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106-482: The operation had already been prepared since 26 February 1942 from the southerly Regional Commissariat Zhytomyr by actions of the Slovakian Infantry Regiment with the subordinated 325th Order Police battalion in the area Mozyr - Szitkowiczi , which probably claimed more than 1,000 lives. This action seems to have been held up by the fact that the commander of the police battalion, a major of

212-542: A Hungarian unit . (Here also the Germans thus tried to transfer the responsibility to allied troops.) It was the Operation Bamberg, however, that became a model in many respects. The operation Bamberg was the beginning of a series of campaigns of plunder , murder and deportation against the peasant population of Belarus in the surroundings of the partisan areas. Some Slovak soldiers were involved in

318-401: A closed bolt for accuracy. Machine guns are often crewed by more than one soldier; the rifle is an individual weapon. The term "rifle" is sometimes used to describe larger rifled crew-served weapons firing explosive shells, for example, recoilless rifles and naval rifles . In many works of fiction "rifle" refers to any weapon that has a stock and is shouldered before firing, even if

424-561: A German immigrant. By 1750 there were a number of such manufacturers in the area. The longer barrel was a departure by local gunsmiths from their German roots, allowing bullets to achieve a higher speed (as the burning gunpowder was contained longer) before emerging from the barrel. During the 1700s (18th century), colonial settlers, particularly those immigrating from Germany and Switzerland, adapted and improved upon their European rifles. The improved long rifles were used for precise shooting, aiming, and firing at individual targets, instead of

530-540: A Jesuit school and monastery were opened here. By 1765, Zhytomyr had five churches, including 3 Roman Catholic and 2 Orthodox, and 285 houses. In 1793 Zhytomyr was incorporated into the Russian Empire , and in 1804 was named capital of the Volhynian Governorate. During a period of Ukrainian independence (1917-1920) in 1918, the city was the national capital of Ukrainian People's Republic for

636-530: A Slavic tribe of Drevlians . This date, 884, is cut into a large stone of the ice age times, standing on the hill where Zhytomyr was founded. Zhytomyr was one of the prominent cities of Kievan Rus' . The first records of the town date from 1240, when it was sacked by the Mongol hordes of Batu Khan . In 1320 Zhytomyr was captured by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and received Magdeburg rights in 1444. After

742-411: A deterioration of the mood of the population. For a longer occupation there were not enough troops, however, and the total collection was a task almost impossible to solve due to transportation difficulties caused by the weather. From the point of view of the agriculture authorities the operation was thus condemned to fail as a collection operation, given that the confiscation remained a partial success and

848-482: A few weeks. Ultimately, the Ukrainian fight for independence failed and Ukrainian People's Republic became occupied by Soviet Union . A new Soviet Ukraine state was formed under Soviet rule - Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic . From 1920 Zhytomyr was a part of Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic . Due to one of Stalin 's 5-year plans, the city suffered from the man-made famine Holodomor of 1932-1933 . In 2008,

954-425: A firearm. The problem of proper seal creation had been solved with the use of brass cartridge cases, which expanded in an elastic fashion at the point of firing and effectively sealed the breech while the pressure remained high, then relaxed back enough to allow for easy removal. By the end of the 19th century, the leading bolt-action design was that of Paul Mauser , whose action—wedded to a reliable design possessing

1060-451: A five-shot magazine —became a world standard through two world wars and beyond. The Mauser rifle was paralleled by Britain's ten-shot Lee–Enfield and America's 1903 Springfield Rifle models. The American M1903 closely copied Mauser's original design. Barrel rifling dramatically increased the range and accuracy of the musket. Indeed, throughout its development, the rifle's history has been marked by increases in range and accuracy. From

1166-510: A greatly shortened length of pull, which is necessary to accommodate children. Youth stocks are available for many popular rifles, such as the Ruger 10/22 , a semi-automatic .22 LR rifle, allowing a youth rifle to be made from a standard rifle by simply changing the stock. The typical ages of shooters for such rifles vary from about age 5+. The usual form of rifling was helical grooves in a round bore. Some early rifled firearms had barrels with

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1272-488: A large Jewish community, and was a center of the Hasidic movement. Jews formed nearly one-third of the 1861 population (13,299 of 40,564); thirty years later, they had somewhat outpaced the general growth of the city, with 24,062 Jews in a total population of 69,785. By 1891 there were three large synagogues and 46 smaller batei midrash . The proportion of Jews was much lower in the surrounding district of Zhytomyr than in

1378-434: A part of Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic again. On 24 August 1991 Ukrainian parliament announced Declaration of Independence of Ukraine . From 1991, Zhytomyr has been part of the independent and sovereign Ukraine . During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , Zhytomyr and the surrounding area were subjected to several Russian air and missile strikes, such as the 2 March airstrike which damaged residential buildings,

1484-573: A platoon firing repeatedly could produce a 'beaten ground' effect similar to light artillery or machine guns. Currently, rifles are the most common firearm in general use for hunting (with the exception of bird hunting, where shotguns are favored). Rifles derived from military designs have long been popular with civilian shooters. During the Napoleonic Wars the British army created several experimental units known as "Rifles", armed with

