Britain
161-650: The Blitz 1942–1945 Operation Diver was the British code name for the V-1 flying bomb campaign launched by the German Luftwaffe in 1944 against London and other parts of Britain. Diver was the code name for the V-1, against which the defence consisted of anti-aircraft guns , barrage balloons and fighter aircraft . The British Double-Cross System used double agents to plant false information about
322-488: A better position than they were at its beginning". People referred to raids as if they were weather, stating that a day was "very blitzy". According to Anna Freud and Edward Glover , London civilians surprisingly did not suffer from widespread shell shock , unlike the soldiers in the Dunkirk evacuation . The psychoanalysts were correct, and the special network of psychiatric clinics opened to receive mental casualties of
483-419: A bigger radiator which displaced the oil cooler and carburettor air intake from the radiator's centre; air for the carburettor was drawn through intakes on the leading edge of the inner wings, while the oil cooler was located behind the radiator. Most Tempest VIs were tropicalised, the main feature of this process being an air filter which was fitted in a fairing on the lower centre section. Other changes included
644-692: A cautious view of strategic bombing , but the OKL did not oppose the strategic bombardment of industries or cities. It believed it could greatly affect the balance of power on the battlefield by disrupting production and damaging civilian morale. OKL did not believe air power alone could be decisive, and the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official policy of the deliberate bombing of civilians until 1942. The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets. It could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but
805-579: A crowd surge after a woman fell down the steps as she entered the station. A single direct hit on a shelter in Stoke Newington in October 1940 killed 160 civilians. Communal shelters never housed more than one seventh of Greater London residents. Peak use of the Underground as shelter was 177,000 on 27 September 1940 and a November 1940 census of London found that about 4% of residents used
966-568: A difficult opponent for the Luftwaffe ' s Messerschmitt Bf 109G and Fw 190 fighters to counter. Armed reconnaissance missions were usually flown by two sections (eight aircraft), flying in finger-four formations, which would cross the front lines at altitudes of 7,000 to 8,000 feet: once the Tempests reached their allocated target area the lead section dropped to 4,000 ft (1,200 m) or lower to search for targets to strafe, while
1127-547: A disaster with or without German air superiority. Regardless of the ability of the Luftwaffe to win air superiority, Hitler was frustrated it was not happening quickly enough. With no sign of the RAF weakening and the Luftflotten suffering many losses, OKL was keen for a change in strategy. To reduce losses further, strategy changed to prefer night raids, giving the bombers greater protection under cover of darkness. It
1288-615: A ducted spinner, similar to that fitted to the Fw 190 V1 . Tempest V SN354 was fitted with two experimental underwing Class P 47 mm guns (built by Vickers ) just after the war. These guns were part of a project started in mid-1942 to develop a more powerful airborne anti-tank gun than the Vickers 40 mm Class S gun which had been used on the Hurricane IID. The Vickers guns were housed in long slim streamlined gun pods carried on
1449-473: A four-blade propeller. LA602 initially flew with a Typhoon-type fin and rudder unit. This was followed by the second, LA607 , which was completed with the enlarged dorsal fin and first flew on 18 September 1943: LA607 was assigned to engine development. The first major problem experienced during the first few flights was serious engine vibrations, which were cured by replacing the rigid, eight-point engine mountings with six-point rubber-packed shock mounts. In
1610-413: A further attempt to alleviate engine vibration, the four-blade propeller was replaced with a five-blade unit; eventually, a finely balanced four bladed unit was settled on. Problems were also experienced with engine overheating, poor crankshaft lubrication, exhaust malfunctions and reduction-gear seizures. Because of these problems, and because of the decision to "tropicalise" all Tempest IIs for service in
1771-527: A greater loss of manpower. On 7 September, the Germans shifted away from the destruction of the RAF's supporting structures. German intelligence suggested Fighter Command was weakening, and an attack on London would force it into a final battle of annihilation while compelling the British Government to surrender. The decision to change strategy is sometimes claimed as a major mistake by OKL. It
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#17327795090601932-558: A large daylight attack against London on 15 September , a large raid on 29 December 1940 against London resulting in a firestorm known as the Second Great Fire of London , and a large raid on the night of 10–11 May 1941. The Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of night attacks to evade attacks by the RAF, and the Blitz became a night bombing campaign after October 1940. The Luftwaffe attacked
2093-830: A little more than 8 months during the Second World War . The Germans conducted mass air attacks against industrial targets, towns, and cities, beginning with raids on London towards the end of the Battle of Britain in 1940 (a battle for daylight air superiority between the Luftwaffe and the Royal Air Force over the United Kingdom). By September 1940, the Luftwaffe had lost the Battle of Britain and
2254-479: A new de Havilland 14 ft (4.3 m) diameter four-blade propeller. The main undercarriage units were Dowty levered suspension units incorporating trunnions which shortened the legs as they retracted. The retractable tailwheel was fully enclosed by small doors and could be fitted with either a plain Dunlop manufactured tyre, or a Dunlop-Marstrand "twin-contact" anti-shimmy tyre. During development, Camm and
2415-410: A pilot and piston engine with a cooling system. One hit on the pilot or oxygen system can damage or shoot down a conventional aeroplane but there is no pilot in a cruise missile. The Argus pulse jet of the V-1 could be shot full of holes and still provide sufficient thrust for flight. The only vulnerable point of the engine was the valve array at the front. The only other vulnerable points on the V-1 were
2576-624: A policy of unrestricted bombing. His hope was—for reasons of political prestige within Germany itself—that the German population would be protected from the Allied bombings. When this proved impossible, he began to fear that popular feeling would turn against his regime, and he redoubled efforts to mount a similar "terror offensive" against Britain in order to produce a stalemate in which both sides would hesitate to use bombing at all. A major problem in
2737-404: A positive result. However, the use of delayed-action bombs , while initially very effective, gradually had less impact, partly because they failed to detonate. The British had anticipated the change in strategy and dispersed its production facilities, making them less vulnerable to a concentrated attack. Regional commissioners were given plenipotentiary powers to restore communications and organise
2898-604: A production line for the Tempest Mk.V was established in Hawker's Langley facility, alongside the existing manufacturing line for the Hawker Hurricane . Production was initially slow, claimed to be due to issues encountered with the rear spar. On 21 June 1943, the first production Tempest V, JN729 , rolled off the production line and its maiden flight was conducted by test pilot Bill Humble . During production of
3059-621: A proposed British and Commonwealth long-range bomber force based on Okinawa to attack the Japanese home islands. The Pacific War ended before they could be deployed. Various engineering refinements that had gone into the Tempest II were incorporated into the last Tempest variant, designated as the Tempest VI . This variant was furnished with a Napier Sabre V engine with 2,340 hp (1,740 kW). The more powerful Sabre V required
3220-638: A series of design improvements; these improvements culminated in the Hawker P. 1012 , otherwise known as the Typhoon II or "Thin-Wing Typhoon". Although the Typhoon was generally considered to be a good design, Camm and his design team were disappointed with the performance of its wing , which had proved to be too thick in its cross section , and thus created airflow problems which inhibited flight performance, especially at higher altitudes and speeds where it
