112-648: Operation Harpoon may refer to: Operation Harpoon (1942) , an Allied convoy sent to supply Malta in the Axis-dominated central Mediterranean Sea Operation Harpoon (2002) , a Canadian-American operation against the Taliban in the Arma mountains of Afghanistan Operation Harpoon , an operation by Israeli Mossad and Shurat HaDin targeting terrorist money networks See also [ edit ] Operation Harpune ,
224-463: A CANT Z.506 Airone (Heron) seaplane after a Luftwaffe aircraft had spotted them and dropped a flare. On 16 June, Supermarina sent the Italian hospital ship Meta which spent two days rescuing survivors and was mistakenly attacked one evening at 7:00 p.m. by six Fiat CR.42 Falco fighters of the 54° Stormo , four armed with bombs; three survivors from Chant were also rescued,
336-464: A Roman triumphal column , is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. It is located on Alexandria's ancient acropolis —a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab cemetery —and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its pedestal , it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in diameter at
448-586: A hot steppe climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh ), virtually hot desert climate ( Köppen climate classification : BWh ). Like the rest of Egypt's northern coast , the prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives the city a less severe climate than the desert hinterland. Rafah and Alexandria are the wettest places in Egypt; the other wettest places are Rosetta , Baltim , Kafr el-Dawwar , and Mersa Matruh . The city's climate
560-402: A Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m or 590 ft). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the "Moon Gate" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern "Ras al-Tin" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras al-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos,
672-541: A Nile river delta, Alexandria is one of the most vulnerable cities to sea level rise in the entire world. According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of people in its low-lying areas may already have to be relocated before 2030. The 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimates that by 2050, Alexandria and 11 other major African cities ( Abidjan , Algiers , Cape Town , Casablanca , Dakar , Dar es Salaam , Durban , Lagos , Lomé , Luanda and Maputo ) would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$ 65 billion for
784-662: A Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom El Deka , which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress. The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The most famous mosque in Alexandria
896-527: A bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god Serapis were enacted and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. In more recent years, many ancient artifacts have been discovered from the surrounding sea, mostly pieces of old pottery. Alexandria's catacombs , known as Kom El Shoqafa , are
1008-514: A conclusion that an invasion was not imminent but the need to protect the source of information meant that this was not disclosed by the British. That preparations were being made were revealed on 7 February through the decryption of Luftwaffe Enigma messages but by 23 March the invasion scare had died down and more bombing was expected. By 31 March the progress of the Axis bombing campaign led to
1120-625: A contemporary battleship. Two submarine flotillas were to send nine boats to screen the convoy and to patrol areas that the Italian fleet was likely to be found. Convoy MW4 left Gibraltar on 12 June 1942, with six merchantmen (the British Troilus , Burdwan and Orari, the Dutch Tanimbar , the American Chant and the tanker Kentucky ) carrying 43,000 short tons (39,000 t ) of cargo and oil. The Harpoon convoy
1232-439: A decent harvest, might keep the population of Malta fed until September but the loss of the tanker Kentucky and the consumption of aviation fuel at Malta, led to fighters being given priority over the offensive force. Transit flights through Malta, except for Beauforts, were suspended; only close-range air attacks on easy targets were to be permitted and more fuel for the fighters was to be carried to Malta by submarine. In 1962,
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#17327937609291344-599: A fast convoy from Alexandria. Operation Hercules ( Operazione C3 ) was an Axis plan to invade Malta and during 1942, reinforcement of the Luftwaffe in Sicily and the bombing campaign against the island led to speculation that it was the prelude to invasion. Gleanings from prisoners of war and diplomatic sources led to a certain apprehension about the meaning of troop movements in southern Italy. The absence of evidence from signals intelligence and air reconnaissance led to
1456-677: A gap but Wellingtons of 205 Group and the light bombers of the Desert Air Force would attack Axis airfields in North Africa. 201 (General Reconnaissance) Group would provide reconnaissance and anti-submarine sorties and a small sabotage party was to land on Crete and attack Axis aircraft on the ground. Vigorous was planned as a joint Royal Navy–RAF operation, to be conducted from the headquarters of 201 (General Reconnaissance) Group by Admiral Henry Harwood and Air Marshal Arthur Tedder , with Rear Admiral Philip Vian in command of
1568-460: A greater force than anticipated by the British. The first air attacks were made by Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 torpedo bombers, which sank Tanimbar , south of Sardinia . Liverpool was damaged and towed back to Gibraltar by Antelope , under air attack (arriving on 17 June). Later on 14 June, the covering force returned to Gibraltar, short of the Strait of Sicily . The fast minelayer Welshman