1590-633: A regular basis. Also informed were the head of the administration department at the Army High Command / Quartermaster General , Schmidt v. Altenstedt, General Quarter Master Wagner himself and through him also Hitler. The Major Actions were not invented with Operation Bamberg. An action near Sewsk ( Sjwosk ) to the south of Lokot in the Briańsk area, apparently in support of the local self-administration district of Russian collaborators and claiming 1,936 lives, had been carried out shortly before by

1696-660: A removable seven-round tube magazine, enabling the rounds to be fired one after another. When the magazine was empty, it could be exchanged for another. In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, military observers from Europe and the United States witnessed a major conflict fought with high velocity bolt-action rifles firing smokeless powder . The Battle of Mukden fought in 1905 consisted of nearly 343,000 Russian troops against over 281,000 Japanese troops. The Russian Mosin–Nagant Model 1891 in 7.62 mm

1802-517: A rifle from the earlier smoothbore long guns (e.g., arquebuses , muskets ) is the rifling within its barrel . The raised areas of a barrel's rifling are called lands ; they make contact with and exert torque on the projectile as it moves down the bore, imparting a spin. When the projectile leaves the barrel, this spin persists and lends gyroscopic stability to the projectile due to conservation of angular momentum , increasing accuracy and hence effective range. Historically, rifles only fired

1908-441: A shorter barrel did not impair accuracy as much. As a result, cavalry saw limited, but noteworthy, usage in 20th-century conflicts. The advent of the massed, rapid firepower of the machine gun , submachine gun and rifled artillery was so quick as to outstrip the development of any way to attack a trench defended by riflemen and machine gunners. The carnage of World War I was perhaps the greatest vindication and vilification of

2014-655: A single projectile with each squeeze of the trigger. Modern rifles are commonly classified as single-shot, bolt-action, semi-automatic, or automatic. Single-shot, bolt-action, and semi-automatic rifles are limited by their designs to fire a single shot for each trigger pull. Only automatic rifles are capable of firing more than one round per trigger squeeze; however, some automatic rifles are limited to fixed bursts of two, three, or more rounds per squeeze. Modern automatic rifles overlap to some extent in design and function with machine guns . In fact, many light machine guns are adaptations of existing automatic rifle designs, such as

2120-758: A small one for 70 seats, a lobby with an area of 550 m2, rehearsal halls, dressing rooms, offices, production shops. Currently in the city work: Since 1973, the Zhytomyr Academic Dance Ensemble "Sun" exists in the city. The internationally renowned chamber choir OREYA is based in the city. Famous composers Borys Lyatoshynsky and Sviatoslav Richter were born in Zhytomyr. Museums The following museums operate in Zhytomyr: Libraries Architecture: sights and monuments Rifle A rifle

2226-468: A smoothbore musket to about 300 yards for a rifle using the Minié system. The expanding skirt of the Minié ball also solved the problem that earlier tight-fitting bullets were difficult to load as black powder residue fouled the inside of the barrel. The Minié system allowed conical bullets to be loaded into rifles just as quickly as round balls in smooth bores, which allowed rifle muskets to replace muskets on

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2332-471: A stem at the bottom of the barrel that would deform and expand the base of the bullet when rammed, therefore enabling accurate contact with the rifling. However, the area around the stem clogged and got dirty easily. One of the most famous was the Minié system, invented by French Army Captain Claude-Étienne Minié , which relied on a conical bullet (known as a Minié ball) with a hollow skirt at

2438-530: A stock, either fixed or folding, to be braced against the shoulder when firing. The adoption of cartridges and breech-loading in the 19th century was concurrent with the general adoption of rifles. In the early part of the 20th century, soldiers were trained to shoot accurately over long ranges with high-powered cartridges. World War I Lee–Enfield rifles (among others) were equipped with long-range 'volley sights' for massed firing at ranges of up to 1.6 km (1 mi). Individual shots were unlikely to hit, but

2544-741: A survey conducted by the International Republican Institute in April–May 2023, 82% of the city's population spoke Ukrainian at home, and 14% spoke Russian. Zhytomyr had been a Latin Catholic bishopric since 1321, until The See was suppressed in 1789 in favor of the Diocese of Lutsk and Zytomierz , until that was split up again in 1925, when it was restored as the Roman Catholic Diocese of Zhytomyr ; that

2650-407: A thermal electricity plant, and two hospitals, killing at least two and injuring more than a dozen. The city is divided into two urban districts : Microdistrict The city of Zhytomyr contains the following areas ( microdistricts ): 31,000 Jews, 17,000 Russians, 9,000 Ukrainians, 7,000 Poles Distribution of the population by native language according to the 2001 census : According to

2756-419: A tighter bore with no space between bullet and barrel, and still used balls instead of conical bullets. The balls the long rifle used were smaller, allowing the production of more rounds for a given amount of lead. These rifles also had longer barrels, allowing more accuracy, which were rifled with a helical groove. These first started appearing sometime before 1740, one early example being made by Jacob Dickert,

