102-596: Operation I-Go ( い号作戦 , I-Go sakusen ) was an aerial counter-offensive launched by Imperial Japanese forces against Allied forces during the Solomon Islands and New Guinea campaigns in the Pacific Theater of World War II . Taking place from 1–16 April 1943, Japanese aircraft—primarily from Imperial Japanese Navy units under the command of Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto and Jinichi Kusaka —attacked Allied ships, aircraft, and land installations in
204-599: A tributary state of China's Qing Empire , which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials who gathered around the royal family of the Joseon kingdom. On February 27, 1876, after several confrontations between Korean isolationists and the Japanese, Japan imposed the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 , forcing Korea open to Japanese trade. The act blocked any other power from dominating Korea, resolving to end
306-649: A Theory of Civilization", which detailed Western society and his own philosophies. In the Meiji Restoration period, military and economic power was emphasized. Military strength became the means for national development and stability. Imperial Japan became the only non-Western world power and a major force in East Asia in about 25 years as a result of industrialization and economic development. As writer Albrecht Fürst von Urach comments in his booklet "The Secret of Japan's Strength", published in 1942, during
408-613: A chapel of the Russian Consulate. St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the New Testament and some other religious books ( Lenten Triodion , Pentecostarion , Feast Services , Book of Psalms , Irmologion ) into Japanese . Nicholas has since been canonized as a saint by the Patriarchate of Moscow in 1970, and is now recognized as St. Nicholas, Equal-to-the-Apostles to Japan. His commemoration day
510-639: A continued collaboration with the Tokugawa, Saigō Takamori , leader of the Satsuma clan, threatened the assembly into abolishing the title shōgun and ordered the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands. On January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared "that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration and called on the court to rescind it". On January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision
612-658: A debate over defining the political system of Japan as a dictatorship . The Imperial Japanese Armed Forces initially achieved large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War . However, from 1942 onwards, and particularly after decisive Allied advances at Midway Atoll and Guadalcanal , Japan was forced to adopt a defensive stance against the United States . The American-led island-hopping campaign led to
714-551: A flight of five aircraft, inbound towards Samarai. He observed a close formation of about 30 Japanese bombers slightly right of his heading. The Japanese escort consisted of two elements, one of seven fighters above and behind bombers, the other of between seven and eight fighters, which were about 2,000 feet (610 m) above them to the north. As the Australian fighter aircraft attempted to engage, Norman turned too tight at 150 miles (240 km) per hour and his aircraft went into
816-454: A prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable. On January 3, 1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the imperial palace in Kyoto , and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the court and tended to support
918-481: A spin. After recovering, he experienced engine trouble and eventually he crash landed on a reef on Sideia Island near the village of Gotai. The Japanese bombers attacked in several waves. Initially, high level bombers dropped at least one hundred bombs on the anchorage. These were followed half an hour later by dive bombers. As a result of the raid on Milne Bay, Van Heemskerk was beached after being hit by several bombs, which set it ablaze. The British cargo ship Gorgon
1020-449: A variety of fields to come to Japan to educate the populace. For instance, the judicial system and constitution were modeled after Prussia , described by Saburō Ienaga as "an attempt to control popular thought with a blend of Confucianism and German conservatism ." The government also outlawed customs linked to Japan's feudal past, such as publicly displaying and wearing katana and the top knot , both of which were characteristic of
1122-547: Is February 16. Andronic Nikolsky , appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto and later martyred as the archbishop of Perm during the Russian Revolution , was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000. Divie Bethune McCartee was the first ordained Presbyterian minister missionary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel tract translated into Japanese
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#17327795751241224-526: Is currently better known as the Kaihōrei ( 解放令 Emancipation Edict ). However, the elimination of their economic monopolies over certain occupations actually led to a decline in their general living standards, while social discrimination simply continued. For example, the ban on the consumption of meat from livestock was lifted in 1871, and many former burakumin moved on to work in abattoirs and as butchers . However, slow-changing social attitudes, especially in
