137-584: The Organ Pipes National Park , abbreviated as OPNP , is a national park located in the Central region of Victoria , Australia . The 121-hectare (300-acre) protected area was established with the focus on conservation of the native flora and fauna, and preservation of the geological features in the Jacksons Creek , a part of the Maribyrnong valley, north-west of Melbourne . It is situated in
274-593: A Holocene hunter-gatherer sample ("Leang Panninge") from South Sulawesi , which shares high amounts of genetic drift with Aboriginal Australians and Papuans. This suggests that a population split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans. The sample also shows genetic affinity with East Asians and the Andamanese people of South Asia. The authors note that this hunter-gatherer sample can be modelled with ~50% Papuan-related ancestry and either with ~50% East Asian or Andamanese Onge ancestry, highlighting
411-548: A flood basalt spread across the land from surrounding volcanoes . Rock exposures of Silurian mudstones and jointed structural features of basalt are spread at many locations in the form of Basalt cliffs, boulder screes and sedimentary escarpments. The geological features in the Park, all of volcanic origin, have been categorized under the broad heads namely, the Organ Pipes, Tessellated Pavement, Rosette Rock, Scoria cone and
548-425: A magnificent park ... A nation's Park , containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!" The first effort by the U.S. Federal government to set aside such protected lands was on 20 April 1832, when President Andrew Jackson signed legislation that the 22nd United States Congress had enacted to set aside four sections of land around what is now Hot Springs, Arkansas , to protect
685-445: A "national park" simply describes a general area that is relatively undeveloped, scenic, and attracts tourists, with some form of planning restrictions to ensure it maintains those characteristics. There may be substantial human settlements within the bounds of a national park. Conversely, parks that meet the criteria may be not be referred to as "national parks". Terms like "preserve" or "reserve" may be used instead. Starting in 1735
822-568: A deep gorge in the grassy, basalt Keilor Plains . Within Organ Pipes National Park, the valley walls of Jacksons Creek expose Pleistocene volcanic rocks of the New Volcanic Group. These 2.5 to 2.8 million year-old basalt lavas , commonly known as trap rock , fractured during cooling into vertically standing, hexagonal basalt columns . These columns are locally known as the "organ pipes" for which this park
959-438: A feature of a visit. The birds and other animals seem to be unaffected by this and an early morning or dusk visit will be rewarded by sightings of swamp wallabies and eastern grey kangaroos . National park A national park is a nature park designated for conservation purposes because of unparalleled national natural, historic, or cultural significance. It is an area of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that
1096-740: A few. John Muir is today referred to as the "Father of the National Parks" due to his work in Yosemite. He published two influential articles in The Century Magazine , which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on 1 July 1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias (later becoming Yosemite National Park ) to
1233-611: A gene flow from India to Australia: firstly, signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes, reported on the basis of genome-wide SNP data; and secondly, the existence of a Y chromosome (male) lineage, designated haplogroup C∗, with the most recent common ancestor about 5,000 years ago. The first type of evidence comes from a 2013 study by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology using large-scale genotyping data from
1370-704: A heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone was put under national control at its establishment six years later. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States' first national park, being also the world's first national park. In some European and Asian countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed - though typically as game reserves and recreational grounds set aside for royalty, such as
1507-474: A high protein grass), Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides (button wrinklewort—an endangered species) and Callitris glaucophylla (white cypress-pine or Murray pine). On the banks of the valley formed by Jacksons Creek are found stray examples of remnant indigenous vegetation including river red gum riparian woodland (also manna gum and blackwood species), reed bed and sedgeland species and also shrub land and grasslands. The population of Callitris glaucophylla
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#17327656908051644-514: A lower cost basis and a larger geographical coverage (in 1989 when created, it was the largest protected area in Asia). It includes four of the six tallest mountains in the world: Everest , Lhotse , Makalu , and Cho Oyu . The QNNP is contiguous to four Nepali national parks, creating a transnational conservation area equal in size to Switzerland. In 1993, the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park
1781-619: A million years ago when huge quantities of molten lava were ejected from volcanoes near what is now Sunbury and flowed over the Keilor Plains. An Information Center, maintained by the Park Administration in the park precincts, disseminates information on the volcanic formations in the park, Aboriginals who lived in the area, about early European settlements, the re-vegetation project of the once degraded park and its role among national parks in conservation and preservation of