1680-471: A home for novelists and poets. In July 1882, the city came under bombardment from British naval forces and was occupied. In July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as the Lavon Affair . On 26 October 1954, Alexandria's Mansheya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Gamal Abdel Nasser . Europeans began leaving Alexandria following
1792-542: A major German deception plan of 1941 to conceal preparations for Operation Barbarossa Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Operation Harpoon . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Harpoon&oldid=1152927982 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
1904-513: A major centre of Hellenic civilisation and replacing Memphis as Egypt's capital during the reign of the Ptolemaic pharaohs who succeeded Alexander. It retained this status for almost a millennium, through the period of Roman and Eastern Roman rule until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, when a new capital was founded at Fustat (later absorbed into Cairo ). Alexandria was best known for
2016-635: A prediction that the attempt would be made in April but this was soon discounted. Although the bombing increased from 750 long tons (762 t) in February, to 2,000 long tons (2,032 t) in March and 5,500 long tons (5,588 t) in April, Enigma decodes showed that there were still 425 Luftwaffe aircraft in Sicily, not the 650 aircraft originally intended, because aircraft were detained in Russia by
2128-599: A saint that lived in the Minyat of Ibn Murshed. Although al-Murshidi lived in seclusion, Ibn Battuta writes that he was regularly visited by crowds, high state officials, and even by the Sultan of Egypt at the time, al-Nasir Muhammad . Ibn Battuta also visited the Pharos lighthouse on two occasions: in 1326 he found it to be partly in ruins and in 1349 it had deteriorated to the point that it was no longer possible to enter. During
2240-464: A seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, there are the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact scale replica of the destroyed Alexandrine Pharos Lighthouse . Citadel of Qaitbay is a defensive fortress located on the Mediterranean sea coast. It was established in 1477 AD (882 AH ) by the mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Sayf al-Din Qa'it Bay . The Citadel
2352-429: A short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other syncretic Romano-Egyptian religious symbols , burial niches, and sarcophagi , as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by
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#17327937609292464-415: A successful attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25-ton obelisk. "Pompey's Pillar" is a misnomer , as it has nothing to do with Pompey , having been erected in 293 for Diocletian , possibly in memory of the rebellion of Domitius Domitianus . The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when
2576-455: A total of 217 men. [REDACTED] United Kingdom [REDACTED] Poland [REDACTED] Alexandria Alexandria ( / ˌ æ l ɪ ɡ ˈ z æ n d r i ə , - ˈ z ɑː n -/ AL -ig- ZA(H)N -dree-ə ; Arabic : الإسكندرية ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀλεξάνδρεια , Coptic : Ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ - Rakoti or ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇⲣⲓⲁ) is the second largest city in Egypt and the largest city on
2688-423: A water carrier and a floating crane were sunk in port and more ships damaged. The island continued to function as a staging post but the Axis bombing campaign neutralised Malta as an offensive base. Two boats of the 10th Submarine Flotilla had been sunk, two were damaged in harbour and on 26 April the flotilla was ordered out because of mining by small fast craft, which were undetectable by radar and inaudible during
2800-518: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Operation Harpoon (1942) 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Operation Harpoon was one of two simultaneous Allied convoys sent to supply Malta in the Axis-dominated central Mediterranean Sea in mid-June 1942, during the Second World War . Operation Vigorous was a west-bound convoy from Alexandria and Operation Harpoon
2912-545: Is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea , moderating its temperatures, causing variable rainy winters and moderately hot and slightly prolonged summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) and minimum temperatures that could reach 5 °C (41 °F ). Alexandria experiences violent storms , rain and sometimes sleet and hail during
3024-600: Is located on the eastern side of the northern tip of Pharos Island at the mouth of the Eastern Harbour . It was erected on the exact site of the famous Lighthouse of Alexandria , which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . It was built on an area of 17,550 square metres . Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by
3136-530: The Egyptian Satrapy from the Persians , Alexander wanted to build a large Greek city on Egypt's coast that would bear his name. He chose the site of Alexandria, envisioning the building of a causeway to the nearby island of Pharos that would generate two great natural harbours. Alexandria was intended to supersede the older Greek colony of Naucratis as a Hellenistic centre in Egypt and to be
3248-642: The Lighthouse of Alexandria ( Pharos ), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World ; its Great Library , the largest in the ancient world; and the Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa , one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages . Alexandria was the intellectual and cultural centre of the ancient Mediterranean for much of the Hellenistic age and late antiquity . It was at one time the largest city in