1326-515: Is frequently referred to as the "Empire of Japan", the "Japanese Empire", or "Imperial Japan" in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku ( 大日本帝國 ) , which translates to "Empire of Great Japan" ( Dai "Great", Nippon "Japanese", Teikoku "Empire"). Teikoku is itself composed of the nouns Tei "referring to an emperor" and -koku "nation, state", literally "Imperial State" or "Imperial Realm" (compare
1428-695: The Allied invasion of the Japanese-held Philippines. The 3rd Fleet carriers were divested of all but 108 aircraft and sent to lure the American-led fleet away from protecting the troop landing ships. On 25–26 October, facing a large force that included ten USN carriers, with 600–1,000 aircraft, 3rd Fleet lost 4 aircraft carriers, one light cruiser and one destroyer at the Battle off Cape Engaño . The 3rd Fleet effectively ceased to exist, and
1530-637: The Axis powers period: The rise of Japan to a world power during the past 80 years is the greatest miracle in world history. The mighty empires of antiquity, the major political institutions of the Middle Ages and the early modern era, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, all needed centuries to achieve their full strength. Japan's rise has been meteoric. After only 80 years, it is one of
1632-627: The Battle of Tsushima and the Invasion of Sakhalin . It was disbanded on 20 December 1905. The 3rd Fleet was revived on 24 December 1908 as an expeditionary force during the Chinese Republican Revolution , to safeguard Japanese interests (civilians and property) on the Chinese mainland and (if necessary) to conduct emergency evacuation. It was nicknamed the " South China Fleet " after its chief area of envisioned activity
1734-728: The Emperor from the Shogun , Japan underwent a period of large-scale industrialization and militarization , often regarded as the fastest modernization of any country to date. All of these aspects contributed to Japan's emergence as a great power following the First Sino-Japanese War , the Boxer Rebellion , the Russo-Japanese War , and World War I . Economic and political turmoil in the 1920s, including
1836-572: The German Kaiserreich ). The name "Empire of Japan" appeared for the first time in the 1854 Convention of Kanagawa between the United States and the Japanese Tokugawa shogunate . This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, and its surrounding areas. The nomenclature Empire of Japan had existed since the anti-Tokugawa domains, Satsuma and Chōshū , which founded their new government during
1938-703: The Great Depression , led to the rise of militarism , nationalism , statism and authoritarianism, and this ideological shift eventually culminated in Japan joining the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy , and also conquering a large part of the Asia-Pacific . During this period, the Japanese army committed many atrocities, including the Nanjing Massacre . However, there has been
2040-697: The Meiji Restoration , with the intention of forming a modern state to resist Western domination. Later the Empire emerged as a great power in the world. Due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonyms "Empire of the Sun" and "Empire of the Rising Sun". After two centuries, the seclusion policy, or sakoku , under the shōguns of the Edo period came to an end when
2142-682: The Meiji period , affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditional syncreticism between Shinto and Buddhism ended. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of
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#17327795751242244-574: The Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the 3rd Fleet came under the aegis of the China Area Fleet . It was disbanded on 15 November 1939; however, some of the organizational and command structures for ground forces under the First China Expeditionary Fleet remained in place until August 1943. The 3rd Fleet was recreated once again on 10 April 1941 with the additional designation "Southern Expeditionary Fleet" for
2346-675: The Shortland Islands —against Allied targets on and around Guadalcanal and the Russell Islands in the Solomons and Port Moresby , Oro Bay , and Milne Bay in New Guinea. Although the Japanese sank several Allied transports and warships, the attack failed to inflict serious damage. Based on inaccurate and unintentionally exaggerated reports from the involved aircrews, Yamamoto halted the attacks on 16 April, believing
2448-804: The Shrine Consolidation Policy and the Meiji government built the new modern 15 shrines of the Kenmu restoration as a political move to link the Meiji restoration to the Kenmu restoration for their new State Shinto cult. Japanese had to look at old paintings in order to find out what the Horyuji temple used to look like when they rebuilt it. The rebuilding was originally planned for the Shōwa era. The Japanese used mostly concrete in 1934 to rebuild
2550-529: The Togetsukyo Bridge , unlike the original destroyed wooden version of the bridge from 836. The idea of a written constitution had been a subject of heated debate within and outside of the government since the beginnings of the Meiji government . The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resembling democracy or republicanism with suspicion and trepidation, and favored a gradualist approach. The Freedom and People's Rights Movement demanded
2652-509: The bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the failed coup known as the Kinmon incident . The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu . In early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito (Meiji) . On November 9, 1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to
