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124-800: The Oregon Coast Trail ( OCT ) is a long-distance hiking route along the Pacific coast of the U.S. state of Oregon in the United States. It follows the coast of Oregon from the mouth of the Columbia River to the California border south of Brookings . The trail was envisioned in 1959 by Samuel N. Dicken, a University of Oregon geography professor, approved in 1971 by the Oregon Recreation Trails Advisory Council and developed and managed by

248-428: A tail feather . Fights with intermittent short breaks can last up to 1.5 hours. Territories are defended not only against other snowy plovers but also against some other bird species, including semipalmated plovers and whimbrels . Territories are probably not important for protecting food resources, as the plovers often feed in flocks up to 6 km (3.7 mi) away from their territories. In Kansas and Oklahoma, where

372-407: A coastal population in California during breeding season found beetles in 72%, flies in 44%, and insect larvae in 25% of the feces. Prey is taken from above and below the sand surface, from plants, and from carcasses. In inland habitats, snowy plovers usually forage on wet substrates that may be under a shallow water cover. As is typical for plovers, prey is found visually by briefly standing to scan

496-578: A few beaches. Dune buggies are used extensively in the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area , a 40-mile (64 km) stretch of beach from Florence to Coos Bay. Several portions of the trail are pristine and secluded, such as the segment from Bandon to Port Orford , where several days of relative solitude and free camping exist. Prevailing winds are from the northwest which makes the trail easier to hike from north to south. Route descriptions are also written assuming

620-408: A heavy backpack. Winter hiking requires a higher level of skill and generally more specialized gear than in other seasons (see winter hiking below). Proponents of ultralight backpacking argue that long lists of required items for multi-day hikes increases pack weight, and hence fatigue and the chance of injury. Instead, they recommend reducing pack weight, to make hiking long distances easier. Even

744-490: A high degree of activity, and a rapid increase in elevation. Other threats include attacks by animals (e.g., bears, snakes, and insects or ticks carrying diseases such as Lyme ) or contact with noxious plants that can cause rashes (e.g., poison ivy , poison oak , poison sumac , or stinging nettles ). Lightning is also a threat, especially on high ground. Walkers in high mountains, and during winter in many countries, can encounter hazardous snow and ice conditions, and

868-551: A highly coordinated flight formation in which they move back and forth. Parents will signal their chicks to lie flat against the ground when sensing potential danger. They may then attempt to distract predators from their chicks by calling and flying around. Parents also use injury feigning, when they will run away and move their wings as if they are broken, or lie on the ground while crouching or flapping. Common diseases include botulism , and common parasites include bird lice . The average life span has been estimated at 2.7 years, and

992-632: A known threat, but their impact on populations is unknown. In the future, effects of climate change , such as droughts and habitat loss due to sea level rise , are likely to become significant threats. In 1993, the Pacific coast population of the US was listed as a "threatened" under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 , and a recovery plan followed in 2007. The plan focuses on three main conservation measures: closure of upper beach areas to

1116-563: A large number of hikers are involved. For example, years of gathering wood can strip an alpine area of valuable nutrients, and can cause deforestation; and some species, such as martens or Bighorn Sheep , are very sensitive to the presence of humans, especially around mating season. Generally, protected areas such as parks have regulations in place to protect the environment, so as to minimize such impact. Such regulations include banning wood fires, restricting camping to established campsites, disposing or packing out faecal matter , and imposing

1240-458: A lesser extent other Asiatic countries, like Turkey, Israel, and Jordan. In the Alps of Austria, Slovenia, Switzerland, Germany, France, and Italy walking tours can be made from 'hut-to-hut', using an extensive system of mountain huts . In the late 20th-century, there has been a proliferation of official and unofficial long-distance routes, which mean that hikers now are more likely to refer to using

1364-408: A list of " Ten Essentials " equipment for hiking, including a compass, sunglasses, sunscreen, a flashlight , a first aid kit, a fire starter , and a knife. Other groups recommend items such as hat, gloves, insect repellent, and an emergency blanket . A GPS navigation device can also be helpful and route cards may be used as a guide. Trekking poles are also recommended, especially when carrying

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1488-666: A long-distance way (Britain), trail (US), The Grande Randonnée (France), etc., than setting out on a walking tour. Early examples of long-distance paths include the Appalachian Trail in the US and the Pennine Way in Britain. Organized hiking clubs emerged in Europe at approximately the same time as official hiking trails. These clubs established and upheld their own paths during the 19th and 20th centuries, prioritizing

1612-411: A matte and smooth surface. In coastal California, they average at 31 mm (1.2 in) in length, 23 mm (0.91 in) in width, and 8.5 grams (0.30 oz) in weight, which accounts for 20% of the body weight of the female. Egg color is brownish-yellow, with dark brown or black speckles that become more numerous towards the blunt end of the egg. The female lays one egg every 47 to 118 hours until

1736-467: A north to south direction of travel. Cities and towns of various sizes are located along Highway 101 every 20 to 25 miles (32 to 40 km) permitting re-provisioning on a regular basis. Public transportation is extremely limited along the coast. Places found along the OCT from north to south. 44°12′N 124°00′W  /  44.2°N 124.0°W  / 44.2; -124.0 Hiking In

1860-549: A quota on the number of hikers. Many hikers espouse the philosophy of Leave No Trace , following strict practices on dealing with food waste , food packaging, and other impacts on the environment. Human feces are often a major source of environmental impact from hiking, and can contaminate the watershed and make other hikers ill. ' Catholes ' dug 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 inches) deep, depending on local soil composition and covered after use, at least 60 m (200 feet) away from water sources and trails, are recommended to reduce