1918-488: A national park system, with the creation of the Nahuel Huapi National Park in 1934, through the initiative of Francisco Moreno . After World War II , national parks were founded all over the world. The United Kingdom designated its first national park, Peak District National Park , in 1951. This followed perhaps 70 years of pressure for greater public access to the landscape. By the end of
2055-546: A part of the Forest of Fontainebleau (France, 1861). Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory . With no state government that could assume stewardship of the land, the federal government took on direct responsibility for the park, the official first national park of the United States. The combined effort and interest of conservationists, politicians and the Northern Pacific Railroad ensured
2192-751: A person as Indigenous. (Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct, despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups, and the Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status .) Some Aboriginal people object to being labelled Indigenous , as an artificial and denialist term, because some non-Aboriginal people have referred to themselves as indigenous because they were born in Australia. Australian Indigenous people have beliefs unique to each mob ( tribe ) and have
2329-598: A pool of Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, island Southeast Asians, and Indians. It found that the New Guinea and Mamanwa (Philippines area) groups diverged from the Aboriginal about 36,000 years ago (there is supporting evidence that these populations are descended from migrants taking an early "southern route" out of Africa, before other groups in the area). Also the Indian and Australian populations mixed long before European contact, with this gene flow occurring during
2466-615: A profound spiritual connection. Over the millennia, Aboriginal people developed complex trade networks, inter-cultural relationships, law and religions. Contemporary Aboriginal beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent. They are shaped by traditional beliefs, the disruption of colonisation, religions brought to the continent by Europeans, and contemporary issues. Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared through dancing , stories , songlines , and art that collectively weave an ontology of modern daily life and ancient creation known as
2603-495: A single group. Aboriginal identity has changed over time and place, with family lineage, self-identification, and community acceptance all of varying importance. In the 2021 census , Indigenous Australians comprised 3.8% of Australia's population. Most Aboriginal people today speak English and live in cities. Some may use Aboriginal phrases and words in Australian Aboriginal English (which also has
2740-411: A spirit creates the earth then tells the humans to treat the animals and the earth in a way which is respectful to land. In Northern Territory this is commonly said to be a huge snake or snakes that weaved its way through the earth and sky making the mountains and oceans. But in other places the spirits who created the world are known as wandjina rain and water spirits. Major ancestral spirits include
2877-470: A strong connection to the land. Contemporary Indigenous Australian beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent. They are shaped by traditional beliefs, the disruption of colonisation, religions brought to the continent by Europeans, and contemporary issues. Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared by dancing , stories , songlines and art —especially Papunya Tula (dot painting)—collectively telling
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#17327656908053014-427: A tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure ). Many but not all also speak the various traditional languages of their clans and peoples. Aboriginal people, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of severe health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community. DNA studies have confirmed that "Aboriginal Australians are one of
3151-599: Is a greater recognition of the need to protect or preserve outstanding natural features. The national park, designated to cover an area of 121 hectares (300 acres), is situated 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the northwest of Melbourne city. It is part of the Victoria Park system. It is approachable from the Calder Highway . The road network around the park consists of the Calder Highway on the south and
3288-529: Is an assortment of basalt columns that evolved as a result of erosion by the Jackson Creek, which is seen in the form of pavements about 250 meters upstream of the Rosette Rock. Frequent access to this formation is likely to cause deterioration of this formation. Rosette rock is a radial array of basalt columns. Rosette rock formation seen about 500 metres (1,600 ft) upstream of the Organ Pipes
3425-773: Is an increase in allele sharing between the Denisovan and Aboriginal Australian genomes, compared to other Eurasians or Africans. Examining DNA from a finger bone excavated in Siberia , researchers concluded that the Denisovans migrated from Siberia to tropical parts of Asia and that they interbred with modern humans in Southeast Asia 44,000 years BP, before Australia separated from New Guinea approximately 11,700 years BP. They contributed DNA to Aboriginal Australians and to present-day New Guineans and an indigenous tribe in
3562-467: Is an overhanging rock on the northern bank of the stream. It is also an outcrop of basalt but with a radial array of columns akin to the spokes of a giant wheel. Its formation is attributed to the cooling of "a pocket of lava, probably in a spherical cave formed from an earlier lava flow". The sandstone layer seen in the Jackson Creek has been dated to about 400 million years old. They are made of quartz and quartzite gravel, and are located midway between