2754-467: The 11th Air Fleet provided 86 fighters, as well as 72 medium bombers, 27 dive bombers and a few torpedo bombers. After initially concentrating around Rabaul these aircraft were dispersed to several fields around Buka and Kahili on Bougainville , and at Ballale in the Shortland Islands . By briefly boosting the Japanese air force at Rabaul with naval carrier aircraft, Yamamoto gathered almost 350 planes together to achieve formidable striking power with
2856-592: The 3rd Fleet was formed on 14 July 1942 immediately after the disastrous Battle of Midway as an aircraft carrier task force modeled after similar units in the United States Navy . It was centered on the new aircraft carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku . It played an important role during the Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Santa Cruz , in which the American aircraft carrier Hornet was sunk, but at
2958-729: The Allied fighter screen which was outnumbered by their Japanese rivals, and they were able damage a few small craft in the harbor. They also damaged or destroyed several aircraft on the Port Moresby airfields. Losses on the ground included three Mitchell medium bombers and an Australian Beaufort . No large ships were damaged in the attack. On 14 April the Japanese air offensive was nearing its conclusion when they launched an attack against Milne Bay, where three Dutch troop transports ( Van Heemskerk , Van Outhoorn and Balikpapan ) were anchored, having been re-routed there from Port Moresby after
3060-827: The Allies launched an offensive in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. This action was designated Operation Chronicle and was focused on the Woodlark and Kiriwina Islands ; it formed part of the wider Operation Cartwheel . In assessing the operation, Samuel Morison writes "faulty intelligence, dispersal of effort and...failure to follow up" resulted in the failure of the Japanese operation. Empire of Japan Unitary parliamentary semi-constitutional monarchy (1889–1947) The Empire of Japan , also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan ,
3162-530: The Allies were able to evacuate their bombers from Henderson Field so that they escaped damage. The main Allied air assets came from the US Thirteenth Air Force and included a variety of aircraft including Wildcats, Lightnings and Airacobras . Australian aircraft from No. 77 Squadron RAAF , based out of Gurney Field at Milne Bay, took part in the Allied response. Flying Kittyhawk fighters, one of their pilots, Flying Officer John Hodgkinson,
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3264-568: The British commander. The force landed near Tianjin on July 5. On 17 June 1900, naval Rikusentai from the Kasagi and Atago had joined British, Russian, and German sailors to seize the Dagu forts near Tianjin. In light of the precarious situation, the British were compelled to ask Japan for additional reinforcements, as the Japanese had the only readily available forces in the region. Britain at
3366-593: The Central Pacific, based upon building a strong perimeter around their base at Rabaul . The campaign in the Solomons would be placed on hiatus while the main focus of their operations shifted towards New Guinea . In order to set the conditions for this strategy, the Japanese planned a short air offensive in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea focused upon four key locations: Guadalcanal , Oro Bay , Port Moresby and Milne Bay . The Japanese designated this Operation 'A', or Operation I Go Sakusen. Allied forces in
3468-742: The Chinese forces on the Liaodong Peninsula , and nearly destroyed the Chinese navy in the Battle of the Yalu River . The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed between Japan and China, which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and France forced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula in the Triple Intervention . Soon afterward, Russia occupied
3570-658: The Daimyo and Shoguns. It was only due to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Japan that cheap concrete replicas of those castles were built for tourists. The vast majority of castles in Japan today are new replicas made out of concrete. In 1959 a concrete keep was built for Nagoya castle. During the Meiji restoration's Shinbutsu bunri , tens of thousands of Japanese Buddhist religious idols and temples were smashed and destroyed. Many statues still lie in ruins. Replica temples were rebuilt with concrete. Japan then closed and shut done tens of thousands of traditional old Shinto shrines in
3672-478: The Edo period, some new religious movements appeared, which were directly influenced by shamanism and Shinto . Emperor Ogimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect. Beginning in 1587 with imperial regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi's ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity. Under Hideyoshi and the succeeding Tokugawa shogunate, Catholic Christianity
3774-557: The Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism. The majority of Japanese castles were smashed and destroyed in the late 19th century in the Meiji restoration by the Japanese people and government in order to modernize and westernize Japan and break from their past feudal era of