1984-559: A repeated threat, such as the New Carissa spill of 1999 that is known to have killed a minimum of 45 plovers. At Point Reyes National Seashore, mercury contamination has been identified as the cause for a high proportion of unhatched eggs. A 2018 study found that 98% of analyzed plovers in the Southern Great Plains had blood selenium levels exceeding the toxicity threshold. Discarded monofilament fishing lines are

2108-520: A rewarding experience for them, particularly if a route is chosen with their interests in mind. Young children are prone to becoming fatigued more rapidly than adults, requiring fluids and energy-rich foods more frequently, and are also more sensitive to variations in weather and terrain. Hiking routes may be chosen with these factors in mind, and appropriate clothing, equipment and sun-protection need to be available. Natural environments are often fragile and may be accidentally damaged, especially when

2232-675: A separate species. This study noted that, besides differences in the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , snowy plovers differ from Kentish plovers in being smaller, having shorter tarsi and wings, different chick plumages, and different advertisement calls of the males. In 2011, the International Ornithological Congress (IOC) and the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) recognized them as separate species. Two to three subspecies are commonly recognized: A 2020 study suggested that

2356-420: A strong migration from the western to the eastern nivosus deme (but not vice versa). The snowy plover is a plump shorebird with a large head, a short and slender bill, and short neck and tail. It is a small plover, with adults ranging from 15 to 17 cm (5.9 to 6.7 in) in length, from 34 to 43.2 cm (13.4 to 17.0 in) in wingspan, and from 40 to 43 g (1.4 to 1.5 oz) in weight. Its body

2480-411: A variety of factors, including local climate. Day hikers often carry water, food, a map, hat, and rain-proof gear. Hikers have traditionally worn sturdy hiking boots for stability over rough terrain. In recent decades this has become less common as some long-distance hikers have switched to trail running shoes . Boots are still commonly used in mountainous terrain. The Mountaineers club recommends

2604-464: A white band on the hind neck. During the breeding season , males have black patches behind the eye and on the side of the neck; the neck patches are separated from each other and do not form a continuous breast band as in many other plovers. Snowy plovers can also be distinguished from other plovers in having an all-black and slender bill, and gray to black legs. The typical call is a repeated "tu-wheet". This plover inhabits open areas in which vegetation

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2728-477: Is Johann Gottfried Seume , who set out on foot from Leipzig to Sicily in 1801, and returned to Leipzig via Paris after nine months. Thomas West , a Scottish priest, popularized the idea of walking for pleasure in his guide to the Lake District of 1778. In the introduction he wrote that he aimed to encourage the taste of visiting the lakes by furnishing the traveller with a Guide; and for that purpose,

2852-402: Is a danger for all hikers and especially inexperienced hikers. Weather does not need to be very cold to be dangerous since ordinary rain or mist has a strong cooling effect. In high mountains a further danger is altitude sickness . This typically occurs only above 2,500 metres (8,000 ft), though some are affected at lower altitudes. Risk factors include a prior episode of altitude sickness,

2976-519: Is a marked long-distance trail in southwestern Turkey around part of the coast of ancient Lycia . It is over 500 km (310 mi) in length and stretches from Hisarönü ( Ovacık ), near Fethiye , to Geyikbayırı in Konyaaltı about 20 km (12 mi) from Antalya . It was conceived by Briton Kate Clow, who lives in Turkey. It takes its name from the ancient civilization, which once ruled

3100-550: Is a member of the bird family Charadriidae , which includes the plovers , dotterels , and lapwings . The snowy plover was originally described by John Cassin in 1858, but was classified as a subspecies of the Kentish plover in 1922. Since 2011, the snowy plover has been recognized as a distinct species based on genetic and anatomical differences from the Kentish plover. Two or three subspecies are recognized, distributed along

3224-505: Is a repeated "tu-wheet" given in a wide range of contexts. In males, these include advertisement while standing in territories and courtship. In both sexes, the call may be given in situations of threat, aggression, distress, and alarm. This call differs between sexes, being shorter, quieter, and hoarser in the female. Other calls include a repeated "purrt" that is given during breeding season, for example while flying from nest sites or when other plovers intrude their territory. A single "churr"

3348-480: Is absent or sparse, in particular coastal sand beaches and shores of salt or soda lakes , where it feeds on invertebrates such as crustaceans , worms, beetles, and flies. At the beginning of the breeding season, males excavate multiple nest scrapes that are advertised to females; one of these scrapes is later selected for breeding. Some females will desert their brood soon after the chicks hatch to re-mate with another male, while their first mate will continue to rear

3472-499: Is absent or sparse, in particular coastal sand beaches and shores of salt or soda lakes . It also breeds on river bars that are located close to the coast, and adopts human-made habitats such as wastewater and salt evaporation ponds, dammed lakes, and dredge spoils. It requires the proximity of water, although it may breed on salt flats where only very little water remains. The species feeds on invertebrates such as crustaceans , worms, beetles , and flies . An analysis of feces from

3596-449: Is an historically important early sign of an awakening appreciation of the mountains, though it is chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains. Numerous travellers explored Europe on foot in the last third of the 18th century and recorded their experiences. A significant example

3720-404: Is available, but when it is not, they can sustain themselves on the water content of their prey. At the beginning of the breeding season, the male, while still unpaired, will establish and defend a territory, which is then advertised to a female by calling and excavating scrapes . A pair will continue to defend the territory. After the chicks hatch, the family will soon begin to move around, when

3844-433: Is especially hazardous in high mountains, crossing rivers and glaciers, and when there is snow and ice. At times hiking may involve scrambling , as well as the use of ropes, ice axes and crampons and the skill to properly use them. Potential hazards involving physical ailments may include dehydration, frostbite, hypothermia, sunburn, sunstroke, or diarrhea , and such injuries as ankle sprains, or broken bones. Hypothermia