3360-550: The Middle Ages , the Mamluk Sultanate provided amenities for European merchants to stay in the port cities of Alexandria and Damietta , so hotels were built and placed at the merchants' disposal so that they could live according to the pattern they were accustomed to in their country. Alexandria lost much of its importance in international trade after Portuguese navigators discovered a new sea route to India in
3472-604: The Rashiduns in AD 641, the name was Arabicised : initial Al- was re-analysed into the definite article ; metathesis occurred on x , from [ks] to [sk] ; and the suffix -eia was assimilated into the feminine adjectival suffix -iyya ( ـِيَّة ). Radiocarbon dating of seashell fragments and lead contamination show human activity at the location during the period of the Old Kingdom (27th–21st centuries BC) and again in
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3584-715: The Roman emperor , which quickly escalated to open affronts and violence between the two ethnic groups and the desecration of Alexandrian synagogues. This event has been called the Alexandrian pogroms . The violence was quelled after Caligula intervened and had the Roman governor, Flaccus, removed from the city. In 115 AD, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Diaspora revolt , which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus , an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215 AD,
3696-426: The battleship Duilio , reached Tripoli. By the end of February, 11 ships had crossed without escort and a blackout caused by a change to the C 38m machine, in early March, made little difference to the British for lack of means. After the British broke back into C 38m, 26 Axis supply journeys had been made by May, only nine being spotted by air reconnaissance. On 14 April, five Malta aircraft were shot down and
3808-457: The minesweeper HMS Hebe at " approx. 26,000 yards ". Fires broke out on Hebe , which received extensive splinter damage. Electrical cables to sweep magnetic and acoustic mines, low power wires, steering gear, echo sounding gear and voice pipes were broken, the Kelvin sounding machine , the commanding officer's cabin were damaged and a whaler was rendered unseaworthy. Partridge
3920-587: The northern coast of Egypt and is the largest city on the Mediterranean, the second-largest in Egypt (after Cairo ), the fourth-largest city in the Arab world , the ninth-largest city in Africa , and the ninth-largest urban area in Africa . The city was founded originally in the vicinity of an Egyptian settlement named Rhacotis (that became the Egyptian quarter of the city). Alexandria grew rapidly, becoming
4032-464: The "moderate" climate change scenario RCP 4.5 and US$ 86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5, while RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$ 137.5 billion in damages. Additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$ 187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$ 206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$ 397 billion under
4144-878: The 1956 Suez Crisis that led to an outburst of Arab nationalism . The nationalisation of property by Nasser, which reached its highest point in 1961, drove out nearly all the rest. Alexandria is located in the country of Egypt, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean. It is in the Far West Nile delta area. It is a densely populated city; its core areas belie its large administrative area. Notes: 2020 CAPMAS projection based on 2017 revised census figures, may differ significantly from 2017 census preliminary tabulations. The 14 kisms were reported simply as Alexandria city by CAPMAS in 2006 but given explosive growth definitions, likely informal, may have changed or may be set to change. Same area with 12 kisms existed in 1996. Kisms are considered 'fully urbanised' Alexandria has
4256-534: The 4th century AD. This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, was explored in 1992 and is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team . It raised a noted head of Caesarion . These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy. The spaces that are most open are
4368-507: The British naval official historian, Stephen Roskill , called the Axis success undeniable. Malta had not been supplied and the British had lost a cruiser, three destroyers and two merchantmen against the sinking of Trento and minor damage to Littorio . No attempt was made to run another convoy from Alexandria until the Eighth Army had conquered Libya. Roskill wrote that with hindsight, the course of events on land made naval operations in
4480-528: The British. In late April, the British Chiefs of Staff ruled that there would be no convoy to Malta in May, because the Italian fleet could be expected to sail and convoy would need battleship and aircraft carrier cover, which was not available. An operation to fly Spitfires to Malta succeeded and anti-aircraft ammunition was to be supplied by fast minelayer, with which Malta must hold on until mid-June, when
4592-515: The Great Harbour. The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, The Great Lighthouse , one of the Seven Wonders of the World , reputed to be 138 m (453 ft) high, was situated. The first Ptolemy began
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4704-691: The Italian Navy. Part of the convoy did get through to Malta, but the British suffered far heavier losses than did the Italians.... In 2001, Giorgio Giorgerini wrote that the Battle of Pantelleria was not a strategic success because two merchantmen reached Malta but was a satisfying tactical success; one of the few instances in which Italian warships fought aggressively enough against their opponents, even though somewhat exaggerated beyond its merits in later writing. In 2007, Malcolm Llewellyn-Jones, editor of