3876-631: The Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government. ... In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws. ... Imperial Japan
3978-481: The Japanese government one million British pounds in exchange for Japanese participation. Third Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy) The 3rd Fleet ( 第三艦隊 , Dai-san Kantai ) was a fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), which was created, and subsequently disbanded on six separate occasions and revived on five separate occasions. First established on 28 December 1903, the 3rd Fleet
4080-637: The Korean government. When Korea demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Korea, the Japanese refused. In early June 1894, the 8,000 Japanese troops captured the Korean king Gojong, occupied the Royal Palace in Seoul and, by June 25, installed a puppet government in Seoul. The new pro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel Qing forces while Japan dispatched more troops to Korea. China objected and war ensued. Japanese ground troops routed
4182-771: The Liaodong Peninsula, built the Port Arthur fortress, and based the Russian Pacific Fleet in the port. Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay , built Tsingtao fortress and based the German East Asia Squadron in this port. In 1900, Japan joined an international military coalition set up in response to the Boxer Rebellion in the Qing Empire of China. Japan provided the largest contingent of troops: 20,840, as well as 18 warships. Of
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4284-489: The Meiji Restoration, the practices of the samurai classes, deemed feudal and unsuitable for modern times following the end of sakoku in 1853, resulted in a number of edicts intended to 'modernise' the appearance of upper class Japanese men. With the Dampatsurei Edict of 1871 issued by Emperor Meiji during the early Meiji Era, men of the samurai classes were forced to cut their hair short, effectively abandoning
4386-403: The Pacific at the time were commanded by General Douglas MacArthur ( South West Pacific Area ) and Admiral William Halsey ( South Pacific Area ). Responsibility for the operation was given to the air fleet of the IJN. Throughout March, Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto and Jinichi Kusaka established their headquarters in Rabaul and began planning the offensive. Preliminary planning determined that
4488-404: The South Pacific Area, although U.S. operations in the Solomons were set back about 10 days with bombing and minelaying sorties being postponed to hold back aircraft to respond if further Japanese air strikes were launched. According to author George Odgers, after the raids in April "Japanese air activity in New Guinea...tapered off". Nevertheless, a few raids continued in the area until 30 June when
4590-421: The South Pacific. In early March 1943, the Japanese suffered heavy losses at the hands of Allied aircraft during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea . In light of this, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and Navy (IJN) decided to change their strategy in the region and bring in reinforcements for their air assets in the region. On 15 March the Japanese high command in Tokyo issued orders for a new defensive strategy in
4692-434: The Tokugawa army. A series of battles were then fought in pursuit of supporters of the Shogunate; Edo surrendered to the Imperial forces and afterward, Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Yoshinobu was stripped of all his power by Emperor Meiji and most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule. Pro-Tokugawa remnants retreated to northern Honshū ( Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei ) and later to Ezo (present-day Hokkaidō ), where they established
4794-409: The Western Allies and the Soviet Union , with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria . The Pacific War officially came to an end on 2 September 1945, leading to the beginning of the Allied occupation of Japan , during which United States military leader Douglas MacArthur administered the country. In 1947, through Allied efforts, a new Japan's constitution
4896-430: The area and destroy them ahead of the main aerial assault. The Japanese fighter sweep was met by 41 Allied fighters, consisting of a variety of types including Wildcats , Corsairs and Lightnings from Rear Admiral Charles P. Mason 's AirSols command. The Japanese aircraft were intercepted over the Russell Islands while they were en route to Tulagi and Guadalcanal. The aerial battle that followed claimed 18 Zeros at
4998-412: The attacking force. Author Ian Shaw notes that the Milne Bay "area had a low cloud base for most of the year and the nearby mountains could make flying a dangerous proposition". The experiences of one Australian pilot during the raid highlight these dangers and were captured in an official report in the National Archives of Australia . Just after midday, Pilot Officer Norman Houghton was flying as part of
5100-439: The breakaway Republic of Ezo . An expeditionary force was dispatched by the new government and the Ezo Republic forces were overwhelmed. The siege of Hakodate came to an end in May 1869 and the remaining forces surrendered. The Charter Oath was made public at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on April 7, 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting
5202-406: The cabinet demanded that there be guarantees from the British in return for the risks and costs of the major deployment of Japanese troops. On July 6, 1900, the 5th Infantry Division was alerted for possible deployment to China, but no timetable was set for this. Two days later, with more ground troops urgently needed to lift the siege of the foreign legations at Peking, the British ambassador offered
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#17327795751245304-494: The centuries-old Chinese suzerainty . On June 4, 1894, Korea requested aid from the Qing Empire in suppressing the Donghak Rebellion . The Qing government sent 2,800 troops to Korea. The Japanese countered by sending an 8,000-troop expeditionary force (the Oshima Composite Brigade) to Korea. The first 400 troops arrived on June 9 en route to Seoul , and 3,000 landed at Incheon on June 12. The Qing government turned down Japan's suggestion for Japan and China to cooperate to reform
5406-438: The chonmage ( chonmage ) hairstyle. During the early 20th century, the government was suspicious towards a number of unauthorized religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth of Japanese nationalism and State Shinto were closely linked. Under the Meiji regime lèse majesté prohibited insults against
5508-446: The command of Captain Shimamura Hayao . The Japanese were able to contribute 52 men to the Seymour Expedition . On 12 June 1900, the advance of the Seymour Expedition was halted some 50 kilometres (30 mi) from the capital, by mixed Boxer and Chinese regular army forces. The vastly outnumbered allies withdrew to the vicinity of Tianjin , having suffered more than 300 casualties. The army general staff in Tokyo had become aware of
5610-413: The cost of many of the best air crews in the Japanese Navy. After March 1944, the 3rd Fleet was basically merged with the 2nd Fleet , and suffered through the disastrous Battle of the Philippine Sea , losing 3 of its aircraft carriers, including the newly commissioned Taihō and over 350 carrier planes. In October 1944, the 3rd Fleet was designated the "Northern Force" in a three-force plan to defeat
5712-402: The cost of six Allied aircraft. In the days that followed the carrier-based aircraft began arriving at Rabaul from Truk in preparation to begin the air strikes of the offensive. Some elements were delayed by low clouds, and a few of the Japanese aircraft did not arrive at Ballale until early on 7 April. The first attack of the Japanese offensive was launched on 7 April against Guadalcanal. This
5814-401: The country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa which came when Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan in 1854. Thus, the period known as Bakumatsu began. The following years saw increased foreign trade and interaction; commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the humiliating terms of these unequal treaties ,
5916-458: The countryside, meant that abattoirs and workers were met with hostility from local residents. Continued ostracism as well as the decline in living standards led to former burakumin communities turning into slum areas. In the Blood tax riots , the Japanese Meiji government brutally put down revolts by Japanese samurai angry over the legal revocation of the traditional untouchable status of burakumin. The social tension continued to grow during
6018-429: The decentralized American system with no central bank. In 1871, the New Currency Act of Meiji 4 (1871) abolished the local currencies and established the yen as the new decimal currency. It had parity with the Mexican silver dollar. The First Sino-Japanese War , fought in 1894 and 1895, revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty . Korea had traditionally been
6120-400: The defense, and ultimately only limited damage was inflicted on one Allied merchantman. An attack on Port Moresby took place on 12 April. A force of 131 Zeros of the 253rd Kōkūtai and air groups of the carriers Zuikaku and Zuihō and 43 Mitsubishi G4M 2 "Betty" medium bombers of the 751st and 705th Kōkūtai was assigned to the airstrike. Their targets were the aircraft dispersed at
6222-513: The earlier raid. Receiving advanced warning of the attack, the Australian harbor master, Commander Geoffrey Branson, ordered the vessels to disperse. The raid involved 188 aircraft from the 705th and 751st Kokutais as well as the carriers Hiyo and Junyo . Eight Lightnings from the U.S. 9th Fighter Squadron scrambled from Dobodura, resulting in seven Japanese and three U.S. aircraft being shot down. Between 24 and 36 Royal Australian Air Force Kittyhawks from No. 75 and 77 Squadrons also intercepted
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#17327795751246324-437: The emperor, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" imperial orders, leading to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate. However, while Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunal government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers,
6426-419: The eventual loss of many of Japan's Oceanian island possessions in the following three years. Eventually, the American military captured Iwo Jima and Okinawa Island , leaving the Japanese mainland unprotected and without a significant naval defense force. By August 1945, plans had been made for an Allied invasion of mainland Japan , but were shelved after Japan surrendered in the face of a major breakthrough by