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3968-511: Is more straightforward and a crossing can be made, if advanced arrangements are made with Canada Border Services . Within the Schengen Area , which includes most of the E.U. , and associated nations like Switzerland and Norway, there are no impediments to crossing by path, and borders are not always obvious. Hiking in winter offers additional opportunities, challenges and hazards. Crampons may be needed in icy conditions, and an ice ax

4092-422: Is mostly given by males while defending territory or offspring from other plovers. Outside the breeding season, a repeated "ti" is given when disturbed while resting, and is often followed by flight. Chicks make a "peep" call from up to two days before hatching while still in the egg, and until their first flight. The snowy plover is distributed along the Pacific coast of North and South America, in areas inland of

4216-498: Is not a hard climb, and is not usually considered part of the Alps. This implicit claim of Petrarch and Burckhardt, that Petrarch was the first to climb a mountain for pleasure since antiquity, was disproven by Lynn Thorndike in 1943. Mount Ventoux was climbed by Jean Buridan , on his way to the papal court in Avignon before the year 1334, "in order to make some meteorological observations". There were ascents accomplished during

4340-468: Is now second or third growth. The difficulty of the trail ranges from easy to moderate, with elevation changes of up to a few hundred feet. The northern trailhead is at the base of the south jetty of the Columbia River, approximately 4 miles (6 km) north of the campground of Fort Stevens State Park and about 13 miles (21 km) from the city of Astoria . The trail runs north-south along

4464-536: Is probably Robert Louis Stevenson 's journey through the Cévennes in France with a donkey, recorded in his Travels with a Donkey (1879). Stevenson also published in 1876 his famous essay "Walking Tours". The subgenre of travel writing produced many classics in the subsequent 20th century. An early American example of a book that describes an extended walking tour is naturalist John Muir 's A Thousand Mile Walk to

4588-696: Is recommended on steep, snow covered paths. Snowshoes and hiking poles , or cross country skis are useful aid for those hiking in deep snow. An example of a close relationship between skiing and hiking is found in Norway, where The Norwegian Trekking Association maintains over 400 huts stretching across thousands of kilometres of trails which hikers can use in the summer and skiers in the winter. For longer routes in snowy conditions, hikers may resort to ski touring , using specialised skis and boots for uphill travel. In winter, factors such as shortened daylight, changeable weather conditions and avalanche risk can raise

4712-634: Is the most popular of the routes and runs from Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port on the French side of the Pyrenees to Roncesvalles on the Spanish side and then another 780 kilometres (480 mi) on to Santiago de Compostela through the major cities of Pamplona , Logroño , Burgos and León . A typical walk on the Camino francés takes at least four weeks, allowing for one or two rest days on the way. Some travel

4836-652: Is today referred to as the "Father of the National Parks". In 1916, the National Park Service was created to protect national parks and monuments. In 1921, Benton MacKaye , a forester, conceived the idea of what would become America's first National Scenic Trail, the Appalachian trail (AT). The AT was completed in August 1937, running from Maine to Georgia. The Pacific Crest Trail ("PCT")

4960-475: Is typically held horizontally. Compared to other plovers, its legs are relatively long and its wings short. The bill is black, the iris dark brown, and the legs gray to black. Snowy plovers are pale brown above and white below, with a white band on the hind neck and a smudgy eyestripe (absent in the South American subspecies). Breeding males have black patches behind the eye ("ear patch"), on

5084-422: Is unclear, and hypotheses include a need of the female to feed at night to regain energy lost from egg laying and the need of the male to defend the territory during daytime. Under hot conditions greater 40 °C (104 °F), the male and female take turns at least once per hour. A day before hatching, chicks and parents begin to communicate by calling. After hatching, the parents will carry eggshells away from

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5208-726: Is very popular and a permit is required . The longest hiking trail in Chile is the informal 3,000 km (1,850 mi) Greater Patagonia Trail that was created by a non-governmental initiative. In Africa a major trekking destination is Mount Kilimanjaro , a dormant volcano in Tanzania , which is the highest mountain in Africa and the highest single free-standing mountain in the world: 5,895 metres (19,341 ft) above sea level and about 4,900 metres (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. The equipment required for hiking depends on

5332-521: The Ancient Near East . The path was established in 2007 as a pilgrimage route between Urfa, Turkey , possibly his birthplace, and his final destination of the desert of Negev . National parks are often important hiking destinations, such as National Parks of England and Wales ; of Canada ; of New Zealand , of South Africa , etc. Frequently, nowadays long-distance hikes (walking tours) are undertaken along long-distance paths, including

5456-523: The Camino de Santiago , or Way of St. James, has become more recently the source for a number of long-distance hiking routes. This is a network of pilgrims' ways leading to the shrine of the apostle Saint James the Great in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain. Many follow its routes as a form of spiritual path or retreat for their spiritual growth. The French Way

5580-612: The French tamarisk , have destroyed much plover habitat. In the Great Plains of Texas, sinking groundwater levels due to water extraction has been identified as the primary cause of decline. River habitats in Kansas and Oklahoma have been decimated by the extraction of water, the erection of water reservoirs, and vegetation growth. Habitat is lost to housing and urbanization adjacent to beaches. Less significant are habitat losses due to

5704-558: The International Ornithologists' Union . Before the transfer, Anarhynchus contained only one species, the wrybill from New Zealand. The name Anarhynchus derives from the Ancient Greek ἀνα- ( ana- ) meaning ' backward ' and ῥυγχος ( rhunkhos ) meaning ' bill ' . The species name nivosus is Latin for ' snowy ' . The snowy plover appears to be most closely related to

5828-492: The Kentish , the white fronted , the Malaysian , the chestnut-banded , and the red-capped plover , as shown in a cladogram from a 2015 study: Red-capped plover Snowy plover Chestnut-banded plover Malaysian plover White-fronted plover Kentish plover The snowy plover is closely related, and visually similar, to the Kentish plover of Eurasia and Africa. Harry C. Oberholser , in 1922, argued that