4816-949: The Italian fleet. Twelve Beauforts of 39 Squadron were based at Bir Amud in Egypt, near the Libyan border, five B-24 Liberator bombers of 160 Squadron and about 24 aircraft of the Halverson Detachment United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) at RAF Fayid , were also made available. Short-range fighters based in Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica and Malta were to provide air cover and as the convoy moved out of range, protection would be taken over by Curtiss Kittyhawks of 250 Squadron equipped with long-range fuel tanks, Bristol Beaufighters from 252 Squadron and 272 Squadron and Beaufighter night fighters from 227 Squadron . Air cover from Cyrenaica could not overlap with coverage from Malta leaving
4928-664: The Mediterranean coast . It lies at the western edge of the Nile River delta . Founded in c. 331 BC by Alexander the Great , Alexandria grew rapidly and became a major centre of Hellenic civilisation , eventually replacing Memphis , in present-day Greater Cairo , as Egypt's capital. Called the "Bride of the Mediterranean" internationally, Alexandria is a popular tourist destination and an important industrial centre due to its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez . The city extends about 40 km (25 mi) along
5040-591: The RAF for not providing enough aircraft capable of defeating the Italian battle fleet. The only success of Julius was the arrival of the two ships from Harpoon. The British suffered casualties of twenty-eight men killed on HMS Bedouin , fifteen on HMS Liverpool , thirteen on ORP Kujawiak , nine on HMS Badsworth , two on HMS Cairo , one on HMS Partridge , three on the auxiliary minesweeper Justified , twenty-three on Tanimbar , four on Chant , three on Burdwan . The ten most injured survivors of Bedouin were picked up by
5152-519: The Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city. Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a 1,260 m-long (4,130 ft) mole and called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia"—a stadium was
5264-470: The Royal Navy staff history, wrote that FAA fighters shot down 13 Axis aircraft and ships' gunners destroyed another sixteen, for a total of 29 Axis aircraft. In 2003, Richard Woodman wrote that on 16 June, Harwood reported that, We are outnumbered both in surface ships and Air Force and very gallant endeavour of all concerned cannot make up for...the deficiency. In a later report, Harwood blamed
5376-592: The Serapeum. Nearby, immense catacombs and columbaria have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors. The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom El Shoqafa (Roman) and Ras El Tin (painted). The German excavation team found remains of
5488-726: The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest. Since the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Cleopatra VII 's royal quarters were inundated by earthquakes and tsunami, leading to gradual subsidence in
5600-604: The Soviet winter offensive. On 26 April, Enigma revealed that Fliegerkorps II was being withdrawn. By 2 May, a Luftwaffe bomber group and a fighter group had been withdrawn with more to follow, which explained the lull. Hitler was lukewarm about the operation, in case the Italian navy let down the Fallschirmjäger (parachute and glider troops) but the Axis capture of Tobruk in mid-June made it appear that an invasion
5712-678: The ancient world before being eventually overtaken by Rome . The city was a major centre of early Christianity and was the centre of the Patriarchate of Alexandria , which was one of the major centres of Christianity in the Eastern Roman Empire . In the modern world, the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria both lay claim to this ancient heritage. By 641,
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#17327937609295824-513: The base, tapering to 2.4 m (7.9 ft) at the top. The shaft is 88 ft (27 m) high and made out of a single piece of granite. Its volume is 132 m (4,662 cu ft) and weight approximately 396 tons. Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks . The Romans had cranes but they were not strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including
5936-420: The battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and Valiant were still out of action. Force A comprised four Dido-class 5.25-inch light cruisers and a C-class anti-aircraft cruiser, three 6-inch Town class cruisers and 26 destroyers, four corvettes, two minesweepers, four Motor Torpedo Boats (MTB) and two rescue ships. The former battleship HMS Centurion was pressed into service to masquerade as
6048-527: The bombing; the surviving minesweepers were too reduced in numbers to clear the approaches. Three reconnaissance aircraft remained and only 22 bomber sorties were flown, with eleven more by Fleet Air Arm (FAA) aircraft during the month. By the start of June, only two Fairey Albacores and two Fairey Swordfish were left. From December 1941, Luftwaffe bombing neutralised Malta, decrypts of Italian C 38m cipher messages showed more sailings and fewer losses and on 23 February 1942, an Italian convoy, led by
6160-483: The central Mediterranean inherently dangerous. During the operation, the withdrawal of the Eighth Army forfeited one of the airfields being used for air cover. With Axis aircraft based along the length of the route to Malta, air power decided the course of events, although the diversion of Axis bombers against the convoys had been of some benefit to the British as they conducted the "scuttle" to El Alamein. In 1941, 30 of 31 merchant ships sailing for Malta had arrived but in