6528-406: The few great powers that determine the fate of the world. In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. The feudal caste system in Japan formally ended in 1869 with the Meiji restoration . In 1871, the newly formed Meiji government issued a decree called Senmin Haishirei ( 賤民廃止令 Edict Abolishing Ignoble Classes ) giving burakumin equal legal status. It
6630-426: The five airfields located around the town and the transports in the harbor. The raid was detected by the radar station at Paga Hill 38 minutes prior to their arrival, allowing the Allies time to scramble their fighters. Opposed by 44 Allied fighters, mainly from the US 39th , 40th and 41st Fighter Squadrons , the attack resulted in two Allied and five Japanese aircraft lost. The Japanese bombers were able to penetrate
6732-409: The force, shooting down six aircraft without loss. The Allied squadrons committed to the fight included the 7th , 8th and 9th Fighter Squadrons flying Lightnings and Warhawks. These aircraft were controlled by a radar station which attempted to guide the defending fighters into position but initially misdirected some of them to Cape Sudest . Anti-aircraft fire from ships in the bay also contributed to
6834-549: The highest number of aerial victories for the RAAF in a single day in the Pacific. The U.S. Lightning pilots also shot down two Japanese aircraft. Yamamoto concluded the operation on 16 April. At the time, he believed that Allied losses were heavier than they actually were and that the operation had been successful, and the Japanese carrier-based aircraft subsequently returned to their ships. Japanese claims amounted to 175 aircraft shot down and 28 ships sunk, including one cruiser and two destroyers. In reality, total Allied losses during
6936-431: The immediate establishment of an elected national assembly , and the promulgation of a constitution. The constitution recognized the need for change and modernization after the removal of the shogunate : We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with
7038-491: The intention of countering Allied air power and defences over several days at various critical locations. Overall, it was to become their most substantial aerial assault undertaken in the area. Operational losses over the preceding months left many of the Japanese crews with inexperienced servicemen. Allied air defenses in the area were predominately provided by U.S. fighter squadrons, reinforced by several Australian units. In April, New Zealand fighter squadron No. 15 Squadron RNZAF
7140-462: The legal stage for Japan's modernization. The Meiji leaders also aimed to boost morale and win financial support for the new government . Japan dispatched the Iwakura Mission in 1871. The mission traveled the world in order to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the United States and European countries that Japan had been forced into during the Tokugawa shogunate, and to gather information on western social and economic systems, in order to effect
7242-514: The modernization of Japan. Renegotiation of the unequal treaties was universally unsuccessful, but close observation of the American and European systems inspired members on their return to bring about modernization initiatives in Japan. Japan made a territorial delimitation treaty with Russia in 1875, gaining all the Kuril islands in exchange for Sakhalin island . The Japanese government sent observers to Western countries to observe and learn their practices, and also paid " foreign advisors " in
7344-610: The murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson , by a party of samurai from Satsuma . The British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima . They responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. The Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity for Richardson's death. Shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to
7446-516: The offensive would be undertaken in two phases, with the first effort concentrating on the Solomon Islands. They subsequently began building up air power around Rabaul, concentrating aircraft from the land-based aircraft of the 11th Air Fleet along with aircraft from the Third Fleet 's four aircraft carriers, Zuikaku , Zuiho , Junyo and Hiyo . The carrier-based aviation units contributed over 160 aircraft, including 96 fighters, while
7548-453: The operation amounted to five ships of various types and up to 25 aircraft. The Japanese lost 55 aircraft destroyed. In the wake of the operation, Yamamoto decided to travel to the Solomons to congratulate his aircrews. He was subsequently killed on 18 April when the aircraft he was flying in was intercepted and shot down during Operation Vengeance . The Japanese operation did not significantly delay Allied preparations for further offensives in
7650-575: The operation to be a success. The operation did not significantly delay Allied preparations for further offensives in the South Pacific. Yamamoto was killed shortly thereafter while traveling to congratulate units that had participated in the operation. Following the Guadalcanal campaign , as well as setbacks at Buna–Gona and Wau , the Japanese sought to delay the Allied advance in the Central Pacific while they strengthened their forces in
7752-595: The rest of the Axis powers , the formalized Japanese Instrument of Surrender was issued on 2 September 1945 in compliance with the Potsdam Declaration of the Allies , and the empire's territory subsequently shrunk to cover only the Japanese archipelago resembling modern Japan. Under the slogans of fukoku kyōhei and shokusan kōgyō , which followed the Boshin War and the restoration of power to