5952-473: The Lake District and Yorkshire Dales , fell walking describes hill or mountain walks, as fell is the common word for both features there. Hiking sometimes involves bushwhacking and is sometimes referred to as such. This specifically refers to difficult walking through dense forest, undergrowth, or bushes where forward progress requires pushing vegetation aside. In extreme cases of bushwhacking, where

6076-557: The Middle Ages ; Lynn Thorndike mentions that "a book on feeling for nature in Germany in the tenth and eleventh centuries, noted various ascents and descriptions of mountains from that period", and that "in the closing years of his life archbishop Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne (c. 1010 – 1075) climbed his beloved mountain oftener than usual". Other early examples of individuals hiking or climbing mountains for pleasure include

6200-880: The National Trails in England and Wales, the Kungsleden (Sweden) and the National Trail System in the United States. The Grande Randonnée (France), Grote Routepaden, or Lange-afstand-wandelpaden (The Netherlands), Grande Rota (Portugal), Gran Recorrido (Spain) is a network of long-distance footpaths in Europe, mostly in France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain. There are extensive networks in other European countries of long-distance trails, as well as in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Nepal, and to

6324-497: The Oregon Parks and Recreation Department as part of the state park system of Oregon. The official coastal guide gives a length of 382 miles (615 km). About 39 percent of the route is on the beach, 41 percent is on paved road, and 20 percent is on trail and dirt roads. Private ferries can however be arranged at some estuaries to shortcut road segments. Walked in its entirety, linking each trail/beach section,

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6448-511: The U.S. Congress for the National Park bill that was passed in 1890, establishing Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks. The Sierra Club , which he founded, is now one of the most important conservation organizations in the United States. The spiritual quality and enthusiasm toward nature expressed in his writings inspired others, including presidents and congressmen, to take action to help preserve large areas of undeveloped countryside. He

6572-657: The holotype of the species, was subsequently lost. Although originally part of the collection of the National Museum of Natural History , it was given to the collector Henry E. Dresser of England in 1872. In 1898, the Dresser collection was transferred to the Victoria University of Manchester , but the skin was apparently not part of this transfer. Joseph Grinnell , who attempted to locate the holotype in 1931, suggested that Dresser may have been unaware of

6696-477: The lapwings (Vanellinae), they form the family Charadriidae . The snowy plover was traditionally considered to be a species within the genus Charadrius , which comprised 32 extant species and was therefore the most species-rich genus of the family. However, a 2013 genetic analysis found that the lapwings are nested within Charadrius ; the latter is therefore polyphyletic (is not a natural group , i.e.,

6820-535: The right to roam in England and Wales. An early example of an interest in hiking in the United States is Abel Crawford and his son Ethan's clearing of a trail to the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire in 1819. This 8.5-mile path is the oldest continually used hiking trail in the United States. The influence of British and European Romanticism reached North America through the transcendentalist movement , and both Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–82) and Henry David Thoreau (1817–62) were important influences on

6944-498: The 18th century in Europe, and arose because of changing attitudes to the landscape and nature associated with the Romantic movement . In earlier times walking generally indicated poverty and was also associated with vagrancy. In previous centuries long walks were undertaken as part of religious pilgrimages and this tradition continues throughout the world. The Swiss scientist and poet Albrecht von Haller 's poem Die Alpen (1732)

7068-561: The Camino on bicycle or on horseback. Paths from the cities of Tours , Vézelay , and Le Puy-en-Velay meet at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. The French long-distance path GR 65 (of the Grande Randonnée network), is an important variant route of the old Christian pilgrimage way. The Abraham Path is a cultural route believed to have been the path of Islamic , Christian , and Jewish patriarch Abraham 's ancient journey across

7192-501: The Great Plains of Texas , the decline is estimated to have been larger than 75% between 1998 and 2009. Subtropical and tropical populations, although less studied and monitored than those of higher latitudes, may be similarly threatened. As of 2020, the global population is estimated at 24,000 to 31,000 mature individuals. Counting both juveniles and mature individuals, the North American population has been estimated at 25,869;

7316-465: The Gulf (1916), a posthumously published account of a long botanizing walk, undertaken in 1867. Due to industrialisation in England, people began to migrate to the cities where living standards were often cramped and unsanitary. They would escape the confines of the city by rambling about in the countryside. However, the land in England, particularly around the urban areas of Manchester and Sheffield ,

7440-479: The OCT was published in 2015, called Exploring the Oregon Coast Trail . Written by Connie Soper, the book details 40 consecutive day hikes, and also includes maps and logistical information for the entire Oregon Coast Trail, such as tidal considerations and arranging for boat rides. The trail is open to hikers, and in some places, to bicycles , and equestrians (but not the entire route). As portions of

7564-549: The Pacific coast of North America, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, in several inland areas of the US and Mexico, along the Gulf Coast , and on Caribbean islands. The coastal populations consist of both residential and migratory birds, whereas the inland populations are mostly migratory. It is one of the best studied endemic shorebirds of the Americas, and one of the rarest. Snowy plovers are pale brown above and white below, with

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7688-639: The Renaissance in Italy (in German in 1860) declared Petrarch "a truly modern man", because of the significance of nature for his "receptive spirit"; even if he did not yet have the skill to describe nature. Petrarch's implication that he was the first to climb mountains for pleasure, and Burckhardt's insistence on Petrarch's sensitivity to nature have been often repeated since. There are also numerous references to Petrarch as an "alpinist", although Mont Ventoux

7812-496: The Roman Emperor, Hadrian, who ascended Mount Etna during a return trip from Greece in 125 CE. In 1275, Peter III of Aragon claimed to have reached the summit of Pic du Canigou, a 9134-foot mountain located near the southern tip of France. The first ascent of any technical difficulty to be officially verified took place on June 26, 1492, when Antoine de Ville, a chamberlain and military engineer for Charles VIII, King of France,