6272-462: The centre of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his Mausoleum ) rose. This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel ; the line of the great East–West "Canopic" street is also present in modern-day Alexandria, having only slightly diverged from the line of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharae Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near
6384-566: The centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage . In one century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and, for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became Egypt's main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. The Septuagint , a Greek version of the Tanakh ,
6496-516: The citizens until they were discovered by accident in 1900. The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as Kom El Deka . It has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of its Roman-era baths . The temple was built in the Ptolemy era and dedicated to Osiris, which finished the construction of Alexandria. It is located in Abusir,
6608-459: The city , which fell to them on 2 September 1801. Muhammad Ali , the Ottoman governor of Egypt, began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810 and, by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory. Egypt turned to Europe in their effort to modernise the country. Greeks, followed by other Europeans and others, began moving to the city. In the early 20th century, the city became
6720-486: The city had already been largely plundered and lost its significance before re-emerging in the modern era. From the late 18th century, Alexandria became a major centre of the international shipping industry and one of the most important trading centres in the world, both because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean and Red Seas and the lucrative trade in Egyptian cotton . Alexandria
6832-531: The city was, at that time, in the periphery of Egypt proper (the area beside the Nile ). Some of the Alexandrian and Greek populaces, e.g., Hypsicles , also referred to the city as Alexándreia hḗ prós Aígypton ( Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ πρός Αἴγυπτον , "Alexandria near Egypt"). In the course of Roman rule in Egypt , the city's name was Latinised as Alexandrēa ad Aegyptum . After the capture of Alexandria by
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#17327937609296944-471: The climate of Alexandria in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Gaza City . The annual temperature would increase by 2.8 °C (5.0 °F), and the temperature of the warmest and the coldest month by 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) and 3.1 °C (5.6 °F). According to Climate Action Tracker , the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches RCP 4.5. Due to its location on
7056-542: The construction of the Mahmoudiyah Canal in 1820. Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon 's expedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the city on 2 July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of a British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, following which they besieged
7168-432: The convoy and escorts (Force A). If a larger Italian force attacked, Vian was to protect the convoy with smoke and the escorts were to repulse the attackers with torpedoes and try to inflict early casualties against two of the Italian ships using gunfire. The success of the convoy would depend on the Italian fleet being damaged by air and submarine attack before it could close on the ships, rather than on surface action because
7280-437: The convoy. The 9,308 long tons (9,457 t) tanker Kentucky , Chant and the freighter Burdwan , already disabled by air attack, were abandoned by their escorts, which had been trying to scuttle Kentucky and Burdwan with gunfire and depth charges, when the Italian cruisers returned shortly before noon. Burdwan and Kentucky , already on fire, were sunk by gunfire from Raimondo Montecuccoli , Eugenio di Savoia and
7392-493: The cooler months; these events, combined with a poor drainage system, have been responsible for occasional flooding in the city in the past though they rarely occur anymore. July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of 30 °C (86 °F ). The average annual rainfall is around 211 mm (8.3 in) but has been as high as 417 mm (16.4 in) Port Said , Kosseir , Baltim , Damietta and Alexandria have
7504-477: The destroyers Ascari , Alfredo Oriani , Lanzerotto Malocello , Premuda and Ugolino Vivaldi . The five fleet destroyers in the convoy escort made a smokescreen and attacked the Italian squadron but the Tribal-class destroyer HMS Bedouin and the P-class destroyer Partridge were repeatedly hit by the Italian cruisers and brought to a standstill. The cruiser Cairo also received two rounds from Italian gunfire. Italian reports claimed that
7616-433: The destroyers Ascari and Oriani ; Kentucky was also struck by a torpedo from Oriani . Ascari finished off Burdwan , which by then was an abandoned hulk, with two torpedoes. Chant had already been sunk by bombing and the Italian squadron found her smouldering wreck site. While scaring off the small escorting vessels of the crippled ships and according to post-battle reports from both sides, Raimondo Montecuccoli hit
7728-403: The destroyers Vivaldi and Malocello closed to within 6,000 yd (3.4 mi; 5.5 km) of the merchantmen and hit one of the freighters at about 7:15 a.m. Vivaldi was eventually hit by a shot from the British destroyers and caught fire but was taken in tow and saved by Malocello and Premuda . Both forces broke off the engagement at about 8:00 a.m. and the Italians lost track of