2862-456: A twisted polygonal bore. The Whitworth rifle was the first such type designed to spin the round for accuracy. Bullets for these guns were made to match the shape of the bore so the bullet would grip the rifle bore and take a spin that way. These were generally large caliber weapons, and the ammunition still did not fit tightly in the barrel. Many different shapes and degrees of spiraling were used in experimental designs. One widely produced example

2968-518: Is 261,624 (2022 estimate). Zhytomyr is a major transport hub. The city lies on a historic route linking the city of Kyiv with the west through Brest . Today it links Warsaw with Kyiv, Minsk with Izmail , and several major cities of Ukraine. Zhytomyr was also the location of Ozerne airbase , a key Cold War strategic aircraft base 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) southeast of the city. Important economic activities of Zhytomyr include lumber milling, food processing, granite quarrying, metalworking, and

3074-504: Is a long-barreled firearm designed for accurate shooting and higher stopping power , with a barrel that has a helical or spiralling pattern of grooves ( rifling ) cut into the bore wall. In keeping with their focus on accuracy, rifles are typically designed to be held with both hands and braced firmly against the shooter's shoulder via a buttstock for stability during shooting. Rifles have been used in warfare , law enforcement , hunting and target shooting sports . The term

3180-431: Is a 3D printed .22-caliber rifle created around August 2013. It was created using a Stratasys Dimension 1200es printer. It was created by a Canadian only known by the pseudonym "Matthew" who told The Verge that he was in his late 20s, and his main job was making tools for the construction industry. The original Grizzly fired a single shot before breaking. Grizzly 2.0 fired fourteen bullets before getting damaged due to

3286-432: Is also historically known by different names in other languages – Russian : Житомир , romanized :  Zhitomir [ʐɨˈtomʲɪr] ; Polish : Żytomierz [ʐɨˈtɔ.mjɛʂ] ; Belarusian : Жытомір , romanized :  Žytomir [ʐɨˈtomʲɪr] ; Yiddish : זשיטאָמיר , romanized :  Zhitomir . Legend holds that Zhytomyr was established about 884 by Zhytomyr, prince of

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3392-426: Is propelled by the contained deflagration of a combustible propellant compound (originally black powder and now nitrocellulose and other smokeless powders ), although other propulsive means are used, such as compressed air in air rifles , which are popular for vermin control , small game hunting, competitive target shooting and casual sport shooting ( plinking ). The distinct feature that separates

3498-474: Is rare on rifles designed for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is difficult and liable to reduce the effect of the rifling.) Modern ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and nickel – cupro-nickel . Some ammunition is coated with molybdenum disulfide to further reduce internal friction – the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet. Rifles were initially single-shot, muzzle-loading weapons. During

3604-631: The 7.92×33mm Kurz (short) round, the MKb-42 , and ultimately, the assault rifle . Today, an infantryman's rifle is optimized for ranges of 300 m or less, and soldiers are trained to deliver individual rounds or bursts of fire within these distances. Typically, the application of accurate, long-range fire is the domain of the marksman and the sniper in warfare, and of enthusiastic target shooters in peacetime. The modern marksman rifle and sniper rifle are usually capable of accuracy better than 0.3 mrad at 100 yards (1 arcminute ). The Grizzly

3710-599: The Baker rifle . These Rifle Regiments were deployed as skirmishers during the Peninsular war in Spain and Portugal, and were more effective than skirmishers armed with muskets due to their accuracy and long range. Gradually, rifles appeared with cylindrical barrels cut with helical grooves, the surfaces between the grooves being "lands". The innovation was shortly followed by the mass adoption of breech-loading weapons , as it

3816-464: The Battle of Saratoga , and in the southern states where General Morgan commanded as well. Taking advantage of the rifle's improved accuracy, Morgan's sharpshooters picked off cannoneers and officers, reducing the impact of enemy artillery. This kind of advantage was considered pivotal in many battles, such as the battles of Cowpens , Saratoga, and King's Mountain . Later during the Napoleonic Wars ,

3922-642: The Minié rifle and beyond, the rifle has become ever more potent at long-range strikes. In recent decades, large-caliber anti-materiel rifles, typically firing between 12.7 mm and 20 mm caliber cartridges, have been developed. The US Barrett M82A1 is probably the best-known such rifle. A second example is the AX50 by Accuracy International . These weapons are typically used to strike critical, vulnerable targets such as computerized command and control vehicles, radio trucks, radar antennae, vehicle engine blocks and

4028-606: The Order Police ( Schutzpolizei ) didn't mobilize his troops for some time. From the north the operation was to be conducted not by the 203rd Security Division , responsible for the area, but by the 707th Security Division , which had been transferred specifically for this purpose from the Regional Commissariat White Ruthenia . During a preliminary meeting on 8 March Max von Schenckendorff , commander of Army Group Centre Rear Area , thanked

4134-495: The RPK and M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle . A military's light machine guns are typically chambered for the same caliber ammunition as its service rifles. Generally, the difference between an automatic rifle and a machine gun comes down to weight, cooling system, and ammunition feed system. Rifles, with their relatively lighter components (which overheat quickly) and smaller capacity magazines , are incapable of sustained automatic fire in