3381-568: A special defence zone between London and the coast was declared in which only the fastest fighters were permitted. Between June and mid-August 1944, the small number of Tempests shot down 638 flying bombs. One Tempest pilot, Squadron Leader Joseph Berry of 501 Squadron , destroyed fifty-nine V-1s and Beamont destroyed 31. Next most successful was the Mosquito (428), Spitfire XIV (303) and Mustang, (232). All other aircraft types combined added 158. The experimental jet-powered Gloster Meteor , which
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#17327795090603542-420: A specific segment of British industry such as aircraft factories, or against a system of interrelated industries such as Britain's import and distribution network, or even in a blow aimed at breaking the morale of the British population. The Luftwaffe 's strategy became increasingly aimless over the winter of 1940–1941. Disputes among OKL staff revolved more around tactics than strategy. This method condemned
3703-583: A typical pursuit and would either use cannon fire or nudge the V-1 with the aircraft itself to destroy it. In September 1944, Tempest units, based at forward airfields in England, supported Operation Market Garden , the airborne attempt to seize a bridgehead over the Rhine . On 21 September 1944, as the V-1 threat had receded, the Tempest squadrons were redeployed to the 2nd TAF, effectively trading places with
3864-458: Is argued that persisting with attacks on RAF airfields might have won air superiority for the Luftwaffe . Others argue that the Luftwaffe made little impression on Fighter Command in the last week of August and first week of September and that the shift in strategy was not decisive. It has also been argued that it was doubtful the Luftwaffe could have won air superiority before the "weather window" began to deteriorate in October. It
4025-404: The Luftwaffe had an unclear strategy and poor intelligence. The OKL had not been informed that Britain was to be considered a potential opponent until early 1938. It had no time to gather reliable intelligence on Britain's industries. Moreover, the OKL could not settle on an appropriate strategy. German planners had to decide whether the Luftwaffe should deliver the weight of its attacks against
4186-459: The Luftwaffe switched its main effort to night attacks. This became official policy on 7 October. The air campaign soon got underway against London and other British cities. However, the Luftwaffe faced limitations. Its aircraft— Dornier Do 17 , Junkers Ju 88 , and Heinkel He 111s —were capable of carrying out strategic missions but were incapable of doing greater damage because of their small bomb loads. The Luftwaffe 's decision in
4347-450: The Luftwaffe was expected to do so over Britain. From July until September 1940 the Luftwaffe attacked Fighter Command to gain air superiority as a prelude to invasion. This involved the bombing of English Channel convoys, ports, and RAF airfields and supporting industries. Destroying RAF Fighter Command would allow the Germans to gain control of the skies over the invasion area. It was supposed Bomber Command, Coastal Command , and
4508-516: The Reichsmarschall 's own explanation was that Hitler wanted to know only how many bombers there were, not how many engines each had. In July 1939, Göring arranged a display of the Luftwaffe 's most advanced equipment at Rechlin , to give the impression the air force was more prepared for a strategic air war than was actually the case. Although not specifically prepared to conduct independent strategic air operations against an opponent,
4669-632: The British Red Cross and the Salvation Army worked to improve conditions. Entertainment included concerts, films, plays and books from local libraries. Although only a small number of Londoners used the mass shelters, when journalists, celebrities and foreigners visited they became part of the Beveridge Report , part of a national debate on social and class division. Most residents found that such divisions continued within
4830-603: The Committee on Imperial Defence estimated that an attack of 60 days would result in 600,000 dead and 1.2 million wounded. News reports of the Spanish Civil War , such as the bombing of Barcelona , supported the 50-casualties-per-tonne estimate. By 1938, experts generally expected that Germany would try to drop as much as 3,500 tonnes in the first 24 hours of war and average 700 tonnes a day for several weeks. In addition to high-explosive and incendiary bombs ,
4991-474: The Indian ". Although the intensity of the bombing was not as great as pre-war expectations, thus making an equal comparison impossible, no psychiatric crisis occurred because of the Blitz even during the period of greatest bombing of September 1940. An American witness wrote, "By every test and measure I am able to apply, these people are staunch to the bone and won't quit ... the British are stronger and in
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5152-542: The London Underground stations. Although many civilians had used them for shelter during the First World War, the government in 1939 refused to allow the stations to be used as shelters so as not to interfere with commuter and troop travel and the fears that occupants might refuse to leave. Underground officials were ordered to lock station entrances during raids but by the second week of heavy bombing,
5313-609: The Messerschmitt Me 262 . The further-developed Tempest II did not enter service until after the end of hostilities. It had several improvements, including being tropicalised for combat against Japan in South-East Asia as part of the Commonwealth Tiger Force . During development of the earlier Hawker Typhoon , the design team, under the leadership of Sydney Camm , had already planned out
5474-599: The Mustang III squadrons of 122 Wing , which became part of the Fighter Command units deployed on bomber escort duties. 122 Wing now consisted of 3 Sqn., 56 Sqn., 80 Sqn. , 274 Sqn. (to March 1945), and 486(NZ)Sqn. From 1 October 1944 122 Wing was based at ALG B.80 (Volkel) near Uden , in the Netherlands . During the early phase of operations, the Tempest regularly emerged victorious and proved to be
5635-606: The Normandy landings , Tempests would routinely conduct long-range sorties inside enemy territory and penetrate into Northern France and the Low Countries , using a combination of cannons and bombs to attack airfields, radar installations, ground vehicles, coastal shipping and the launch sites for the German V-1 flying bombs . The build-up of Tempest-equipped squadrons was increased rapidly, in part due to factors such as
5796-454: The P.1027 was essentially a slightly enlarged Tempest with the R.46 engine, which Hawker expected to develop around 4,000 hp (2,980 kW). This engine would have driven a pair of four-bladed contra-rotating propellers. The radiator was relocated into a ventral bath set underneath the rear fuselage and wing centre section: the wingspan was 41 ft (12 m) and the length was 37 ft 3 in (11.35 m). However, work upon
5957-678: The Phoney War , civilians were aware of the deadly power of aerial attacks through newsreels of Barcelona, the Bombing of Guernica and the Bombing of Shanghai . Many popular works of fiction during the 1920s and 1930s portrayed aerial bombing, such as H. G. Wells ' novel The Shape of Things to Come and its 1936 film adaptation , and others such as The Air War of 1936 and The Poison War . Harold Macmillan wrote in 1956 that he and others around him "thought of air warfare in 1938 rather as people think of nuclear war today". Based in part on
6118-571: The Royal Navy could not operate under conditions of German air superiority. The Luftwaffe 's poor intelligence meant that their aircraft were not always able to locate their targets, and thus attacks on factories and airfields failed to achieve the desired results. British fighter aircraft production continued at a rate surpassing Germany's during the Battle of Britain by 2 to 1. The British produced 10,000 aircraft in 1940, in comparison to Germany's 8,000. The replacement of pilots and aircrew
6279-505: The SCR-584 radar ) and the proximity fuze. Both of these had been requested by Anti-Aircraft Command and arrived in numbers, starting in June 1944, just as the guns reached their free-firing positions on the coast. Seventeen percent of all flying bombs entering the coastal gun belt were destroyed by guns in the first week on the coast. This rose to 60 per cent by 23 August and 74 per cent in
6440-474: The South-East Asian theatre , production was delayed. Orders had been placed as early as September 1942 for 500 Tempest IIs to be built by Gloster but in 1943, because of priority being given to the Typhoon, a production contract of 330 Tempest IIs was allocated instead to Bristol , while Hawker were to build 1,800. This switch delayed production even more. On 4 October 1944, the first Tempest II
6601-428: The cockpit , with a 76 I gal (345 L) fuel tank. In addition, two inter-spar wing tanks, each of 28 Igal (127 L), were fitted on either side of the centre section and, starting with late model Tempest Vs, a 30 Igal (136 L) tank was carried in the leading edge of the port wingroot, giving the Tempest a total internal fuel capacity of 162 Igal (736 L). Another important feature of