7854-479: The samurai class, which was abolished together with the caste system. This would later bring the Meiji government into conflict with the samurai . Several writers, under the constant threat of assassination from their political foes, were influential in winning Japanese support for westernization . One such writer was Fukuzawa Yukichi , whose works included "Conditions in the West", " Leaving Asia ", and "An Outline of
7956-450: The shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement, the sonnō jōi (literally "Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians"). In March 1863, the Emperor issued the " order to expel barbarians ." Although the shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to
8058-484: The southeast Solomon Islands and New Guinea . The goal of the operation was to halt the Allied offensives to give Japan time to prepare a new set of defenses in response to recent defeats in the Guadalcanal campaign and in New Guinea at Buna–Gona , Wau , and the Bismarck Sea . The operation consisted of several massed aerial attacks by Japanese bomber and fighter aircraft—based at Rabaul , Bougainville , and
8160-865: The specific task of invading the Philippines . At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor , its headquarters was in Palau and its mission expanded to include the invasions of Java , Borneo and other islands of the Netherlands East Indies . It was superseded by the 2nd Southern Expeditionary Fleet under the aegis of the Southwest Area Fleet on 10 March 1942. 12th Carrier Division 16th Division 17th Division Supply Group 5th Destroyer Squadron 6th Submarine Squadron 1st Base Force 2nd Base Force 32nd Special Base Force The sixth (and final) incarnation of
8262-673: The terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance . When the Russian Revolution was proclaimed by the communist forces in Russia, the mission of the 3rd Fleet was changed to that of patrols of the Russian sea coast for the Siberian Intervention by Japanese ground forces in support of anti- Bolshevik forces. The 3rd Fleet was disbanded on 1 December 1922, and many of its vessels were scrapped almost immediately under
8364-551: The terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . The 3rd Fleet was again raised on 2 February 1938 as part of Japan's emergency buildup of forces after the Shanghai Incident . The buildup took the form of three separate expeditionary fleets, consisting primarily of cruisers and gunboats to patrol the Chinese coast and major riverways and to support the landings of Japanese ground forces. With the outbreak of
8466-623: The time was heavily engaged in the Boer War , so a large part of the British army was tied down in South Africa. Further, deploying large numbers of troops from its garrisons in India would take too much time and weaken internal security there. Overriding personal doubts, Foreign Minister Aoki Shūzō calculated that the advantages of participating in an allied coalition were too attractive to ignore. Prime Minister Yamagata agreed, but others in
8568-513: The total, 20,300 were Imperial Japanese Army troops of the 5th Infantry Division under Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi; the remainder were 540 naval rikusentai (marines) from the Imperial Japanese Navy . At the beginning of the Boxer Rebellion the Japanese only had 215 troops in northern China stationed at Tientsin; nearly all of them were naval rikusentai from the Kasagi and the Atago , under
8670-531: The two-hundred-year-old Tokugawa shogunate. Tokugawa Yoshinobu launched a military campaign to seize the emperor's court in Kyoto. However, the tide rapidly turned in favor of the smaller but relatively modernized imperial faction and resulted in defections of many daimyōs to the Imperial side. The Battle of Toba–Fushimi was a decisive victory in which a combined army from Chōshū, Tosa, and Satsuma domains defeated
8772-601: The worsening conditions in China and had drafted ambitious contingency plans, but in the wake of the Triple Intervention five years before, the government refused to deploy large numbers of troops unless requested by the western powers. However three days later, a provisional force of 1,300 troops commanded by Major General Fukushima Yasumasa was to be deployed to northern China. Fukushima was chosen because he spoke fluent English which enabled him to communicate with
8874-410: Was also bombed and set on fire, before the blaze was extinguished. Near misses damaged Van Outhoorn and the Australian minesweepers HMAS Wagga and Kapunda . Four Allied servicemen and 12 merchant seamen were killed in the air raid, while 68 were injured. Meanwhile, overhead, a significant air battle took place, during which both Australian squadrons shot down five aircraft each. This represented
8976-456: Was among the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865, McCartee moved back to Ningbo , China, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan re-opened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the Shōwa period . Under
9078-424: Was characterized by rapid industrialization , the development of a capitalist economy , and the transformation of many feudal workers to wage labour . The use of strike action also increased, and 1897, with the establishment of a union for metalworkers, the foundations of the modern Japanese trade-union movement were formed. Samurai were allowed to work in any occupation they wanted. Admission to universities