4240-545: The Security Police and the SD for their support so far and assured them that for the success of the great action they were absolutely necessary. The operation plan of the 203rd Security Division defined as tasks: While this division, which also foresaw a bombing of four villages from the air, still recommended to make a distinction between the guilty and the innocent, demanding that only truly guilty and elements alien to

4346-848: The Union of Lublin (1569) the city was incorporated into the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and in 1667, following the Treaty of Andrusovo , it became the capital of the Kiev Voivodeship . In the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 it passed to Imperial Russia and became the capital of the Volhynian Governorate . Following the Union of Lublin , Zhytomyr became an important center of local administration, seat of

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4452-443: The starosta , and capital of Zhytomyr County. Here, sejmiks of Kiev Voivodeship took place. In 1572, the town had 142 buildings, a manor house of the starosta and a castle. Following the privilege of King Sigismund III Vasa , Zhytomyr had the right for two fairs a year. During Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648) Zhytomyr was incorporated into Cossack Hetmanate state. In 1667, Zhytomyr became capital of Kiev Voivodeship, and in 1724,

4558-426: The 18th century, breech-loading weapons were designed, which allowed the rifleman to reload while under cover, but defects in manufacturing and the difficulty in forming a reliable gas-tight seal prevented widespread adoption. During the 19th century, multi-shot repeating rifles using lever , pump or linear bolt actions became standard, further increasing the rate of fire and minimizing the fuss involved in loading

4664-468: The British 95th Regiment (Green Jackets) and 60th Regiment, (Royal American) , as well as sharpshooters and riflemen during the War of 1812 , used the rifle to great effect during skirmishing. Because of a slower loading time than a musket, they were not adopted by the whole army. Since rifles were used by sharpshooters who did not routinely fire over other men's shoulders, long length was not required to avoid

4770-603: The Chapel of St. Stanislaus was built (now in ruins), and the cemetery was divided into nine districts, named after different saints. In the Soviet Union , the complex was devastated, now it is under the process of renovation. Among most famous people buried here are: Zhytomyr apparently had few Jews at the time of the Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648), but by the time it became part of Russia in 1778, it had

4876-571: The French Chassepot in 1866. Breech-loading was to have a major impact on warfare, as breech-loading rifles can be fired at a rate many times faster than muzzle-loaded rifles and significantly can be loaded from a prone rather than standing position. Firing prone (i.e., lying down) is more accurate than firing from a standing position, and a prone rifleman presents a much smaller target than a standing soldier. The higher accuracy and range, combined with reduced vulnerability generally benefited

4982-486: The German and allied troops during the core action were merely seven dead and eight wounded, 47 rifles and machine pistols were captured. The partisans in the area, whose number was estimated at 1,200 to 2,000 men, got away. Like almost all later major actions against partisans or those around them, operation Bamberg consisted of four phases: Fighting with the partisans and losses on the German side were most frequent in

5088-484: The Germans showed up, which were also characteristic of later actions. The affected area had until then delivered no agrarian products to the Germans (no collection at all so far due to partisan activity). The economy staff in Bobrujsk had prior to the operation suggested to either occupy the area militarily on a constant basis or to carry out a total collection including the last cow and the seed grain, which would lead to

5194-911: The National Museum of the Holodomor Genocide published the National Book of Memory of the Victims of the Holodomor of 1932–1933 in Ukraine. Zhytomyr region - Zhytomyr. The book has 1116 pages and consists of three sections. According to historical records, more than 8015 people died during Holodomor in 1932–1933. During World War II Zhytomyr and the surrounding territory was, for two and a half years (first from 9 July 1941 to 12 November 1943, and again from 19 November 1943 to 31 December 1943 ) under Nazi German occupation and

5300-616: The Zhytomyr Jewish community numbers about 5,000. The community is a part of the "Union of Jewish Communities in Ukraine" and the city and district's rabbinate. Rabbi Shlomo Vilhelm, who came to the city as a Chabad emissary in 1994, serves as rabbi. Other Jewish institutions are also active in the city, including the Joint and its humanitarian branch "Chesed" and the Jewish Agency . The community has an ancient synagogue in

5406-399: The action and bore of the musket frequently, either through the action of repeated bore scrubbing, or a deliberate attempt to create "soot grooves" that would allow for more shots to be fired from the firearm. While many people contributed to the development of the concept of rifling and rifles, Friedrich Engels claimed it as a German invention in his extensive writings about the history of

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5512-495: The barrel and because they took longer to reload and fire than muskets. Rifles were created as an improvement in the accuracy of smoothbore muskets. In the early 18th century, Benjamin Robins , an English mathematician, realized that an elongated bullet would retain the momentum and kinetic energy of a musket ball, but would slice through the air with greater ease. The black powder used in early muzzle-loading rifles quickly fouled

5618-698: The barrel, it inserts itself into the rifling, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, some machine guns are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon steel barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern stainless steel barrels for target rifles are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be fired before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small arms have chrome -lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This