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6762-515: The "chin" radiator did much to improve overall performance, leading to the Tempest Mk.I quickly becoming the fastest aircraft that Hawker had built at that time, having attained a speed of 466 mph (750 km/h) during test flights. The Sabre IV was failing testing and so the Mk I Tempest was abandoned by the MAP. On 27 November 1944, the Tempest Mk.III prototype, LA610 , conducted its first flight; it
6923-524: The "chin" radiator, similar to that of the Typhoon. It was quickly fitted with the same bubble canopy fitted to Typhoons, and a modified fin that almost doubled the vertical tail surface area, made necessary because the directional stability with the original Typhoon fin had been reduced over that of the Typhoon by the longer nose incurred by the new fuel tank. The horizontal tailplanes and elevators were also increased in span and chord; these were also fitted to late production Typhoons. Test pilots found
7084-502: The Air Ministry's Director of Technical Development that they had decided to have two Typhoons converted to the new design. By October 1941, development of the proposal had advanced to the point where the new design was finalised. On 18 November 1941, a contract was issued by the Air Ministry for a pair of prototypes of the "Typhoon Mark II"; the new fighter was renamed "Tempest" on 28 February 1942. Complications were added to
7245-423: The Blitz. The programme favoured back garden Anderson shelters and small brick surface shelters. Many of the latter were abandoned in 1940 as unsafe. Authorities expected that the raids would be brief and in daylight, rather than attacks by night, which forced Londoners to sleep in shelters. Deep shelters provided most protection against a direct hit. The government did not build them for large populations before
7406-537: The Divers had to cover was given over for fighter operations. Most fighter aircraft were too slow to catch a V-1 except in a dive and even when intercepted, the V-1 was difficult to bring down. Machine-gun bullets had little effect on the sheet steel structure and 20 mm cannon shells were explosive projectiles; detonating the warhead could destroy the fighter as well. The V-1 was nearly immune to conventional air-combat techniques because of its design, which dispensed with
7567-423: The German air fleets ( Luftflotten ) were ordered to attack London, to draw RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation . Adolf Hitler and Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, ordered the new policy on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 of the following 57 days and nights. Notable attacks included
7728-565: The Germans could use poison gas and even bacteriological warfare, all with a high degree of accuracy. In 1939, military theorist Basil Liddell-Hart predicted that 250,000 deaths and injuries in Britain could occur in the first week of war. London hospitals prepared for 300,000 casualties in the first week of war. British air raid sirens sounded for the first time 22 minutes after Neville Chamberlain declared war on Germany . Although bombing attacks unexpectedly did not begin immediately during
7889-443: The Hawker design team had placed a high priority on making the Tempest easily accessible to both air and ground crews; to this end, the forward fuselage and cockpit areas of the earlier Hurricane and the Tempest and Typhoon families were covered by large removable panels providing access to as many components as possible, including flight controls and engine accessories. Both upper wing roots incorporated panels of non-slip coating. For
8050-485: The Napier Sabre IV engine; this flight had been principally delayed by protracted problems and slippages encountered in the development of the new Sabre IV engine. Construction had been on hold (so parts could be used for possible repairs to the first prototype) until HM595 was converted to Sabre II. HM599 was at first equipped with the older Typhoon cockpit structure and vertical tailplane. The elimination of
8211-493: The P.1027 design was soon dropped in favour of concentrating upon a further developed design, the P.1030, in September It featured wing leading edge radiators and had larger overall dimensions of 42 ft (13 m) wingspan and 39 ft 9 in (12.12 m) length. The top speed was calculated as 509 mph (819 km/h) at 20,000 ft, with a rate of climb of 6,400 ft/min (1,951 m/min). Service ceiling
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#17327795090608372-489: The Sabre II-equipped "Tempest V" into production instead. In August 1942, even before the first flight of the prototype Tempest V had been conducted, a production order for 400 Tempests was placed by the Air Ministry. This order was split, with the initial batch of 100 being Tempest V "Series I"s, powered by the 2,235 hp (1,667 kW) Sabre IIA series engine, which had the distinctive chin radiator, while
8533-412: The Tempest II was longer than the Tempest Mk.V (34 ft 5 in (10.49 m) versus 33 ft 8 in (10.26 m) and 3 in (76 mm) lower. The weight of the heavier Centaurus engine (2,695 pounds (1,222 kg) versus 2,360 pounds (1,070 kg) was offset by the absence of a heavy radiator unit, so that the Tempest II was only some 20 pounds (9.1 kg) heavier overall. Performance
8694-535: The Tempest Mk.IV variant was abandoned without any prototype being flown at all. The Tempest Mk.II, which was subject to repeated delays due to its Centaurus powerplant, was persisted with, but would not reach production in time to see service during the Second World War. Continual problems with the Sabre IV meant that only the single Tempest Mk.I ( HM599 ) was built; consequently, Hawker proceeded to take
8855-442: The Tempest Mk.V attained general clearance to carry such ordnance, but few Tempest Mk.V deployed bombs operationally during the war. Rockets were never used operationally during the war by the Mk.Vs. As in all mass-produced aircraft, there may have been some overlap of these features as new components became available. In mid-to-late 1944 other features were introduced to both the Typhoon and Tempest: A Rebecca transponder unit
9016-406: The Tempest V also allowed up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of external stores to be carried underneath the wings. As a result, several early production Tempest V aircraft underwent extensive service trials at Boscombe Down for clearance to be fitted with external stores, such as one 250–1,000 lb (110–450 kg) bomb or eight "60lb" air-to-ground RP-3 rockets under each wing. On 8 April 1944,
9177-546: The Tempest V had attained general acceptance and was in the hands of operational squadrons; 3 Squadron was the first to be fully equipped, closely followed by 486 (NZ) Squadron (the only Article XV squadron to be equipped with the Tempest during the Second World War), replacing their previous Typhoons. A third unit— 56 Squadron —initially kept its Typhoons and was then temporarily equipped with Spitfire IXs until sufficient supplies of Tempests were available. By
9338-400: The Tempest V, both the improved Sabre IIB and IIC were used, these engines were capable of producing over 2,400 hp (1,800 kW) on emergency boost for short periods of time. Alternative engines were used on some production variants, such as the Tempest II, for which a single Bristol Centaurus 18 cylinder radial engine was adopted, or the final Tempest VI, upon which a Napier Sabre V
9499-465: The Tempest VI standard in order to participate in service trials at RAF Boscombe Down. At one point, 250 Tempest VIs were on order for the RAF; however, the end of the war led to many aircraft programs being cut back intensively, leading to only 142 aircraft being completed. For a long time, it was thought there were Tempest VIs that had been converted for target towing purposes; however, none of
9660-511: The Tempest a great improvement over the Typhoon in performance; in February 1943 the pilots from the Aeroplane & Armament Experimental Establishment at Boscombe Down reported that they were impressed by "a manoeuvrable and pleasant aircraft to fly with no major handling faults". On 24 February 1943, the second prototype HM599 first flew, representing the "Tempest Mk.I" equipped with
9821-482: The Tempest by Hawker was a streamlined 45 gal (205 L) "drop tank" to extend the operational radius by 500 mi (800 km) and carrier fairing; the redesigned wing incorporated the plumbing for these tanks, one to each wing. The main undercarriage was redesigned from the Typhoon, featuring lengthened legs and a wider track (16 ft; 4.9 m) to improve stability at the high landing speed of 110 mph (180 km/h), and to allow tip clearance for