7936-593: The US Pacific coast include roping-off beach areas that are used for breeding, the removal of invasive beach grasses, and protection against egg predators . While such measures have been successful locally, the global population is thought to be in decline. The snowy plover was first described by John Cassin in 1858 as Aegialitis nivosa , based on a skin collected in 1854 by William P. Trowbridge in Presidio , which later became part of San Francisco . This skin,

8060-799: The US and Mexico, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico , and on the Caribbean islands and Bermuda. On the Pacific coast, it breeds from south Washington down to Oaxaca in Mexico, and non-breeding individuals can be found as far south as Panama. In South America, it breeds from south Ecuador to Chiloé Island in Chile. In the Caribbean, breeding occurs eastwards as far as the Virgin Islands and Margarita Island . The coastal populations consist of both migratory and residential birds; migration occurs over relatively short distances north- or southward along

8184-579: The US. In the Great Salt Plains in Oklahoma, dams and fences were erected around nesting areas to prevent flooding and predation, but proved ineffective. In Mexico, the species has been listed as "threatened" since 2010. Even though the global population is declining, conservation efforts have led to local increases in plover populations. In central Chile, protection of a small stretch of beach against human disturbance resulted in an increase of

8308-523: The United States, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom, hiking means walking outdoors on a trail, or off trail, for recreational purposes. A day hike refers to a hike that can be completed in a single day. However, in the United Kingdom, the word walking is also used, as well as rambling, while walking in mountainous areas is called hillwalking . In Northern England , Including

8432-406: The adults continue to line the nest with small objects such as stones and shell pieces. Where the ground is too hard to construct scrapes, other depressions such as animal and vehicle tracks are chosen. The species lays three eggs on average, but clutch size ranges from two to six eggs. When only a single egg is produced, the clutch is usually abandoned. Eggs are oval or asymmetric in shape and have

8556-490: The adults will defend the surrounding radius rather than a fixed territory. When defending a territory, males may attempt to intimidate intruders by using the "Upright Display" posture, in which the body is upright with erected breast feathers. They may also run or fly at, or fight with intruders. Fighting may involve jumping at each other breast-to-breast with flapping wings and mutual pecking and shoving. In some cases, combatants pull on each other's feathers, and may even pull out

8680-531: The area, followed by running and capturing. Snowy plovers also forage by probing the substrate with their bills, by charging or hopping into accumulations of flies, and by "foot trembling" on wet substrates or in shallow water, where one foot shakes to stir up prey. Brine fly larvae are often shaken before consumption, and captured flies are often bitten two or three times. Snowy plovers may forage during day and night, with one individual observed feeding in almost complete darkness. Snowy plovers drink when fresh water

8804-679: The area. The Great Himalaya Trail is a route across the Himalayas . The original concept of the trail was to establish a single long distance trekking trail from the east end to the west end of Nepal that includes a total of roughly 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi) of path. The proposed trail will link together a range of the less explored tourism destinations of Nepal's mountain region. In Latin America , Peru and Chile are important hiking destinations. The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu in Peru

8928-623: The birds are more stationary, protection of feeding grounds could be more important. The size of territories is variable, and sizes between 0.1 and 1 ha (11,000 and 108,000 sq ft) have been reported. Outside the breeding season, snowy plovers will often roost in groups of several to more than 300 birds. Roosting places are typically on the ground, often in depressions such as footprints (including those of humans) and vehicle tracks or behind objects such as driftwood. Snowy plovers are facultatively polygamous , with females, and less frequently males, often abandoning their mate soon after

9052-604: The book was a major success. Another famous early exponent of walking for pleasure was the English poet William Wordsworth . In 1790 he embarked on an extended tour of France, Switzerland, and Germany, a journey subsequently recorded in his long autobiographical poem The Prelude (1850). His famous poem Tintern Abbey was inspired by a visit to the Wye Valley made during a walking tour of Wales in 1798 with his sister Dorothy Wordsworth . Wordsworth's friend Coleridge

9176-400: The breeding season, the neck and ear patches are pale and the forehead patch is absent, and plumages of males and females cannot be distinguished. Newly hatched chicks have pale upper sides with brown to black spots and are white below. Similar species within its range include the piping plover , the collared plover , the semipalmated plover , and Wilson's plover . Amongst other features,

9300-718: The chicks have a low probability of survival. The polygamy in this species could therefore be a strategy to maximize breeding success. Polygamy is most pronounced where the breeding season is long, when birds may start two, and sometimes three, broods per season. On the other hand, birds do generally not brood twice in the Great Plains, where the breeding season is short. A biased sex ratio also appears to favor polygamy: males are generally more common than females, with one study reporting that males were 1.4 times more common than females in California. The causes for such pronounced sex ratios are unknown. Rarely, males breed with two females at

9424-399: The chicks have hatched. The deserting female will then pair with a new male and renest, sometimes a few hundred kilometers away from its first brood, while the male will continue to rear the chicks. A 2021 study of a population at Ceuta  [ es ] , Mexico, found that females are more likely to abandon their broods when the chicks are likely to survive even in their absence, or when

9548-644: The chicks. Such polygamy is uncommon in birds, and is possibly a strategy to maximize breeding success. There are more males than females – 1.4 times as many in California – and the more pronounced this sex ratio imbalance is, the more females engage in polyandrous behavior. The snowy plover is listed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . The main threats are habitat destruction due to invasive beach grasses, urban development, as well as frequent disturbance due to recreational uses of beaches. Conservation measures on