9180-576: Was created by the Imperial General Headquarters as an administrative unit to manage vessels considered obsolete for front-line combat service. These vessels were used primarily for training and for coastal patrol duties. The 3rd Fleet came under the aegis of the Combined Fleet for the duration of the Russo-Japanese War from March 1904. Although initially derided as a "dinosaur fleet", the 3rd fleet proved invaluable at
9282-460: Was deployed to Guadalcanal, reinforcing the New Zealand bomber/reconnaissance squadron that had deployed to the area in late 1942. Allied reconnaissance aircraft detected increased Japanese air activity around the upper Solomons on 1 April 1943. That day, as a preliminary part of the operation a fighter sweep of 58 Mitsubishi A6M3 Zeros was dispatched to draw out Allied fighters defending
9384-485: Was determined based on examination results. The government also recruited more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan ( O-yatoi gaikokujin ). Despite this, social mobility was still low due to samurai and their descendants being overrepresented in the new elite class. After sending observers to the United States, the Empire of Japan initially copied
9486-705: Was enacted, officially ending the Japanese Empire and forming modern Japan . During this time, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces were dissolved. It was later replaced by the current Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1954. Reconstruction under the Allied occupation continued until 1952, consolidating the modern Japanese constitutional monarchy . In total, the Empire of Japan had three emperors: Meiji , Taishō , and Shōwa . The Imperial era came to an end partway through Shōwa's reign , and he remained emperor until 1989. The historical state
9588-400: Was followed by the second sweep consisting of aircraft from the 204th Kokutai. The four waves of dive bombers were drawn from the carriers Zuikaku , Zuiho , Hiyo and Junyo . Twenty-one Japanese aircraft were lost; the Allies lost seven. The raid resulted in the sinking of the destroyer USS Aaron Ward , the corvette HMNZS Moa , and the tanker USS Kanawha . Nevertheless,
9690-701: Was founded, de jure , after the 1889 signing of Constitution of the Empire of Japan. The constitution formalized much of the Empire's political structure and gave many responsibilities and powers to the Emperor. In 1890, the Imperial Diet was established in response to the Meiji Constitution. The Diet consisted of the House of Representatives of Japan and the House of Peers . Both houses opened seats for colonial people as well as Japanese. The Imperial Diet continued until 1947. Economic development
9792-517: Was prompted by his learning of a series of arson attacks in Edo, starting with the burning of the outworks of Edo Castle , the main Tokugawa residence. The Boshin War ( 戊辰戦争 , Boshin Sensō ) was fought between January 1868 and May 1869. The alliance of samurai from southern and western domains and court officials had now secured the cooperation of the young Emperor Meiji, who ordered the dissolution of
9894-415: Was repressed and adherents were persecuted. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620, it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming hidden Christians ( 隠れキリシタン , kakure kirishitan ) , while others lost their lives. After Japan was opened to foreign powers in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism
9996-481: Was responsible for downing one of the Japanese fighters. One US Marine Corps pilot, Lieutenant James E. Swett , was later awarded the Medal of Honor after shooting down seven aircraft. A three-day lull followed before the Japanese launched their second strike. On 11 April, a force of 22 "Vals" and 72 Zeros attacked shipping at Oro Bay , near Buna. A total of 50 Allied fighters scrambled from Dobodura and intercepted
10098-501: Was still banned. Only after the Meiji Restoration, was Christianity re-established in Japan. Freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching. Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was sent in 1861 by the Russian Orthodox Church to Hakodate , Hokkaidō as priest to
10200-702: Was the Japanese nation-state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 until the Constitution of Japan took effect on 3 May 1947. From 1910 to 1945 , it included the Japanese archipelago , the Kurils , Karafuto , Korea , and Taiwan . Concessions such as the Kwantung Leased Territory were de jure not parts of the empire but dependent territories. In the closing stages of World War II , with Japan defeated alongside
10302-640: Was the South China Sea. Its cruisers patrolled the Yangtze River and other large rivers in China, and its headquarters was in the Japanese concession in Shanghai . It was disbanded on 25 December 1915. The 3rd Fleet was reconstituted on the same day as the dissolution of the "South China Fleet", initially to act as a training force to supplement Japan's contribution to the World War I under
10404-402: Was the largest raid of the operation and consisted of 67 Aichi D3A 2 "Val" dive bombers escorted by 110 Zeros and was met by 76 Allied fighters. The raiding aircraft were organized into six elements: two fighter sweeps preceded four waves of dive bombers. The first fighter sweep, consisting of aircraft from the 253rd Kokutai, departed Ballale around midday under the command of Saburo Saito . It
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