7840-558: The docks, ships, aircraft and airfields by the end of April 1942. Axis bombing was switched to targets preliminary to invasion: camps, barracks, warehouses and road junctions. After 18 April, German bombing suddenly stopped and Italian bombers took over, regularly bombing with small formations of aircraft. During the month, Axis aircraft flew more than 9,500 sorties against 388 by the Royal Air Force (RAF) all but 30 of which were fighter sorties. The British lost 50 aircraft, 20 shot down in combat against 37 Axis losses incurred during
7952-479: The dropping of 6,700 long tons (6,808 t) of bombs, three times the March figure, 3,000 long tons (3,048 t) on the docks, 2,600 long tons (2,642 t) on airfields. The bombing demolished or damaged 11,450 buildings, 300 civilians were killed and 350 seriously wounded. Good shelters existed but some of the casualties were caused by delayed-action bombs. As Malta was running short of supplies, Convoy MW 10 sailed from Alexandria on 21 March. The convoy
8064-490: The emperor Caracalla visited the city and, because of some insulting satires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365 AD, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami ( 365 Crete earthquake ), an event annually commemorated years later as a "day of horror". In 619, Alexandria fell to the Sassanid Persians . The city
8176-467: The enemy surface force, both of these ships might have been brought in. In 1960, Ian Playfair , the British official historian, wrote that the relationship of the "battle for supplies" with the land war reached a climax in the second half of 1942. Far from the Eighth Army capturing airfields to the west in the Cyrenaican bulge, the army had been defeated at Gazala while Operation Julius was on and lost
8288-531: The first seven months of 1942, of 30 sailings, ten were sunk, ten turned back damaged, three were sunk on arrival and seven delivered their supplies. The Axis operation against Harpoon was the only undisputed squadron-sized victory for the Regia Marina in the Second World War. In their 1998 publication, Greene and Massignani wrote Clearly this was an Axis victory and a tactical victory for
8400-481: The following 48 hours, all the merchant ships were sunk off Malta or destroyed inside the port; barely 5,000 long tons (5,100 t) of supplies were unloaded. Rations of meat, fats and sugar were cut further and on 5 May, the bread ration was reduced to 10.5 oz (298 g) per day, enough to last until late July; pasta rations had already been stopped and there had been a poor winter potato harvest. Three destroyers, three submarines, three minesweepers, five tugs,
8512-462: The former having lost some cargo in the mine explosion; Hebe also struck a mine and suffered further damage, requiring a month in dry dock. Captain Hardy reported, During the final day of Harpoon three merchant ships in convoy were lost due to enemy air action. Of these, Chant received three direct hits, but Burdwan and Kentucky were, I believe, not touched but disabled by near misses. But for
8624-488: The high-end ice sheet instability scenario. In every single estimate, Alexandria alone bears around half of these costs. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions: Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about 60 m (200 ft) wide, intersected in
8736-538: The landing grounds to the east. The disaster at Gazala had led to the military forces on Malta trying to save Egypt rather than vice versa. Vigorous had been a "disappointing operation" and turned back because the British and US air attacks on the Italian battle fleet had failed to inflict the damage hoped for. Force A could not hope to prevail in a surface action, a view echoed by Greene and Massignani in 2003. The two ships of Operation Harpoon that reached Malta delivered 15,000 long tons (15,241 t) of supplies which, with
8848-479: The largest cities ever built before the Industrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital. Due to the constant presence of war in Alexandria in ancient times, very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbour and the rest has been built over in modern times. " Pompey's Pillar ",
8960-573: The late 15th century. This reduced the amount of goods that needed to be transported through the Alexandrian port, as well as the Mamluks' political power. After the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517, the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under Ottoman rule until 1798. Alexandria lost much of its former importance to the Egyptian port city of Rosetta during the 9th to 18th centuries, and it only regained its former prominence with
9072-482: The least temperature variation in Egypt. The highest recorded temperature was 45 °C (113 °F) on 30 May 1961, and the coldest recorded temperature was 0 °C (32 °F) on 31 January 1994. A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 , a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100,
9184-498: The link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to the city during his life. After Alexander's departure, his viceroy Cleomenes continued the expansion. The architect Dinocrates of Rhodes designed the city, using a Hippodamian grid plan . Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, his general Ptolemy Lagides took possession of Egypt and brought Alexander's body to Egypt with him. Ptolemy at first ruled from
9296-478: The local Archaeological Society and by many individuals. Excavations were performed in the city by Greeks seeking the tomb of Alexander the Great without success. The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered; D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund and