9672-424: The clutch is complete. The time interval between egg laying and hatching varies geographically and seasonally, ranging between 23 and 49 days. Continuous incubation starts upon clutch completion; while still incomplete, males and females spend only about a quarter of the daytime incubating. In coastal areas of California, females tend to incubate during the day, while males incubate at night. The reason for this pattern

9796-509: The coast. Inland breeding populations exist in the US eastward to the Great Plains of Kansas and Oklahoma , as well as in Mexico north of Mexico City . These populations are mostly migratory, with western populations migrating to the Pacific coast, and the Great Plains populations to the Gulf of Mexico coast. Breeding has been recorded at elevations up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The species inhabits open areas in which vegetation

9920-896: The development of extended hiking routes. In 1938, the first long-distance hiking trail in Europe, the Hungarian National Blue Trail, was established in the Hungarian wilderness, stretching approximately 62 miles (100 km). In the Middle East, the Jordan Trail is a 650 km (400 miles) long hiking trail in Jordan established in 2015 by the Jordan Trail Association. And Israel has been described as "a trekker's paradise" with over 9,656 km (6,000 miles) of trails. The Lycian Way

10044-408: The differences in plumage between these species are not consistent, and no clear line of demarcation could be drawn. Consequently, he classified the two subspecies of the snowy plover that were recognized at that time ( nivosus and tenuirostris ) as subspecies of the Kentish plover. This assessment was subsequently followed by most authors, until a 2009 genetic study re-established the snowy plover as

10168-469: The distance is approximately 425 miles. A chief feature of the trail are the public beaches created in 1967 via the Oregon Beach Bill , which formalized the public nature of the coastal beaches since the first such law was passed in 1913. Many of the locations, particularly on the southern portion, are remote and isolated. The Oregon coast is bordered by a temperate rainforest , much of which

10292-672: The distinction of being the oldest hiking club in America. It was founded to protect the trails and mountains in the northeastern United States. Prior to its founding, four other hiking clubs had already been established in America. This included the very short-lived (first) Rocky Mountain Club in 1875, the White Mountain Club of Portland in 1873, the Alpine Club of Williamstown in 1863, and the Exploring Circle, which

10416-529: The entire Oregon Coast , following the shore as closely as practical. For many portions of the route, it is beach walking, mostly on sand. In populated areas it often follows the nearest street to the shore. Many parts of the trail leave the beach and take an inland path, usually where land formations make the shoreline impassable, such as at Cape Kiwanda . Some of the rocky headlands are passable on foot at beach level only at low tide . Other headlands are traversed by state park or forest service trails well above

10540-455: The hazard level of hiking. [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Haller, Albrecht von ". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Snowy plover The snowy plover ( Anarhynchus nivosus ) is a small shorebird found in the Americas . It

10664-418: The highlands of East Africa . Hiking a long-distance trail from end-to-end is also referred to as trekking and as thru-hiking in some places. In North America, multi-day hikes, usually with camping , are referred to as backpacking . The poet Petrarch is frequently mentioned as an early example of someone hiking. Petrarch recounts that on April 26, 1336, with his brother and two servants, he climbed to

10788-663: The invertebrates the plovers feed on. Dune habitat was lost to the invasive European beachgrass , which had originally been planted to stabilize dunes. This species, as well as the American beachgrass from the Atlantic coast, have replaced native foredune vegetation in most of the North American Pacific coast. In the Great Salt Plains in Oklahoma, controlled flooding, as well as an invasive shrub,

10912-478: The local population, as was reported in 2001. The first instance of snowy plovers reoccupying a breeding area following its protection from human disturbance was documented in 2006 at Sands Beach, Santa Barbara County, where barriers are in use since 2001. As of March 2023, conservation efforts have been particularly successful in Oregon , where numbers increased to 483 birds, from just 55 birds in 1993. This increase

11036-492: The male after the female has deserted. In the more eastern populations, however, chicks are often cared for until they fledge. Adults are preyed upon by birds of prey and various mammals including feral cats and foxes , with a wider range of predators preying on chicks and eggs. Adults will usually run away from an approaching predator or human, but may also take flight. Approaching birds of prey cause adults to duck on their nests, while roosting flocks will take flight to form

11160-417: The male as an important part of the courtship ritual. In the coastal areas of California, males excavated an average of 5.6 scrapes per territory. A scrape may be constructed within a few minutes, often near conspicuous landmarks such as rocks and grass patches. One of these scrapes is later selected by the pair for nesting, commonly the scrape where most copulations took place. Both before and during incubation,

11284-408: The most distantly related Charadrius species are more closely related to lapwings than to each other). Some subsequent studies confirmed this and proposed to split Charadrius into five separate genera. The snowy plover, formerly Charadrius nivosus , was transferred into the genus Anarhynchus , as Anarhynchus nivosus , along with 22 other plover species; in 2023, this transfer was recognized by

11408-444: The nest. The chicks are precocial and able to walk and swim one to three hours after hatching. Parents do not feed their chicks, but will lead them to feeding areas. Parents will continue to brood their chicks after hatching – in the coastal areas of northern California, chicks less than 10 days old were brooded for an average of 58% of each day. In western North America, chicks are looked after for 29 to 47 days after hatching, often by

11532-453: The northern beaches. Oregon Parks Forever funded the creation and installation of nine Hiker/Biker pods for tent campers in state parks along the coast: They are located in hiker/biker camps at Fort Stevens, Devil’s Lake, Cape Blanco, Harris Beach, Cape Lookout, Bullards Beach, Nehalem Bay, Beverly Beach, Honeyman, and Sunset Bay. The State of Oregon has stated its intention to create more primitive and free camping areas. Vehicles are allowed on

11656-473: The oldest snowy plover on record was at least 15 years old. The snowy plover is among the rarest endemic shorebirds in the Americas. Since 2014, it is listed as " Near Threatened " by the IUCN because of a moderately rapid population decline caused primarily by habitat degradation and human disturbance. In the US Pacific coast, the species is thought to have lost 50 out of 78 breeding sites since 1970, and in