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#17327795090609982-466: The Tempest performed low-level interception, particularly against the V-1 flying bomb threat, and ground attack supporting major invasions like Operation Market Garden . Later, it successfully targeted the rail infrastructure in Germany and Luftwaffe aircraft on the ground, as well as countering similar attacks by German fighters. The Tempest was effective in the low-level interception role, including against newly developed jet-propelled aircraft like
10143-491: The Tempest program by external factors in the form of engine issues: the Rolls-Royce Vulture engine and corresponding Hawker Tornado aircraft which was being developed in parallel to the Typhoon were both terminated. This measure turned out to be prudent, as engine development was not trouble-free on some of the variants of the Tempest. The Bristol Centaurus radial engine was now also considered for equipping
10304-544: The Tube and other large shelters, 9% in public surface shelters and 27% in private home shelters, implying that the remaining 60% of the city stayed at home. The government distributed Anderson shelters until 1941 and that year began distributing the Morrison shelter , which could be used inside homes. Public demand caused the government in October 1940 to build new deep shelters within the Underground to hold 80,000 people but
10465-506: The Typhoon and Camm was forewarned in October 1941 to expect a request for a Centaurus to be fitted. This was confirmed in February as an order for six prototypes with the Centaurus; the DTD stating that the development was highest priority. Delays with the Sabre IV development affected the project. With the expected first flight date for the Tempest was September 1942, the engine for HM595
10626-404: The Typhoon's unexpected deterioration in performance at high altitude by replacing its wing with a thinner laminar flow design. Since it had diverged considerably from the Typhoon, it was renamed Tempest . The Tempest emerged as one of the most powerful fighters of World War II and at low altitude was the fastest single-engine propeller-driven aircraft of the war. Upon entering service in 1944,
10787-591: The Typhoon, such as engine unreliability, insufficient structural integrity, and the inability to perform high altitude interception duties. In March 1940, engineers were assigned to investigate the new low–drag laminar flow wing developed by NACA in the United States, which was later used in the North American P-51 Mustang . A laminar flow wing adopted for the Tempest series had a maximum thickness-to-chord ratio of 14.5 per cent at
10948-470: The V-1 threat, although a labour strike in Hawker's assembly shop adversely affected this rate; by September 1944, five frontline Tempest squadrons with a total of 114 aircraft were in operation. In June 1944, the first of the V-1s were launched against London; the excellent low-altitude performance of the Tempest made it one of the preferred tools for handling the small fast-flying unmanned missiles. 150 Wing
11109-675: The V-1. Anti-aircraft guns were redeployed in several moves: first in mid-June 1944 from positions on the North Downs to the south coast of England; then a cordon closing the Thames Estuary to attacks from the east. In September 1944 a new linear defence line was formed on the coast of East Anglia , and finally in December there was a further layout along the Lincolnshire – Yorkshire coast. The deployments were prompted by
11270-475: The accuracy of the V-1 bombardment. Anti-aircraft guns proved the most effective form of defence in the later stages of the campaign, with the aid of radar -based technology and the proximity fuse . The V-1 campaign from ground launch sites ended by the middle of 1944 with the Allied occupation of the launch sites. The Diver Plan was prepared in early 1944 following the first reports of the weapon in April 1943 and
11431-508: The air staff that war with Britain or even Russia was a possibility. The amount of firm operational and tactical preparation for a bombing campaign was minimal, largely because of the failure by Hitler as supreme commander to insist upon such a commitment. Ultimately, Hitler was trapped within his own vision of bombing as a terror weapon, formed in the 1930s when he threatened smaller nations into accepting German rule rather than submit to air bombardment. This had important implications. It showed
11592-542: The airflow over an interceptor's wing to raise one wing of the V-1, by sliding the wing tip under the bomb's wing and bringing it to within 6 in (150 mm) of the lower surface. Done properly, the airflow would tip the wing of the V-1 upwards, overriding the bomb's gyros and sending it out of control into dive. At least three V-1s were destroyed this way. The Tempest wing was built up to over 100 aircraft by September; P-51 Mustangs and Griffon -engined Spitfire XIVs were tuned to make them almost fast enough and during
11753-415: The amount of space available and made detailed preparations for transporting evacuees. A trial blackout was held on 10 August 1939 and when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September, a blackout began at sunset. Lights were not allowed after dark for almost six years, and the blackout became by far the most unpopular aspect of the war for civilians, even more than rationing . The relocation of the government and
11914-402: The attacks closed due to lack of need. Although the stress of the war resulted in many anxiety attacks, eating disorders, fatigue, weeping, miscarriages, and other physical and mental ailments, society did not collapse. The number of suicides and drunkenness declined, and London recorded only about two cases of "bomb neurosis" per week in the first three months of bombing. Many civilians found that
12075-552: The beginning of the National Socialist regime until 1939, there was a debate in German military journals over the role of strategic bombardment, with some contributors arguing along the lines of the British and Americans. General Walther Wever (Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff 1 March 1935 – 3 June 1936) championed strategic bombing and the building of suitable aircraft, although he emphasised
12236-447: The best way to retain mental stability was to be with family, and after the first few weeks of bombing, avoidance of the evacuation programmes grew. The cheerful crowds visiting bomb sites were so large they interfered with rescue work. Pub visits increased in number (beer was never rationed), and 13,000 attended cricket at Lord's . People left shelters when told instead of refusing to leave, although many housewives reportedly enjoyed
12397-551: The bomb detonators and the line from the fuel tank; three very small targets inside the fuselage. An explosive shell from a fighter's cannon or anti-aircraft gun hitting the warhead was most effective. When the attacks began in mid-June 1944 there were fewer than 30 Hawker Tempests in No. 150 Wing RAF to defend against them. Few other aircraft had the low-altitude speed to be effective. Early attempts to intercept V-1s often failed but techniques were rapidly developed. These included using
12558-477: The bomb racks and had 38 rounds each. Surviving photographs suggests that the 20 mm wing guns were removed for this installation. Testing of the guns revealed that the weapon had potential, but no production was undertaken. As a result of the termination of the Tornado project, Sydney Camm and his design team transferred the alternative engine proposals for the Tornado to the more advanced Tempest. Thus, it
12719-410: The bombing of opponents than air defence, although he promoted the development of a bomber force in the 1930s and understood it was possible to use bombers for strategic purposes. He told OKL in 1939 that ruthless employment of the Luftwaffe against the heart of the British will to resist would follow when the moment was right. Hitler quickly developed scepticism toward strategic bombing, confirmed by
12880-410: The bombs were travelling too far, while not contradicting the evidence presumed to be available to German planners from photographic reconnaissance of London. The bombs had been seeded with radio-transmitting samples to confirm their range but the results from these samples were ignored in favour of the false witness accounts. Bombs were repeatedly set to fly shorter and shorter distances (and further from
13041-846: The break from housework. Some people even told government surveyors that they enjoyed air raids if they occurred occasionally, perhaps once a week. Despite the attacks, defeat in Norway and France , and the threat of invasion, overall morale remained high. A Gallup poll found only 3% of Britons expected to lose the war in May 1940. Another poll found an 88% approval rating for Churchill in July. A third poll found 89% support for his leadership in October. Support for peace negotiations declined from 29% in February. Each setback caused more civilians to volunteer to become unpaid Local Defence Volunteers . Workers worked longer shifts and over weekends. Contributions rose to