5724-573: The barrel, making loading slower and more difficult. The greater range of the rifle was considered to be of little practical use since the smoke from black powder quickly obscured the battlefield and made it almost impossible to aim the weapon from a distance. Since musketeers could not afford to take the time to stop and clean their barrels in the middle of a battle, rifles were limited to use by sharpshooters and non-military uses like hunting. Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using spherical ammunition fired at relatively low velocity. Due to

5830-413: The base of the bullet. When fired, the skirt would expand from the pressure of the exploding charge and grip the rifling as the round was fired. The better seal gave more power, as less gas escaped past the bullet. Also, for the same bore ( caliber ) diameter a long bullet was heavier than a round ball. The extra grip also spun the bullet more consistently, which increased the range from about 50 yards for

5936-545: The battlefield. Minié system rifles, notably the U.S. Springfield and the British Enfield of the early 1860s featured prominently in the U.S. Civil War , due to their enhanced power and accuracy. At the time of the Crimean War (1853-1856) the Minié rifle was considered the "best in military use". Over the 19th century, bullet design also evolved, the bullets becoming gradually smaller and lighter. By 1910

6042-412: The city center which has a mikveh . Chabad operates in the city various educational institutions which have residence in a village next to the city. The city has 2 state theaters and a philharmonic, more than 10 museums, libraries and planetarium. One of the world-famous museums of cosmonautics Serhiy Pavlovych Korolyov Museum of Cosmonautics is located in the city. Theaters and music In 1809,

6148-476: The city itself; at the turn of the century (circa 1900) there were 22,636 Jews in a total population of 281,378. In Imperial Russia , Zhytomyr held the same status as the official Jewish center of southern part of the Pale of Settlement as Vilnius held in the north. The printing of Hebrew books was permitted only in these two cities during the monopoly of Hebrew printing from 1845 to 1862, and both were chosen as

6254-495: The club house, the inhabitants of Kurin were in part shot, in part burned alive, similar as in Kowali , where the children were burned. The number of Belarusian dead was officially put at about 3,500 by the Germans, but the actual number was much higher. The partisans estimated it at 5,000, and according to the listing by Romanowski et al 4,396 people died in 15 localities alone. The actions that took place before and afterwards in

6360-482: The crimes against Jews and people alien to a locality, as carried out with success in White Ruthenia , especially in the autumn months of 1941, were to be imitated with all harshness: The respective instructions for ruthless action against men, women and children also apply for the new operation area. Operation Bamberg already showed all essential tactical elements and procedures that were to become typical of

6466-481: The defense while making the traditional battle between lines of standing and volleying infantrymen obsolete. Revolving rifles were an attempt to increase the rate of fire of rifles by combining them with the revolving firing mechanism that had been developed earlier for revolving pistols. Colt began experimenting with revolving rifles in the early 19th century, and other manufacturers like Remington later experimented with them as well. The Colt Revolving Rifle Model 1855

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6572-662: The exigencies of the war effort and mounting partisan warfare behind the lines prevented Nazi leaders from fully developing and realizing their colonial aims in Ukraine… In addition to the immediate destruction of all Jewish communities, Himmler insisted that the Ukrainian civilian population be brought to a 'minimum.' During 1942-1949 Zhytomyr region was a territory of mild Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) activity (UPA North), who fought for Independence of Ukraine against Nazi Germany and Soviet Union . After Soviet Union defeated Nazi Germany , Zhytomyr fell under Soviet rule and became

6678-404: The first stationary theater building was built in Zhytomyr on the initiative of Volyn governor M. I. Кomburley. In 1858, the first stone theater in Ukraine was built (now it houses the regional state philharmonic). M. Kropyvnytskyi , M. Zankovetska , V. Komisarzhevska, I. Aldridge , P. Viardot performed here. In 1966, a new theater building was built with a large auditorium for 943 seats and

6784-423: The following about the final phase of operation Nürnberg: What followed was then more or less a hare hunt. Another typical feature of such operations was the setting of daily objectives practiced during Operation Bamberg. Units had to cover a certain distance until an established final point during a day while mopping up all localities. The further away the daily objective was, the greater the probability, that there

6890-401: The forward line. A shorter length made a handier weapon in which tight-fitting balls did not have to be rammed so far down the barrel. The invention of the Minié ball in the 1840s solved the slow loading problem, and in the 1850s and 1860s rifles quickly replaced muskets on the battlefield. Many rifles, often referred to as rifled muskets , were very similar to the muskets they replaced, but

6996-479: The high cost and great difficulty of precision manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle, the musket ball was a loose fit in the barrel. Consequently, on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired and the final direction on leaving the muzzle was unpredictable. The performance of early muskets defined the style of warfare at the time. Due to the lack of accuracy, soldiers were deployed in long lines (thus line infantry ) to fire at

7102-482: The inner logic of such an operation under participation of various units for a coordinated proceeding. Thus the remote message post of Combat Group von Gottberg during the Operation Frühlingsfest sent and received 3,500 remote messages. The determination of what distance was to be covered until the respective daily objectives, however, contained a conscious preliminary decision on the procedure inside