11780-552: The outdoors movement in North America. Thoreau's writing on nature and on walking include the posthumously published "Walking" (1862)". His earlier essay " A Walk to Wachusett " (1842) describes a four-day walking tour Thoreau took with a companion from Concord, Massachusetts to the summit of Mount Wachusett , Princeton, Massachusetts and back. Established in 1876, the Appalachian Mountain Club has

11904-477: The plovers. A 2017 analysis concluded that the Ceuta population will probably be extinct in 25 years if no further conservation measures are implemented. On US beaches, disturbance by humans and dogs is another significant cause for the abandonment of areas. One 2001 study found that at a public beach at Coal Oil Point , each plover was disturbed every 27 minutes on average during weekends and every 43 minutes during

12028-452: The population in and around the Gulf of Mexico at 2,500; and the South American population at 8,000 to 10,000 individuals. Habitat degradation is a major cause for the declines in both coastal and inland populations in the US. Many coastal beaches have been developed for recreational use. Periodic raking of beaches to remove garbage and natural debris such as kelp causes plovers to abandon breeding areas, and reduces biodiversity and biomass of

12152-544: The possibility of avalanches . Year round glaciers are potentially hazardous. Fast flowing water presents another danger and a safe crossing may requires special techniques. In various countries, borders may be poorly marked. In 2009, Iran imprisoned three Americans for hiking across the Iran-Iraq border. It is illegal to cross into the US on the Pacific Crest Trail from Canada. Going south to north it

12276-442: The public during breeding season; protection against predators; and habitat restoration. Closure of beach areas was most effective when including fencing against dogs and a 30 m buffer zone. Egg predators were controlled by both fencing individual nests and predator removal. Habitat restoration focused on the removal of the invasive European beachgrass. Measures are also in place to protect some other snowy plover habitats elsewhere in

12400-607: The public's 'right to roam' across some private land, were periodically presented to Parliament from 1884 to 1932 without success. Finally, in 1932, the Rambler's Right Movement organized a mass trespass on Kinder Scout in Derbyshire . Despite attempts on the part of the police to prevent the trespass from going ahead, it was successfully achieved due to massive publicity. However, the Mountain Access Bill that

12524-634: The risk of bacterial contamination. Fire is a particular source of danger, and an individual hiker can have a large impact on an ecosystem. For example, in 2005, a Czech backpacker accidentally started a fire that burnt 5% of Torres del Paine National Park in Chile. Because hikers may come into conflict with other users of the land or may harm the natural environment, hiking etiquette has developed. Hiking can be hazardous because of terrain, inclement weather, potential to get lost, or pre-existing medical conditions. The dangerous circumstances hikers can face include specific accidents or physical ailments. It

12648-519: The route is on pavement. Twenty percent follows trails. If walked in its entirety (without taking ferries), the total distance is approximately 425 miles. The OCT is signed throughout its length, but in some places signage is not reliable. However it is difficult to become lost since the route is never more than a few miles from a paved road. In 2009, the State of Oregon posted a set of downloadable maps with brief route descriptions. A dedicated guidebook for

12772-616: The route lead around headlands or cross river mouths that are only passable at low tide , carrying a current tide table and relevant topographic information can be extremely helpful. Sometimes a hiker must choose between waiting for a lower tide or walking inland to avoid high water. Seasonal recreation restrictions are in place from March 15 through September 15 in some locations to protect shorebird nesting. These restrictions include complete prohibition of dogs, camping, non-motorized vehicles (including bicycles and fat bikes), motorized vehicles, and kites. Hikers and equestrians must also stay on

12896-405: The same time. Pairs can also be reestablished in the next breeding season, which occurred in 32 to 45% of cases in central California, or within the same season in the third breeding attempt of the female. The polygamous mating system of the snowy plover is uncommon in birds, but the closely related Kentish plover shows a similar behavior. Snowy plovers nest in nest scrapes that are excavated by

13020-489: The sea. In many other places, the road is the only feasible route, mostly U.S. Route 101 . The southern terminus of the trail is the unmarked Oregon/California border on a stretch of beach about 5 miles (8 km) south of Brookings, and about half a mile south of the Winchuck River . Besides headlands, there are numerous rivers and creeks which must be crossed. Most creeks are forded by wading, although sometimes

13144-438: The sides of the neck, and on the forehead. In males, the crown may be reddish at the start of the breeding season. The breeding female is slightly duller, and typically one or more of the patches are partly or completely brown. The neck patches on each side are well separated and rarely joined at the front, giving the appearance of a "broken" breast band in contrast to the continuous breast band in many other plovers. Outside

13268-520: The snowy plover differs from these species in its slender and entirely black bill (shorter and thicker in piping plover and longer and thicker in Wilson's plover, and with orange base in piping and breeding semipalmated plover), in its gray to black legs (orange or yellow in piping, collared, and semipalmated plover), and the "broken" breast band (usually complete in semipalmated, Wilson's, and breeding collared plovers). [REDACTED] The typical call

13392-614: The snowy plover populations can be subdivided into four distinct demes (groups of individuals more genetically similar to each other than to other individuals): The western nivosus deme in western North America, the eastern nivosus deme in Florida , the tenuirostris deme on the Caribbean islands and Bermuda , and the occidentalis deme in South America. The study found little genetic exchange between these demes, except for

13516-472: The specimen's significance and may have given it elsewhere. The snowy plover is one of the best-studied endemic shorebirds of the Americas, although most of this research was carried out on western North American populations, with few monitoring programs targeting the South American and eastern North American populations. Plovers (Charadriinae) are a subfamily of small shorebirds that breed in open habitats on all continents except Antarctica. Together with