13202-431: The breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. While direct attacks against civilians were ruled out as "terror bombing", the concept of attacking vital war industries—and probable heavy civilian casualties and breakdown of civilian morale—was ruled as acceptable. From
13363-720: The brunt of low- to medium-altitude fighter operations for the Second Tactical Air Force , which had fortuitously evaded the extensive Bodenplatte raid, and had contributed to efforts to intercept the raiders. During this time, Spitfire XIVs of 125 and 126 Wings often provided medium- to high-altitude cover for the Tempests, which came under intense pressure, the wing losing 47 pilots in January. In February 1945, 33 and 222 Sqns. of 135 Wing converted from Spitfire Mk IXs and, in March, were joined by 274 Sqn. 135 Wing
13524-461: The civil service was also planned but would only have occurred if necessary so as not to damage civilian morale. Not only was there evacuation over land, but also by ship. The Children's Overseas Reception Board was organised by the government to help parents send their children overseas to four British Dominions —Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The programme evacuated 2,664 boys and girls (ages 5–15) until its ending in October after
13685-470: The commander of Luftflotte 3 (1 February 1939 – 23 August 1944) and Hans Jeschonnek , Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff (1 February 1939 – 19 August 1943). The Luftwaffe was not pressed into ground support operations because of pressure from the army or because it was led by ex-soldiers; indeed, the Luftwaffe favoured a model of joint inter-service operations rather than independent strategic air campaigns. Hitler paid less attention to
13846-405: The completion of the Mk.I prototype, HM599 , was delayed, and thus it was the Mk.V prototype, HM595 , that would fly first. On 2 September 1942, the Tempest Mk.V prototype, HM595 , conducted its maiden flight , flown by Philip Lucas from Langley, Berkshire , England. HM595 , which was powered by a Sabre II engine, retained the Typhoon's framed canopy and car-style door, and was fitted with
14007-427: The contract for two with Sabres, two with Centaurus and two with Rolls Royce Griffons followed in June. The six prototypes built were as follows: The Tempest Mk.I featured other new features, such as a clean single-piece sliding canopy in place of the car-door framed canopy, and it used wing radiators instead of the "chin" radiator. Due to development difficulties with the Sabre IV engine and its wing radiators,
14168-486: The discovery of its intended launch sites in late 1943. The plan had to be flexible enough to cover the anticipated assault on Britain and the needs of Operation Overlord , the Allied invasion of Europe. The V-1 offensive began on the sixth day after the D-Day landings on the beaches of Normandy, with the message "Diver, Diver, Diver". Defences that had been guarding the embarkation ports for the invasion were redeployed against
14329-703: The distribution of supplies to keep the war economy moving. London had nine million people—a fifth of the British population—living in an area of 750 square miles (1,940 square kilometres), which was difficult to defend because of its size. Based on experience with German strategic bombing during World War I against the United Kingdom, the British government estimated that 50 casualties—with about one-third killed—would result for every tonne of bombs dropped on London. The estimate of tonnes of bombs an enemy could drop per day grew as aircraft technology advanced, from 75 in 1922, to 150 in 1934, to 644 in 1937. In 1937
14490-494: The empty tanks would explode if hit by flak, the threat never eventuated and, due to the tanks being often difficult to jettison, they were routinely carried throughout an operation with little effect on performance, reducing maximum speed by 5 to 10 mph and range by 2 per cent. Between October and December 1944, the Tempest was practically withdrawn from combat operations for overhaul work, as well as to allow operational pilots to train newcomers. The overhaul process involved
14651-485: The end of April 1944, these units were based at RAF Newchurch in Kent a new " Advanced Landing Ground " (ALG), where they formed 150 Wing , commanded by Wing Commander Roland Beamont . The new Wing was part of the Second Tactical Air Force (2nd TAF). Most of the operations carried out by 150 Wing comprised high-altitude fighter sweeps, offensive operations known as "Rangers", as well as reconnaissance missions. Prior to
14812-497: The engine cowling, and the replacement of the L-shaped pitot head under the outer port wing by a straight rod projecting from the port outer wing leading edge. All production aircraft were powered by a (2,590 hp (1,930 kW) Centaurus V driving a 12 ft 9 in (3.89 m) diameter Rotol propeller. Tempest IIs produced during the war were intended for combat against Japan and would have formed part of Tiger Force ,
14973-451: The engine: to the rear were air outlets with automatic sliding "gills". The carburettor air intakes were in the inner leading edges of both wings, an oil cooler and air intake were present in the inner starboard wing. The engine installation owed much to examinations of a captured Focke-Wulf Fw 190 , and was clean and effective. On 28 June 1943, the first Tempest II, LA602 , flew powered by a Centaurus IV (2,520 hp/1,879 kW) driving
15134-471: The ever-changing approach tracks of the missiles which were determined by the Allied advance through Western Europe. Anti-aircraft gunners found that such small, fast-moving targets were difficult to hit. At first, it took an average of 2,500 shells to bring down a V-1. The average altitude of the V-1, between 2,000–3,000 ft (610–910 m) was in a narrow band above the optimum engagement height range for light 40 mm Bofors guns. The rate of traverse of
15295-474: The exhaust plume was highly visible. In poor visibility, radar-equipped Fleet Air Arm (FAA) Fairey Firefly night fighters of 746 Naval Air Squadron based at RAF Ford intercepted the bombs. Wing Commander Roland Beamont had the harmonisation 20 mm cannon on his Tempest changed to converge at 300 yd (270 m), which was so successful that the other aircraft in 150 Wing were also modified. In daylight, V-1 chases were often chaotic failures, until
15456-402: The experience of German bombing in the First World War, politicians feared mass psychological trauma from aerial attacks and the collapse of civil society. In 1938, a committee of psychiatrists predicted three times as many mental as physical casualties from aerial bombing, implying three to four million psychiatric patients. Winston Churchill told Parliament in 1934, "We must expect that, under
15617-475: The extent to which Hitler mistook Allied strategy for one of morale breaking instead of one of economic warfare , with the collapse of morale as a bonus. Hitler was much more attracted to the political aspects of bombing. As the mere threat of it had produced diplomatic results in the 1930s, he expected that the threat of German retaliation would persuade the Allies to adopt a policy of moderation and not to begin
15778-464: The first Allied combat encounter with a Dornier 335 in April 1945. In his book The Big Show, he describes leading a flight of Hawker Tempests from No. 3 Squadron RAF over northern Germany, when they saw a lone unusual looking aircraft flying at maximum speed at treetop level. Detecting the British aircraft, the German pilot reversed course to evade. Despite the Tempests' considerable low altitude speed, Clostermann decided not to attempt to follow as it
15939-402: The first batch of 100 Tempest V "Series Is", distinguishable by their serial number prefix JN , several improvements were progressively introduced and were used from the outset on all succeeding Tempest V "Series 2s", with serial number prefixes EJ, NV and SN. The fuselage / empennage joint originally featured 20 external reinforcing "fishplates", similar to those fitted to the Typhoon, but it
16100-546: The frame structure, blind spots being reduced to an absolute minimum. It had a bullet-resistant centre panel made up of two layers, the outer 1.5 in (38 mm) thick and the inner 0.25 in (6.4 mm). The majority of production Tempests were powered by a single high-powered Napier Sabre II 24-cylinder engine. All versions of the Sabre drove either a four-bladed, 14 ft (4.3 m) diameter de Havilland Hydromatic or Rotol propeller. Starting with EJxxx series, on
16261-552: The government relented and ordered the stations to be opened. Each day orderly lines of people queued until 4:00 pm, when they were allowed to enter the stations. In mid-September 1940, about 150,000 people a night slept in the Underground, although by winter and spring the numbers declined to 100,000 or less. Battle noises were muffled and sleep was easier in the deepest stations, but many people were killed from direct hits on stations. In March 1943, 173 men, women and children were crushed to death at Bethnal Green tube station in
