pound sterling (A£1 = UK£1). Like the UK pound, it was divided into 240 pence, or 20 shillings (each comprising 12 pence). In December 1931, the Australian currency was devalued by 25%, so that one pound five shillings Australian was equivalent to one pound sterling. In 1937, a banking royal commission , appointed by
20433-526: Was not appreciated by his superiors, who did not supply him with a vehicle for his own use for three years. MacDougall estimated that about 1,000 Aboriginal people lived in the Central Australian reserve, which extended to the border with Western Australia. He found them reluctant to reveal important details such as the location of water holes and sacred sites . His first concern was for their safety, and for that he needed to keep them away from
20580-565: Was reached on 26 August. A mission consisting of six officials and scientists headed by J. M. Wilson, the under-secretary of the UK Ministry of Supply (MoS) visited Australia in December to evaluate the Maralinga site, and reported that it was excellent. The new site was officially announced by Beale on 4 April 1955, and the Australian Cabinet gave its assent on 4 May. A formal Memorandum of Arrangements for use of Maralinga
20727-451: Was rolled out starting 1992 and featured the following persons: A special centenary issue of the $ 5 note in 2001 featured Sir Henry Parkes and Catherine Helen Spence . In 2015–2016 there were petitions to feature Fred Hollows on the upgraded $ 5 note, but failed to push through when the new note was introduced on 1 September 2016. Australia also prints polymer banknotes for a number of other countries through Note Printing Australia ,
20874-422: Was scheduled to be introduced in February 1966, with a base unit equal to 10 shillings, and that a Decimal Currency Board would be established to oversee the transition process. A public consultation process was held in which over 1,000 names were suggested for the new currency. This was reduced to a shortlist of seven names: austral, crown, dollar, pound, regal, tasman and royal. In June 1963, Holt announced that
21021-414: Was signed on 7 March 1956. It specified that the site would be available for ten years; that no thermonuclear tests would be carried out; that the British Government would be liable for all claims of death or injury to people or damage to property as a result of the tests, except those to British Government personnel; that Australian concurrence would be required before any test could be carried out; and that
21168-481: Was still part of the fixed-exchange sterling area , the exchange rate was fixed to the pound sterling at a rate of A$ 1 = 8s sterling (or £1 stg = A$ 2.50, and in turn £1 stg = US$ 2.80). In 1967, Australia effectively left the sterling area when the pound sterling was devalued against the US dollar from US$ 2.80 to US$ 2.40, but the Australian dollar chose to retain its peg to the US dollar at A$ 1 = US$ 1.12 (hence appreciating in value versus sterling). The Australian dollar
21315-519: Was suggested that Titterton should also visit Nevada. Safety procedures were developed that included, in an extreme circumstance, shooting down the balloons. Titterton and Beale then accepted the use of balloons. In July 1957, the Australian Government was informed of the UK authorities' decision to limit Operation Antler to just three tests. There would be two tower tests of 1.5 kilotons of TNT (6.3 TJ) and 3 kilotons of TNT (13 TJ), codenamed Tadje and Biak respectively, and only one balloon test,
21462-428: Was the first drop of a British nuclear weapon from an aircraft. Operation Antler in 1957 tested new, light-weight nuclear weapons. Three tests were conducted in this series: Tadje (0.93 kilotons of TNT (3.9 TJ)), Biak (5.67 kilotons of TNT (23.7 TJ)) and Taranak (26.6 kilotons of TNT (111 TJ)). The first two were conducted from towers, while the last was suspended from balloons. Tadje used cobalt pellets as
21609-477: Was the first nuclear test series to be conducted at Maralinga, and the largest ever held in Australia. Planning for the series, initially codenamed Theta, began in mid-1954. It was initially scheduled for April and May 1956, but was pushed back to September and October, when meteorological conditions were most favourable. Ultimately all tests on the Australian mainland were conducted at this time of year. The 1954 plan for Operation Theta called for four tests, each with
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