13640-466: The top of Mont Ventoux (1,912 meters (6,273 ft)), a feat which he undertook for recreation rather than necessity. The exploit is described in a celebrated letter addressed to his friend and confessor, the monk Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro , composed some time after the fact. However, some have suggested that Petrarch's climb was fictional. Jakob Burckhardt , in The Civilization of

13764-436: The trapping of sediments by dams and jetties that affect coastal erosion and sedimentation . Habitat degradation is also a major concern for populations of lower altitudes. For example, around Ceuta in Mexico, the species is affected by large-scale removal of protected mangrove forests and illegal development of beaches, but also by the spread of mangroves into abandoned evaporation ponds that were adopted as habitats by

13888-676: The use of hiking boots on long-distances hikes is controversial among ultralight hikers, because of their weight. Hiking times can be estimated by Naismith's rule or Tobler's hiking function , while distances can be measured on a map with an opisometer . A pedometer is a device that records the distance walked. The American Hiking Society advises that parents with young children should encourage them to participate in decision-making about route-finding and pace. Alisha McDarris, writing in Popular Science , suggests that, whilst hiking with children poses particular challenges, it can be

14012-467: The vegetation is so dense that human passage is impeded, a machete is used to clear a pathway. The Australian term bushwalking refers to both on and off-trail hiking. Common terms for hiking used by New Zealanders are tramping (particularly for overnight and longer trips), walking or bushwalking. Trekking is the preferred word used to describe multi-day hiking in the mountainous regions of India, Pakistan, Nepal, North America, South America, Iran, and

14136-434: The water can be waist deep even at low tide. At high tide, some are hazardous or impossible to cross and require a boat or a detour to a bridge. Rainfall during winter and early spring decreases the number of streams which are safely fordable. The Oregon Coast Trail (OCT) is a described route and not a continuous trail. Thirty-nine percent of the route is on beaches. Forty-one percent, or more than 150 miles (240 km) of

14260-1152: The week. The study further found that the plovers have been more sensitive to dogs than to humans, and that most disturbances occurred when the plovers were approached by less than 30 m (98 ft). A 2003 study of two beaches at Point Reyes National Seashore found that chick mortality was 69% greater on weekends compared to weekdays in 1999 and 72% greater in 2000, demonstrating the negative effects of human recreation. Nests have also been directly crushed by vehicles, walking humans, and, in inland populations, by cattle. An experiment with quail eggs at Sands Beach in Santa Barbara County , California, revealed an 8% daily risk of eggs being trampled by humans when outside protected areas. Several additional threats have been documented. Predation on chicks and eggs by crows, ravens, skunks , and invasive red foxes has intensified in some areas. Crows and ravens may be attracted to plover breeding areas by human food sources. Several instances have been documented where environmental pollution affected populations. Oil spills have been

14384-425: The wet sand. Shorebird areas are clearly marked on the beach with yellow signs. Many state campgrounds have areas dedicated for hikers and bicyclists at reduced prices (compared to vehicles). Beach camping is allowed where out of sight of residences, not adjacent to state parks, and not near snowy plover during nesting season. This limits camping on some areas of the trail to developed campgrounds, particularly along

14508-400: The writer has here collected and laid before him, all the select stations and points of view, noticed by those authors who have last made the tour of the lakes, verified by his own repeated observations. To this end he included various 'stations' or viewpoints around the lakes, from which tourists would be encouraged to enjoy the views in terms of their aesthetic qualities. Published in 1778

14632-459: Was another keen walker and in the autumn of 1799, he and Wordsworth undertook a three-week tour of the Lake District. John Keats , who belonged to the next generation of Romantic poets began, in June 1818, a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland, and the Lake District with his friend Charles Armitage Brown . More and more people undertook walking tours through the 19th century, of which the most famous

14756-565: Was established by four men from Lynn, Massachusetts in 1850. Although not a hiking club in the same sense as the clubs that would emerge later, the National Park Service recognizes the Exploring Circle as being "the first hiking club in New England." All four of these clubs would disband within a few years of their founding. Despite clubs such as the Appalachian Mountain Club, hiking during the early twentieth century

14880-608: Was first explored in the 1930s by the YMCA hiking groups and was eventually registered as a complete border to border trail from Mexico to Canada. In earlier times people mainly hiked for practical reasons, or on religious pilgrimages . Numerous modern hiking trail follow such ancient routes. The British National Trail the North Downs Way closely follows that of the Pilgrims' Way to Canterbury . The ancient pilgrimage,

15004-428: Was ordered to ascend Mont Aiguille. Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used during the ascent, this event is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering. Conrad Gessner, a 16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland, is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure. However, the idea of taking a walk in the countryside only really developed during

15128-835: Was passed in 1939 was opposed by many walkers' organizations, including The Ramblers , who felt that it did not sufficiently protect their rights, and it was eventually repealed. The effort to improve access led after World War II to the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 , and in 1951 to the creation of the first national park in the UK, the Peak District National Park . The establishment of this and similar national parks helped to improve access for all outdoors enthusiasts. The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 considerably extended

15252-548: Was privately owned and trespass was illegal. Rambling clubs soon sprang up in the north and began politically campaigning for the legal ' right to roam '. One of the first such clubs was 'Sunday Tramps' founded by Leslie White in 1879. The first national grouping, the Federation of Rambling Clubs, was formed in London in 1905 and was heavily patronized by the peerage . Access to Mountains bills , that would have legislated

15376-599: Was still primarily in New England, San Francisco , and the Pacific Northwest. Eventually, there were similar clubs formed in the Midwest and following the Appalachian range. As interest grew hiking culture was spread throughout the nation. The Scottish-born, American naturalist John Muir (1838 –1914), was another important early advocate of the preservation of wilderness in the United States. He petitioned

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