16422-413: The importance of aviation in operational and tactical terms. Wever outlined five points of air strategy: Wever argued that OKL should not be solely educated in tactical and operational matters but also in grand strategy, war economics, armament production and the mentality of potential opponents (also known as intelligence analysis ). Wever's vision was not realised, staff studies in those subjects fell by
16583-479: The intended targets) as a result of this false information. In September 1944, Duncan Sandys announced that the "Battle of London" against the V-1 was effectively over, as the launch sites in France had been overrun by Allied ground forces. The Germans had prepared sites in the Netherlands , from which they launched V-1 attacks against Antwerp and Brussels starting in October 1944, against which Operation Vapour
16744-434: The interwar period to concentrate on medium bombers can be attributed to several reasons: Hitler did not intend or foresee a war with Britain in 1939, the OKL believed a medium bomber could carry out strategic missions just as well as a heavy bomber force, and Germany did not possess the resources or technical ability to produce four-engined bombers before the war. Although it had equipment capable of doing serious damage,
16905-401: The last week of the month, when on one day 82 per cent were shot down. The rate increased from one V-1 for every 2,500 shells fired to one for every hundred. Barrage balloons were also deployed against the missiles but the leading edges of the V-1's wings were equipped with balloon cable cutters and fewer than 300 V-1s are known to have been destroyed by hitting cables. Part of the area which
17066-721: The main Atlantic seaport of Liverpool in the Liverpool Blitz . The North Sea port of Hull , a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, suffered the Hull Blitz . The port cities of Bristol , Cardiff , Portsmouth , Plymouth , Southampton , Sunderland , Swansea , Belfast , and Glasgow were also bombed, as were the industrial centres of Birmingham , Coventry , Manchester , and Sheffield . More than 40,000 civilians were killed by Luftwaffe bombing during
17227-508: The maintenance of air supremacy within the North German theatre, searching for and destroying any high-performance fighter or bomber aircraft of the Luftwaffe , whether in the air or on the ground. In December 1944, a total of 52 German fighters were downed, 89 trains and countless military vehicles were destroyed, for the loss of 20 Tempests. Following the Luftwaffe ' s Unternehmen Bodenplatte of 1 January 1945, 122 Wing bore
17388-463: The managing of the Luftwaffe was Göring. Hitler believed the Luftwaffe was "the most effective strategic weapon", and in reply to repeated requests from the Kriegsmarine for control over naval aircraft insisted, "We should never have been able to hold our own in this war if we had not had an undivided Luftwaffe ". Such principles made it much harder to integrate the air force into
17549-563: The means to make war. Bombing civilians would cause a collapse of morale and a loss of production in the remaining factories. Democracies, where public opinion was allowed, were thought particularly vulnerable. The RAF and the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) adopted much of this apocalyptic thinking. The policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry. The Luftwaffe took
17710-441: The military structure encouraged the emergence of a major "communications gap" between Hitler and the Luftwaffe , which other factors helped to exacerbate. For one thing, Göring's fear of Hitler led him to falsify or misrepresent what information was available in the direction of an uncritical and over-optimistic interpretation of air strength. When Göring decided against continuing Wever's original heavy bomber programme in 1937,
17871-518: The new Mk.IIC gyroscopic gunsight (as fitted in RAF Spitfires and Mustangs from mid-1944), which would have considerably improved the chances of shooting down opposing aircraft. Tempest pilots continued to use either the Type I Mk.III reflector gunsight , which projected the sighting graticule directly onto the windscreen, or the Mk.IIL until just after the Second World War, when the gyro gunsight
18032-455: The new wing was Camm's proposal that the radiators for cooling the engine be fitted into the leading edge of the wing inboard of the undercarriage . This eliminated the distinctive " chin " radiator of the Typhoon and improved aerodynamics . A further improvement of the Tempest wing over that of the Typhoon was the exceptional, flush-riveted surface finish, essential on a high-performance laminar flow airfoil . The new wing and airfoil, and
18193-423: The offensive over Britain to failure before it began. In an operational capacity, limitations in weapons technology and quick British reactions were making it more difficult to achieve strategic effect. Attacking ports, shipping and imports as well as disrupting rail traffic in the surrounding areas, especially the distribution of coal, an important fuel in all industrial economies of the Second World War, would net
18354-513: The other section flew cover 1,000 ft (300 m) higher and down sun. After the first section had carried out several attacks, it swapped places with the second section and the attacks continued until all ammunition had been exhausted, after which the Tempests would return to base at 8,000 ft. As many of the more profitable targets were usually some 250 miles from base, the Tempests typically carried two 45-gallon drop tanks which were turned on soon after takeoff. Although there were fears that
18515-455: The overall strategy and produced in Göring a jealous and damaging defense of his "empire" while removing Hitler voluntarily from the systematic direction of the Luftwaffe at either the strategic or operational level. When Hitler tried to intervene more in the running of the air force later in the war, he was faced with a political conflict of his own making between himself and Göring, which
18676-430: The period of heaviest bombing had passed before they were finished. By the end of 1940 improvements had been made in the Underground and in many other large shelters. Authorities provided stoves and bathrooms and canteen trains provided food. Tickets were issued for bunks in large shelters, to reduce the amount of time spent queuing. Committees quickly formed within shelters as informal governments, and organisations such as
18837-403: The pilot a retractable foot stirrup under the starboard root trailing edge was linked to a pair of handholds which were covered by spring-loaded flaps. Through a system of linkages, when the canopy was open the stirrup was lowered and the flaps opened, providing easy access to the cockpit; as the canopy was closed, the stirrup was raised into the fuselage and the flaps snapped shut. By April 1944,
18998-577: The pressure of continuous attack upon London, at least three or four million people would be driven out into the open country around the metropolis". Panic during the Munich crisis , such as the migration by 150,000 people to Wales, contributed to fear of social chaos. The government planned the evacuation of four million people—mostly women and children—from urban areas, including 1.4 million from London. It expected about 90% of evacuees to stay in private homes, conducted an extensive survey to determine
19159-549: The previous electro-mechanical Kerrison Predictor ) just in time for use in the campaign. By mid-August 1944, the threat was all but overcome by the expedited arrival of two enormously effective electronic aids for anti-aircraft guns, the first developed by the Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT Rad Lab) radar-based automatic gun-laying (using, among others,
19320-431: The replacement or major servicing of their engines and the withdrawal of the limited number of aircraft which were equipped with spring-tabs; these increased manoeuvrability so much that there was a risk of damaging the airframe. In December 1944, upon the Tempest's reentry into service, the type had the twin tasks of the systematic destruction of the North German rail network along with all related targets of opportunity, and
19481-542: The rest were to have been produced as the Tempest I, equipped with the Sabre IV and leading-edge radiators. These 300 Tempest Is were intended to replace an order for a similar quantity of Typhoons placed with the Gloster Aircraft Company . As it transpired, the difficulties with the Sabre IV and the wing radiators led to this version never reaching production, the corresponding order was switched to 300 Tempest V "Series 2"s instead. During early 1943,