9408-399: The low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata . The most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of "Pompey's Pillar", where there is a good deal of open ground. Here, substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of
9520-493: The old Egyptian capital of Memphis . In 322/321 BC he had Cleomenes executed. Finally, in 305 BC, Ptolemy declared himself Pharaoh as Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") and moved his capital to Alexandria. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandria's early development, the Heptastadion and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarily Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming
9632-418: The period 1000–800 BC, followed by the absence of activity after that. From ancient sources it is known there existed a trading post at this location during the time of Rameses the Great for trade with Crete , but it had long been lost by the time of Alexander's arrival. A small Egyptian fishing village named Rhakotis ( Egyptian : rꜥ-qdy.t , 'That which is built up') existed since the 13th century BC in
9744-414: The project, and the second Ptolemy ( Ptolemy II Philadelphus ) completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents . It took 12 years to complete and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it
9856-567: The same day as the Afrika Korps broke out and by 14 June, forced the British to retreat towards Tobruk. The Axis forces pursued the British into Egypt and the Desert Air Force lost the Libyan landing grounds from which to cover Malta convoys. Two weeks before the convoys, the carrier HMS Eagle began operations to deliver 63 Spitfires to Malta, which increased the number to 95 serviceable fighters. Air operations for
9968-503: The second longest surviving ancient wonder, after the Great Pyramid of Giza . A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the 1st century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens, according to a census dated from 32 AD, in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 216,000 to 500,000, making it one of
10080-460: The sinking of the crippled vessels of the convoy shortly after, just before sailing back to Pantelleria. Later In the evening, the surviving ships ran into a minefield off Malta. The destroyers Badsworth and Matchless and the freighter Orari struck mines and were damaged; the Polish destroyer ORP Kujawiak sank after midnight. Of the six merchantmen, Orari and Troilus reached Malta,
10192-462: The site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. In Strabo 's time (latter half of the 1st century BC), the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering
10304-724: The situation in the Western Desert should have been clarified. If Martuba or Benghazi in Cyrenaica had been captured by the Eighth Army , a westbound convoy from Alexandria might survive without cover from battleships and aircraft carriers. It would also be known if Luftwaffe aircraft had been diverted to the Russian Front and if the crisis in the Indian Ocean had abated, sufficient for ships to escort
10416-729: The speed of Axis reinforcement and expected to attack well before the Axis but Panzerarmee Afrika forestalled the Eighth Army by beginning an offensive on 21 January 1942. By 6 February, the British had been defeated, forced to retreat east of the Jebel Akhdar back to the Gazala line just west of Tobruk, where the Panzerarmee had begun its retirement seven weeks earlier. At the Battle of Gazala (26 May – 21 June), Panzerarmee Afrika attacked first again but appeared close to defeat until 11 June. The Allied Operation Julius began on
10528-482: The submarine HMS Upholder was lost. On 10 March, the cruiser HMS Naiad was sunk by a U-boat and on 10 May, three of four destroyers were sunk by the Luftwaffe . In February and March, Axis losses were 9 per cent of supplies sent, in April less than one per cent and May losses were 7 per cent. The Axis was able to reinforce North Africa sufficient for General Erwin Rommel to try to attack before
10640-458: The total population during the Roman principate was around 500,000–600,000, which would wax and wane in the course of the next four centuries under Roman rule. According to Philo of Alexandria , in the year 38 AD, disturbances erupted between Jews and Greek citizens of Alexandria during a visit paid by King Agrippa I to Alexandria, principally over the respect paid by the Herodian nation to
10752-602: The two convoys began on 24 May, when Vickers Wellington bombers of 104 Squadron from Malta began bombing airfields and ports in Sicily and southern Italy. On 11 June, the Wellingtons were withdrawn to accommodate six Wellington torpedo bombers of 38 Squadron , Bristol Beaufort torpedo-bombers of 217 Squadron and Martin Baltimore reconnaissance aircraft of 69 Squadron . Aircraft from Gibraltar, Malta and Egypt also began reconnaissance flights on 11 June, searching for
10864-475: The two operations had been unwittingly revealed to the Axis by the US Military Attaché in Egypt, Colonel Bonner Fellers , who had been submitting detailed military reports on British activities to Washington. The American code was later revealed by Ultra intercepts to have been broken by Italian military intelligence ( Servizio Informazioni Militare ). In 1942, Axis bombing of Malta smashed
10976-495: The vicinity and eventually grew into the Egyptian quarter of the city. Just east of Alexandria (where Abu Qir Bay is now), there were in ancient times marshland and several islands. As early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion . The latter was recently rediscovered underwater. Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια ( Alexandreia ), as one of his many city foundations . After he captured