7208-528: The jet engines of enemy aircraft. Anti-materiel rifles can be used against human targets, but the much higher weight of rifle and ammunition, and the massive recoil and muzzle blast, usually make them less than practical for such use. The Barrett M82 is designed with a maximum effective range of 1,800 m (1.1 mi), although it has a confirmed kill distance of 2,430 m (1.51 mi) in Afghanistan during Operation Anaconda in 2002. The record for

7314-896: The later actions and fateful for the population of the affected areas. Between 26 March and 6 April 1942, within 12 days, the reinforced 707th Security Division, the Slovakian Infantry Regiment and the 315th Order Police battalion destroyed a series of villages in a broken through forest area between Oktiabrskij and Kopakewiczi and murdered their inhabitants. In Chwoineja  [ ru ] (Chojno) 1,350 people were locked into their houses and killed by hand grenades and burning, in Rudnia ( Rudnia, Gmina Czarna Białostocka ?, Rudnia, Gmina Michałowo ?) 800 persons were collected and shot in groups (the men first had to undress), in Oktiabrskij 190 persons were burned alive inside

7420-486: The localities are to be shot, the 707th Security Division from the start planned no broad development, i.e. against the partisans in the forest areas, which was said to be impossible due to snow and ice and the beginning of the mud period soon to be expected, but a proceeding along the streets and mainly against the villages in the area of operation, where most partisans could in the meantime have established themselves. The commander Bechtolsheim ordered that during this action

7526-632: The manufacture of musical instruments. Zhytomyr Oblast is the main center of the Polish minority in Ukraine , and in the city itself there is a Latin Catholic cathedral and large Roman Catholic Polish cemetery, founded in 1800. It is regarded as the third biggest Polish cemetery outside Poland, after the Lychakivskiy Cemetery in Lviv and Rasos Cemetery in Vilnius . The city of Zhytomyr

7632-424: The military also experimented with other designs. Breech-loading weapons proved to have a much faster rate of fire than muzzleloaders, causing military forces to abandon muzzle loaders in favor of breech-loading designs in the late 1860s. In the later part of the 19th century, rifles were generally single-shot, breech-loading guns, designed for aimed, discretionary fire by individual soldiers. Then, as now, rifles had

7738-446: The more or less organized plundering of agricultural products of the affected area, the so-called collection. The key importance of the 4th phase becomes apparent from several sources about operations of so-called fighting against bandits , such as a passage in the diary of Bach-Zelewski wherein the operation of so-called mopping up is criticized, which would always lead to a great number of destroyed "bandit" subjects as its object

7844-654: The musket's use for imprecise fire. During the American Revolution, the colonist troops favoured these more accurate rifles while their use was resisted by the British and Hessian troops. By the time of the American Revolutionary War , these rifles were commonly used by frontiersmen, and Congress authorized the establishment of ten companies of riflemen. One of the most critical units was Morgan's Riflemen , led by Daniel Morgan . This sharpshooting unit eventually proved itself integral to

7950-497: The next targets of verification. These commandos often also carried out a part of the executions . The support by the Luftwaffe in the form or reconnaissance and combat flights , which later became a rule, also existed already during Operation Bamberg. The same applied to the activity of agriculture officials (in this case 24), given that an essential goal of the action was the confiscation of agricultural products. The task

8056-633: The operation, on the German side. Zhytomyr Zhytomyr ( Ukrainian : Житомир [ʒɪˈtɔmɪr] ; see below for other names) is a city in the north of the western half of Ukraine . It is the administrative center of Zhytomyr Oblast ( province ), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Zhytomyr urban hromada ( commune ) and Zhytomyr Raion ( district ). Moreover Zhytomyr consists of two urban districts : Bohunskyi District and Koroliovskyi District (named in honour of Sergey Korolyov ). Zhytomyr occupies an area of 65 square kilometres (25 square miles). Its population

8162-503: The opposing forces. Precise aim was thus not necessary to hit an opponent. Muskets were used for comparatively rapid, imprecisely aimed volley fire, and the average soldier could be easily trained to use them. In the Province of Pennsylvania USA, one of the most successful early rifles, the long rifle , was developed over the course of the 18th century. Compared to the more common Brown Bess , these Pennsylvania and Kentucky rifles had

8268-481: The other hand, a most thorough searching and short daily objectives were ordered. Yet another typical feature was the carrying out of investigations and verifications, examinations and interrogations in the villages, mainly by GFP ( Geheime Feldpolizei = Secret Field Police) and SD, as in the case of Bamberg. Given the great marching distances their anyway dubious activity was reduced to identify not persons , but villages suspect of partisan activity and suggesting

8374-418: The problem, usually by resorting to an under-bore bullet that expanded upon firing. The original muzzle-loading rifle, with a closely fitting ball to take the rifling grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particularly when foul, and for this reason was not generally used for military purposes. With the advent of rifling, the bullet itself did not initially change but was wrapped in a greased, cloth patch to grip

8480-410: The result had been not fully satisfactory because the partisans had got away and among those reported by the division as partisan helpers there seem to have been many who had only very loose connections to the partisans, he congratulated the 707th infantry division nevertheless on its having annihilated 3,000 partisans. Army Group Center and its supreme commander v. Kluge also let themselves be informed on