19642-408: The results of the Blitz. He frequently complained of the Luftwaffe 's inability to damage industries sufficiently, saying, "The munitions industry cannot be impeded effectively by air raids ... usually, the prescribed targets are not hit". While the war was being planned, Hitler never insisted upon the Luftwaffe planning a strategic bombing campaign and did not even give ample warning to
19803-503: The root, tapering to 10 per cent at the tip. The maximum thickness of the Tempest wing was set further back at 37.5 per cent of the chord versus 30 per cent for the Typhoon's wing, reducing the thickness of the wing root by five inches on the new design. The wingspan was originally greater than that of the Typhoon at 43 ft (13 m), but the wingtips were later "clipped" and the wing became shorter; 41 ft (12 m) versus 41 ft 7 in (12.67 m). The wing planform
19964-405: The service histories of the aircraft show such conversions and no supporting photographic evidence has been found. The Tempest VI was the last piston-engined fighter in operational service with the RAF, having been superseded by jet propelled aircraft. In 1943, Camm initiated work on a new design for fighter equipped with the at that point unbuilt Rolls-Royce R.46 engine. The project designated as
20125-532: The shelters and many arguments and fights occurred over noise, space and other matters. Anti-Jewish sentiment was reported, particularly around the East End of London, with anti-Semitic graffiti and anti-Semitic rumours, such as that Jewish people were "hogging" air raid shelters. Contrary to pre-war fears of anti-Semitic violence in the East End, one observer found that the "Cockney and the Jew [worked] together, against
20286-433: The short summer nights the Tempests shared operations with de Havilland Mosquitos . Modified P-47M Thunderbolts (half of their fuel tanks removed, half of their 0.5in [12.7 mm] machine-gun armament, all external fittings and all their armour plate removed) were also pressed into service. There was no need for radar in good weather — at night the V-1's engine could be heard from 9.9 mi (16 km) or more away and
20447-610: The sinking of the SS ; City of Benares with the loss of 81 children out of 100 on board. Much civil defence preparation in the form of shelters was left in the hands of local authorities and many areas such as Birmingham , Coventry , Belfast , and the East End of London did not have enough shelters. The unexpected delay to civilian bombing during the Phoney War meant that the shelter programme finished in June 1940, before
20608-556: The standard British QF 3.7 inch mobile gun was too slow for the heights at which V-1s flew and static gun installations with faster traverses had to be built at great cost. The development of centimetric (roughly 30 GHz frequency) gun laying radars based on the cavity magnetron and the development of the proximity fuze helped to neutralise the advantages of speed and size which the V-1 possessed. In 1944 Bell Labs started delivery of an anti-aircraft predictor fire-control system based around an analogue computer , which supplanted
20769-506: The strengthening of the rear spar and the inclusion of spring tabs, which granted the variant superior handling performance. The original Tempest V prototype, HM595 , was extensively modified to serve as the Tempest VI prototype. On 9 May 1944, HM595 made its first flight after its rebuild, flown by Bill Humble. In December 1944, HM595 was dispatched to Khartoum , Sudan to conduct a series of tropical trials. During 1945, two more Tempest V aircraft, EJ841 and JN750 , were converted to
20930-489: The topic of the P.1012. In March 1941 of that year, clearance to proceed with development of the design, referred to at this point as the Typhoon II, was granted. The design at the time encompassed the Sabre E.107C (as it was then known) with a four-blade propeller, 42 ft span elliptical wing with six cannon armament; while the front of the fuselage was redesigned the rear was unchanged from the Typhoon. At this point, work
21091-596: The upper wing root blisters were replaced by small "teardrop" fairings under the wings. The first 100 Tempest Vs were fitted with 20 mm (0.79 in) Hispano Mk.II cannon with long barrels which projected ahead of the wing leading edges and were covered by short fairings; later production Tempest Vs switched to the short-barrelled Hispano Mk.Vs, with muzzles flush with the leading edges. Early Tempest Vs used Typhoon-style 34 by 11 in (86 by 28 cm) five-spoke wheels, but most had smaller 30 by 9 in (76 by 23 cm) four-spoke wheels. The new spar structure of
21252-553: The use of a four-bladed propeller, acted to eliminate the high frequency vibrations that had plagued the Typhoon. The design team also chose to use the new Mark IV version of the Napier Sabre H-block 24 cylinder engine for the Tempest, drawings of which had become available to Hawker in early 1941. In February 1941, Camm commenced a series of discussions with officials within the Ministry of Aircraft Production on
21413-602: The war because of cost, time to build and fears that their safety would cause occupants to refuse to leave to return to work or that anti-war sentiment would develop in large congregations of civilians. The government saw the leading role taken by the Communist Party in advocating the building of deep shelters as an attempt to damage civilian morale, especially after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939. The most important existing communal shelters were
21574-577: The war, almost half of them in the capital, where more than a million houses were destroyed or damaged. In early July 1940, the German High Command began planning Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . Bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or do much damage to the war economy; eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British war production, which continued to increase. The greatest effect
21735-731: The wayside, and the Air Academies focused on tactics, technology and operational planning rather than on independent strategic air offensives. In 1936, Wever was killed in an air crash, and the failure to implement his vision for the new Luftwaffe was largely attributable to his successors. Ex-army personnel and his successors as Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff, Albert Kesselring (3 June 1936 – 31 May 1937) and Hans-Jürgen Stumpff (1 June 1937 – 31 January 1939) are usually blamed for abandoning strategic planning for close air support . Two prominent enthusiasts for ground-support operations (direct or indirect) were Hugo Sperrle ,
21896-477: The £5,000 " Spitfire Funds" to build fighters and the number of work days lost to strikes in 1940 was the lowest in history. Hawker Tempest The Hawker Tempest is a British fighter aircraft that was primarily used by the Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Second World War . The Tempest, originally known as the Typhoon II , was an improved derivative of the Hawker Typhoon , intended to address
22057-478: Was affected by compressibility . The Typhoon's wing, which used a NACA 4 digit series wing section , had a maximum thickness-to-chord ratio of 19.5 per cent (root) to 12 per cent (tip), in comparison to the Supermarine Spitfire 's 13.2 per cent tapering to 6 per cent at the tip, the thinner design being deliberately chosen to reduce drag. In addition, there had been other issues experienced with
22218-399: Was also embedded into the wing. The ailerons were fitted with spring-loaded tabs which lightened the aerodynamic loads, making them easier for the pilot to use and dramatically improving the roll rate above 250 mph (400 km/h). The spar structure of the Tempest V also allowed the wings to carry up to 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of external stores. Also developed specifically for
22379-485: Was also possible, if RAF losses became severe, that they could pull out to the north, wait for the German invasion, then redeploy southward again. Other historians argue that the outcome of the air battle was irrelevant; the massive numerical superiority of British naval forces and the inherent weakness of the Kriegsmarine would have made the projected German invasion, Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sea Lion),
22540-564: Was based at ALG B.77 ( Gilze-Rijen airfield ) in the Netherlands. The intensity of operations persisted throughout the remainder of the war. Piloting a Tempest on 19 April 1945, Flying Officer Geoffrey Walkington was the first to shoot down a Heinkel He 162 , the Luftwaffe ' s then-latest jet fighter, which had just entered service with the I./JG 1 (1st Group of Jagdgeschwader 1 Oesau — "1st Fighter Wing Oesau "). Tempest pilots, including French ace Pierre Clostermann , made
22701-427: Was changed to a Sabre II complete with the Typhoon cooling system and under nose radiator. Due to this previous experience on other programmes, the Air Ministry was sufficiently motivated to request that Tempest prototypes be built using different engines so that, if a delay hit one engine, an alternative powerplant would already be available. An order was approved for six more prototypes with alternate engines in May and