11088-472: The western suburb of Alexandria in Borg el Arab city. Only the outer wall and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshiped there. Archaeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian,
11200-553: Was Utba ibn Abi Sufyan , who strengthened the Arab presence and built a governor's palace in the city in 664–665. In reference to Alexandria, Ibn Battuta speaks of a number of Muslim saints that resided in the city. One such saint was Imam Borhan Oddin El Aaraj, who was said to perform miracles. Another notable figure was Yaqut al-'Arshi, a disciple of Abu Abbas El Mursi . Ibn Battuta also writes about Abu 'Abdallah al-Murshidi,
11312-523: Was an east-bound convoy operation from Gibraltar . Vigorous convoy was driven back by the Italian fleet after being badly damaged by Axis aircraft. Two of the six ships in the Harpoon convoy completed the journey, at the cost of several Allied warships. The naval action fought on 15 June between an Italian naval squadron and the escort of the Harpoon convoy is known as the Battle of Pantelleria ( Battaglia di Mezzo Giugno [Battle of mid-June]). News of
11424-483: Was attacked by the Italian submarine Uarsciek at 2:52 a.m. which claimed a hit but the explosion was premature. At dawn an Italian aircraft spotted the convoy 50 nmi (58 mi; 93 km) north of Cape Bougaroni, about halfway between Algiers and Bizerte. Two British fighters managed to shoot it down before it could send a sighting report. Escapade fired on a submarine but it turned out to be Westcott returning from refuelling. The Italian submarine Giada
11536-403: Was detached and travelled to Malta alone, delivered ammunition, then sailed back next day to rejoin the convoy escorts. At dawn on 15 June, near Pantelleria , the lightly defended convoy was subjected to a coordinated attack by Axis aircraft and the Italian 7th Cruiser Division ( Ammiraglio di divisione [Vice-Admiral] Alberto da Zara ), Raimondo Montecuccoli , Eugenio di Savoia and
11648-563: Was escorted by Force X, the anti-aircraft cruiser HMS Cairo , nine destroyers, the fast minelayer HMS Welshman and smaller ships. Distant cover was provided by the battleship HMS Malaya , aircraft carriers Argus and Eagle , cruisers HMS Kenya , Charybdis and Liverpool , with several destroyers. Eagle carried 16 Sea Hurricanes of 801 Naval Air Squadron (801 NAS) and 813 NAS and four Fairey Fulmars of 807 NAS . Argus had two more Fulmars of 807 NAS and 18 Swordfish of 824 NAS . The convoy
11760-472: Was eventually sunk by an aerial torpedo from a SM.79 bomber that Bedouin shot down as it sank. Twenty-eight of the Bedouin crew were killed and more than 200 were rescued and taken prisoner by the Italians; the majority by the small hospital ship Meta . The Italian squadron was attacked by mistake at 2:20 p.m. by German Ju. 88 bombers, without suffering any damage. The Italian warships witnessed
11872-523: Was in the vicinity and at 6:05 a.m. fired two torpedoes at Eagle , which logged an underwater explosion at 6:14 a.m. The crew of Giada heard three explosions and claimed a hit. Another Italian aircraft saw the convoy at 7:45 a.m. 90 nmi (100 mi; 170 km) south-west of Cape Teulada in Sardinia, close to the operational area of Aeronautica della Sardegna (Air Sardinia) which had been reinforced to 175 operational bombers and fighters,
11984-478: Was located on the earlier Egyptian settlement, which was called Rhacotis ( Ancient Greek : Ῥακῶτις , romanized : Rhakôtis ), the Hellenised form of Egyptian r-ꜥ-qd(y)t . As one of many settlements founded by Alexander the Great, the city he founded on Rhacotis was called Alexándreia hḗ kat' Aígypton ( Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ κατ' Αἴγυπτον ), which some sources translated as "Alexandria by Egypt", as
12096-608: Was mostly uninjured by the conquest and a new palace called Tarawus was erected in the eastern part of the city, later known as Qasr Faris, "fort of the Persians". Although the Byzantine emperor Heraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general 'Amr ibn al-'As invaded it during the Muslim conquest of Egypt , after a siege that lasted 14 months. The first Arab governor of Egypt recorded to have visited Alexandria
12208-475: Was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic centre of learning ( Library of Alexandria , which faced destruction during Caesar 's siege of Alexandria in 47 BC), but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek, Egyptian and Jewish. By the time of Augustus , the city grid encompassed an area of 10 km (3.9 sq mi), and
12320-401: Was recovered and taking the disabled Bedouin in tow when the Italian cruisers with two destroyers reappeared; the tow was cast off, leaving Bedouin adrift. At 2:30 p.m., Partridge managed to withdraw and run for Gibraltar but Bedouin had already been hit during the battle by at least twelve 152 mm (6.0 in) shells plus several near misses and had taken on a severe list. Bedouin
12432-488: Was redundant. Hitler and Mussolini agreed to Panzerarmee Afrika pursuing the British into Egypt for the rest of June and into July, which meant cancelling Hercules. After the success of Operation Crusader (18 November – 30 December 1941), the Eighth Army advanced 800 km (500 mi) westwards to El Agheila in Libya, capturing airfields and landing grounds to provide air cover for Malta convoys. The British misjudged
12544-525: Was the subject of a half-hearted attack by the Italian Fleet; the Italians intercepted the convoy and inflicted much damage on several escorts in the Second Battle of Sirte but the weaker British force fended off the Italian squadron. The attack on the convoy meant that the convoy reached Malta in the morning and not at night as expected, leaving the merchant ships exposed to Axis air attack. In
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