8586-495: The rifle as a military weapon. The M1 Garand was a semi-automatic rapid-fire rifle developed for modern warfare use in World War II. During and after World War II it became accepted that most infantry engagements occurred at ranges of less than 300 m; the range and power of the large full-powered rifle cartridges were "overkill", requiring weapons heavier than otherwise necessary. This led to Germany's development of

8692-505: The rifle, and the evolution and use of the technology. Some of the earliest examples of European grooved gun barrels were reportedly manufactured during 1440, and further developed by Gaspard Kollner of Vienna c.  1498 , although other scholars allege they were a joint effort between Kollner and Augustus Kotter of Nuremberg c.  1520 . Military commanders preferred smoothbore weapons for infantry use because rifles were much more prone to problems due to powder fouling

8798-507: The rifling grooves. The first half of the 19th century saw a distinct change in the shape and function of the bullet. In 1826 Delvigne , a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which a spherical bullet was rammed down until it caught the rifling grooves. Delvigne's method, however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate. Soon after, the Carabine à tige was invented by Louis-Etienne de Thouvenin , which had

8904-639: The seats of the two rabbinical schools which were established by the government in 1848 in pursuance of its plans to force secular education on the Jews of Russia in accordance with the program of the Teutonized Russian Haskalah movement. The rabbinical school of Zhytomyr was considered the more Jewish, or rather the less Russianized, of the two ( Ha-Meliẓ , 1868, No. 40, cited in Jewish Encyclopedia ). Its first head master

9010-511: The so-called pacification as a pre-condition for a long-term exploitation of labor did not occur. As will be shown, the agrarian administration could nevertheless consider the strategy of the great operations against partisans to make sense due to other reasons. The development and results of Operation Bamberg were followed with attention by high and highest authorities. The commander of the rear area of Army Group Center, for instance, constantly kept himself informed. While he internally remarked that

9116-762: The spiral grooves without "stripping" them in the same way that a screw or bolt thread would be stripped if subjected to extreme forces. From 1836, breech-loading rifles were introduced with the German Dreyse Needle gun , followed by the French Tabatière in 1857, and the British Calisher and Terry carbine made in Birmingham and later in 1864 and the better known British Snider–Enfield . Primitive chamber-locking mechanisms were soon replaced by bolt-action mechanisms, exemplified by

9222-616: The standard blunt-nosed bullet had been replaced by the pointed, 'spitzer' bullet , an innovation that increased range and penetration. Cartridge design evolved from simple paper tubes containing black powder and shot, to sealed brass cases with integral primers for ignition, and black powder was replaced by cordite , and then other nitro-cellulose-based smokeless powder mixtures, propelling bullets to higher velocities than before. The increased velocity meant that new problems arrived, and so bullets went from being soft lead to harder lead, then to copper-jacketed , in order to better engage

9328-526: The strain. In October 2020, another 3D-printed 9mm rifle known as the "FGC-9mm" was created. It is reported that it can be made in 2 weeks with $ 500 of tools. A second model was later made in April 2021. A youth rifle is a rifle designed or modified for fitting children or other small-framed shooters. A youth rifle is often a single-shot .22 caliber rifle, or a bolt-action rifle, although some youth rifles are semi-automatic. They are usually very light, with

9434-572: The students who later became famous in the Jewish world. The Jewish community of Zhytomyr suffered pogroms : The Jewish community of the region was largely destroyed in the Holocaust . In the four months beginning with Himmler 's 25 July 1942 orders, "all of Ukraine's shtetls and ghettos lay in ruins; around 3,000 Jewish men, women, and children were murdered by stationary and mobile SS -police units with local Ukrainian auxiliaries." Today,

9540-449: The surrounding areas are not included in these figures, which means it must be assumed that at least 6,000 people were murdered. The great majority of them were locally residing peasants and non-fugitive Jews, who were also targeted by the operation. It is justified to speak of people murdered, for there was hardly any fighting, there was no greater resistance to be broken, which is not surprising for actions against villages. The losses of

9646-441: The third phase. The infamous mass crimes , the destruction of villages and the murder of their inhabitants, occurred in phase 3 and mainly in phase 4, when after conclusion of the coordinated military advance with daily objectives to be reached under all circumstances more time was left therefor. This depopulation was always planned in advance. Only thereafter was the operation considered as concluded. In phase 4 there also commenced

9752-533: The villages. The troops were thus put under pressure. Daily distances of up to 30 kilometers with a crossing and mopping up, i.e. a march with combat actions and searching of the villages, such as Himmler considered possible, indicated an annihilation intention present from the very start. Sometimes the closing of the cauldron failed wholly due to a too stretched target area, to great daily objectives and too splintered German forces. If - as during later operations such as Weichsel - more laborers were to be collected, on

9858-434: The way that machine guns are; they trade this capability in favor of increased mobility. Modern military rifles are fed by magazines, while machine guns are generally belt-fed . Many machine guns allow the operator to quickly exchange barrels in order to prevent overheating, whereas rifles generally do not. Most machine guns fire from an open bolt in order to reduce the danger of " cook-off ", while almost all rifles fire from