22862-418: Was changed to a near- elliptical shape to accommodate the 800 rounds of ammunition for the four 20 mm Hispano cannons , which were moved back further into the wing. The new wing had greater area than the Typhoon's, but the new wing design sacrificed the leading edge fuel tanks of the Typhoon. To make up for this loss in capacity, Hawker engineers added a new 21 in (53 cm) fuel bay in front of
23023-609: Was decided to discontinue development work on the Mk.III, this was due to priority for the Griffon engine having been assigned to the Supermarine Spitfire instead. The Air Ministry had seen the Mk III as a replacement for the Hurricane in ground attack, with the narrower engine giving a better view as well but the Typhoon would be the interim aircraft for the role. In practice the Typhoon proved very good for ground attack. Work on
23184-466: Was decided to focus on bombing Britain's industrial cities, in daylight to begin with. The main focus was London. The first major raid took place on 7 September. On 15 September, on a date known as Battle of Britain Day, a large-scale raid was launched in daylight, but suffered significant loss for no lasting gain. Although there were a few large air battles fought in daylight later in the month and into October,
23345-499: Was designed from the outset to use the Bristol Centaurus 18 cylinder radial engine as an alternative to the liquid cooled engines which were also proposed. A pair of Centaurus-powered Tempest II prototypes were completed. Apart from the new engine and cowling, the Tempest II prototypes were similar to early series Tempest Vs. The Centaurus engine was closely cowled and the exhaust stacks grouped behind and to either side of
23506-488: Was diluted by attacks against several sets of industries instead of constant pressure on the most vital. In the 1920s and 1930s, airpower theorists such as Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell claimed that air forces could win wars, obviating the need for land and sea combat. It was thought that " the bomber will always get through " and could not be resisted, particularly at night. Industry, seats of government and communications could be destroyed, depriving an opponent of
23667-459: Was fitted, with the associated aerial appearing under the portside centre section. A small, elongated oval static port appeared on the rear starboard fuselage, just above the red centre spot of the RAF roundel . This was apparently used to measure the aircraft's altitude more accurately. Unusually, in spite of the Tempest V being the RAF's best low- to medium-altitude fighter, it was not equipped with
23828-406: Was improved; maximum speed was 442 mph (711 km/h) at 15,200 ft (4,600 m) and climb rate to the same altitude took four and a half minutes compared with five minutes for the Tempest Mk.V; the service ceiling was also increased to 37,500 ft (11,400 m). Tropicalising measures included the installation of an air filter and intake in the upper forward fuselage, just behind
23989-468: Was introduced in Tempest IIs. Two Tempest Vs, EJ518 and NV768 , were fitted with Napier Sabre Vs and experimented with several different Napier-made annular radiators , with which they resembled Tempest IIs. This configuration proved to generate less drag than the standard "chin" radiator, contributing to an improvement in the maximum speed of some 11 to 14 mph. NV768 was later fitted with
24150-428: Was more difficult. Both the RAF and Luftwaffe struggled to replace manpower losses, though the Germans had larger reserves of trained aircrew. The circumstances affected the Germans more than the British. Operating over home territory, British aircrew could fly again if they survived being shot down. German crews, even if they survived, faced capture. Moreover, bombers had four to five crewmen on board, representing
24311-638: Was mounted. V-2 bombardments began in September 1944, and the last enemy action of any kind on British soil in the war occurred on 29 March 1945, when a V-1 struck an empty field near Datchworth in Hertfordshire . The Blitz Britain The Blitz 1942–1945 The Blitz was a German bombing campaign against the United Kingdom , from 7 September 1940 to 11 May 1941, for
24472-520: Was not fully resolved until the war was almost over. In 1940 and 1941, Göring's refusal to co-operate with the Kriegsmarine denied the entire Wehrmacht military forces of the Reich the chance to strangle British sea communications, which might have had a strategic or decisive effect in the war against the British Empire. The deliberate separation of the Luftwaffe from the rest of
24633-461: Was not long before the rear fuselage was strengthened and, with the fishplates no longer being needed, the rear fuselage became detachable. The first series of Tempest Vs used a built-up rear spar pick-up/bulkhead assembly (just behind the cockpit) which was adapted from the Typhoon. Small blisters on the upper rear wing root fairing covered the securing bolts. This was later changed to a new forged, lightweight assembly which connected to new spar booms:
24794-422: Was particularly well suited to the role because of its high speed at low to medium altitudes, its long range when equipped with two 45-gallon drop tanks, the good firepower of the four 20mm cannon and the good pilot visibility. The three-piece windscreen and side windows of the Tempest had directly benefited from examination of captured Focke-Wulf Fw 190s , improvements included the careful design and positioning of
24955-434: Was projected to be more than 42,000 ft (13,000 m). Work on both was ultimately dropped when Camm decided to focus design efforts upon the more promising jet engine designs he was working on instead. The Tempest was a single engine fighter aircraft that excelled at low-level flight. In service, its primary role soon developed into performing "armed reconnaissance" operations, often deep behind enemy lines. The Tempest
25116-643: Was rolled off the line; the first six production aircraft soon joined the two prototypes for extensive trials and tests. With the end of the Second World War in sight, orders for the Tempest II were trimmed or cancelled; after 50 Tempest IIs had been built by the Bristol shadow factory near Banwell , production was stopped and shifted back to Hawker, which built a total of 402, in two production batches: 100 were built as fighters, and 302 were built as fighter-bombers (FB II) with reinforced wings and wing racks capable of carrying bombs of up to 1,000 lb. Physically,
25277-475: Was rushed half-ready into service in July 1944 to fight the V-1s, had ample speed but suffered from unreliable armament and accounted for only 13 bombs destroyed. Deception concerning the V-1 was also used against the Germans with double agents. MI5 (by way of the Double Cross System ) had these agents provide Germany with damage reports for the June 1944 V-1 attacks which implied that on average
25438-633: Was to force the British to disperse the production of aircraft and spare parts. British wartime studies concluded that most cities took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely, but some, such as Birmingham, took three months. The German air offensive failed because the Luftwaffe High Command ( Oberkommando der Luftwaffe , OKL) did not develop a methodical strategy for destroying British war industry. Poor intelligence about British industry and economic efficiency led to OKL concentrating on tactics rather than strategy. The bombing effort
25599-546: Was transferred back to the RAF Fighter Command ; the Tempest squadrons soon racked up a considerable percentage of the total RAF kills of the flying bombs (638 of a total of 1,846 destroyed by aircraft). Using external drop tanks, the Tempest was able to maintain standing patrols of four and half hours off the south coast of England in the approach paths of the V-1s. Guided by close instructions from coastal radar installation, Tempests would be positioned ready for
25760-467: Was undertaken by a team of 45 draughtsmen at Hawker's wartime experimental design office at Claremont , Esher to convert the proposal into technical schematics from which to commence manufacture. In March 1941, the Air Ministry issued specification F.10/41 that had been written to fit the aircraft. The performance estimate given to MAP was 455 mph at 26,000 ft. In September Camm was told that
25921-444: Was used. Early on in development, the adoption of several other engines was proposed, some of which were tested upon multiple prototypes. The wing of the Tempest was one of its more significant design features, having been developed from the Typhoon to use a thinner laminar flow design approach. The wing planform was of a near- elliptical shape; the aircraft's armament of four 20 mm Hispano cannons with 800 rounds of ammunition
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