9964-435: The weapon is not rifled or does not fire solid projectiles (e.g. "laser rifle"). The origins of rifling are difficult to trace, but some of the earliest European experiments seem to have been carried out during the 15th century. Archers had long realized that a twist added to the tail feathers of their arrows gave them greater accuracy. Early muskets produced large quantities of smoke and soot, which had to be cleaned from

10070-564: Was Heinrich Himmler 's Ukrainian headquarters. The Nazi regime in what they called the "Zhytomyr General District" became what historian Wendy Lower describes as a laboratory for… Himmler's resettlement activists… the elimination of the Jews and German colonization of the East—transformed the landscape and devastated the population to an extent that was not experienced in other parts of Nazi-occupied Europe besides Poland. [While]… [u]ltimately,

10176-517: Was Jacob Eichenbaum , who was succeeded by Hayyim Selig Slonimski in 1862. The latter remained at the head of the school until it was closed (together with the one at Vilnius) in 1873 because of its failure to provide rabbis with a secular education who would be acceptable to the Jewish communities. Suchastover , Gottlober , Lerner , and Zweifel were among the best-known teachers of the rabbinical school at Zhytomyr, while Abraham Goldfaden , Salomon Mandelkern , and Abraham Jacob Paperna were among

10282-477: Was an early repeating rifle and the first one to be used by the U.S. Government and saw some limited action during the American Civil War . Revolvers, both rifles and pistols, tend to spray fragments of metal from the front of the cylinder. The Winchester repeating rifle was invented in 1866. The firer pulled on a lever to reload the rifle with a stored cartridge. An important area of development

10388-668: Was formally suppressed in 1998 to establish the Diocese of Kyïv–Žytomyr , but actually the city retains the episcopal see in its Cathedral of the Holy Wisdom , while Kyiv (although first in the title and the national capital) only has a co-cathedral . The Zhytomyr cemetery was opened in 1800. At first, it served Polish nobility from Volhynia , such as the Czeczel and the Woronicz families. Later, other Catholics were buried here, including Germans, Ukrainians and Russians. In 1840,

10494-424: Was no time for an exact investigation as to who supported the partisans (and for the collection of agricultural products) and thus the tendency was to kill everyone around. The possibility of allowing many people to run away was often not considered by the executing units because the inhabitants of the affected areas were generally seen as sympathizers of the partisans. To need to set such daily objectives resulted from

10600-417: Was not practical to push an overbore bullet down through a rifled barrel. The dirt and grime from prior shots were pushed down ahead of a tight bullet or ball (which may have been a looser fit in the clean barrel before the first shot), and loading was far more difficult, as the lead had to be deformed to go down in the first place, reducing the accuracy due to deformation. Several systems were tried to deal with

10706-414: Was originally rifled gun , with the verb rifle referring to the early modern machining process of creating grooves with cutting tools. By the 20th century, the weapon had become so common that the modern noun rifle is now often used for any log-shaped handheld ranged weapon designed for well-aimed discharge activated by a trigger . Like all typical firearms, a rifle's projectile ( bullet )

10812-503: Was pitted against the Japanese Arisaka Type 30 bolt-action rifle in 6.5 mm; both had velocities well over 2,000 feet per second (610 m/s). Until the late 19th century rifles tended to be very long, some long rifles reaching approximately 2 m (7 ft) in length to maximize accuracy, making early rifles impractical for use by cavalry. However, following the advent of more powerful smokeless powder,

10918-566: Was the Metford rifling in the Pattern 1888 Lee–Metford service rifle. Although uncommon, polygonal rifling is still used in some weapons today, one example being the Glock line of pistols (which fire standard bullets). Many of the early designs were prone to dangerous backfiring, which could lead to the destruction of the weapon and serious injury to the person firing it. As the bullet enters

11024-452: Was the total encirclement and annihilation of the partisan groups and the securing and pacification of this area, in order to collect the stocks of agricultural products and take them away, reported General Major v. Bechtolsheim. Instead of the expected at least 10-20,000 units of cattle the reported booty consisted of only 2,454 cattle, 2,286 sheep, 115 tons of grain, 120 tons of potatoes and more. In this respect fundamental difficulties for

11130-492: Was the way that cartridges were stored and used in the weapon. The Spencer repeating rifle was a breech-loading manually operated lever-action rifle that was adopted by the United States. Over 20,000 were used during the American Civil War. It was the first adoption of a removable magazine -fed infantry rifle. The design was completed by Christopher Spencer in 1860. It used copper rimfire cartridges stored in

11236-577: Was to annihilate the population sympathizing with the Bolsheviks rather than the partisans. This can be proven not only for the operations mentioned in this context, Nürnberg and Erntefest II , but also for instance for Sumpffieber , Franz and Hornung . The number of victims accordingly went up during the respective final phase, like in operation Bamberg. It is not without reason that the SS and Police Commander of White Ruthenia, Curt von Gottberg , wrote

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