3699-504: Is attributed to the columnar structure which is rare and occurred at strategic location where the down cutting action of the stream created the post-volcanic valley. The Organ Pipes is so named as it resembles a pipe organ . The width of each pipe in the formation is about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in); only some of the columns are vertical while most other smaller columns around the Pipes are either inclined or horizontal. Tessellated pavement
3836-477: Is based on the Aboriginal peoples' geographical isolation, with little or no interaction with outside cultures before some contact with Makassan fishermen and Dutch explorers up to 500 years ago. The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some genes associated with the Denisovans (a species of human related to but distinct from Neanderthals ) of Asia; the study suggests that there
3973-444: Is named. Over the last one to two million years, the slow cutting by Jackson Creek of its valley down into the basaltic plains and through the underlying trap rock exposed these geological structures. The bottom of the valley of Jackson Creek also exposes a prehistoric buried creek valley, which is cut into 400 million year-old ( Silurian ) mudstones and sandstones . The bottom of this buried valley contains ancient creek gravel . Both
4110-480: Is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia .... Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until [8,000 years ago], different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already [about 30,000 years ago]." Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to adapt to a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A study in 1958 comparing cold adaptation in
4247-531: Is now Royal National Park was established just south of Sydney , Colony of New South Wales , on 26 April 1879, becoming the world's second official national park. Since Mackinac lost its national park status, the Royal National Park is, by some considerations, the second oldest national park now in existence. Banff National Park became Canada's first national park in 1885. New Zealand established Tongariro National Park in 1887. In Europe,
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4384-515: Is one of only two found near Melbourne. Silky blue grass and red-leg grass are also noted in the park area adjoining the Sydenham Park. The impact of the natural vegetation growth, however, is the loss of visibility of the geological formations. The diverse faunal significance of the OPNP is evident in the riparian, escarpment and grassland environments in the park. The faunal species found in
4521-453: Is only in the last two hundred years that they have been defined and started to self-identify as a single group, socio-politically. While some preferred the term Aborigine to Aboriginal in the past, as the latter was seen to have more directly discriminatory legal origins, use of the term Aborigine has declined in recent decades, as many consider the term an offensive and racist hangover from Australia's colonial era. The definition of
4658-411: Is perceived as a brand name that is associated with nature-based tourism and it symbolizes a "high quality natural environment with a well-designed tourist infrastructure". The duties of a park ranger are to supervise, manage, and/or perform work in the conservation and use of park resources. This involves functions such as park conservation; natural, historical, and cultural resource management; and
4795-531: Is protected and owned by a government. Although governments hold different standards for national park designation, the conservation of 'wild nature' for posterity and as a symbol of national pride is a common motivation for the continued protection of all national parks around the world. National parks are almost always accessible to the public. Usually national parks are developed, owned and managed by national governments, though in some countries with federal or devolved forms of government, "national parks" may be
4932-502: Is that the desert people are able to have a higher body temperature without accelerating the activity of the whole of the body, which can be especially detrimental in childhood diseases. This helps protect people to survive the side-effects of infection. Aboriginal people have lived for tens of thousands of years on the continent of Australia , through its various changes in landmass. The area within Australia 's borders today includes
5069-568: The American frontier and were meant to be monuments to America's true history. Yet, in some instances, the lands that were to be set aside and protected in formerly colonized lands were already being inhabited by native communities, who were then removed off of these lands to create pristine sites for public consumption. Critics claim that the removal of people from national parks enhances the belief that nature can only be protected when humans do not exist within it, and that this leads to perpetuating
5206-490: The CSIRO stressed the importance of taking a demand-driven approach to services in desert settlements, and concluded that "if top-down solutions continue to be imposed without appreciating the fundamental drivers of settlement in desert regions, then those solutions will continue to be partial, and ineffective in the long term." [REDACTED] This article incorporates text by Anders Bergström et al. available under
5343-784: The Calder Raceway also on the southern direction but close to its entrance. The Jacksons Creek, which is at the heart of the park, is bounded by the City of Hume on the northern side while the City of Brimbank is to its south; Deep Creek and Keilor Plains to the west of Melbourne are also part of this geographical setting. The complementary areas to the park are the Holden Flora Reserve (65 hectares (160 acres)), Holden School Site (25 hectares (62 acres)), Derrimut Grassland Reserve (154 hectares (380 acres)) and Laverton and North Grassland Reserve (52 hectares (130 acres)). Out of
5480-590: The Initial Upper Paleolithic . They are most closely related to other Oceanians , such as Melanesians . The Aboriginal Australians also show affinity to other Australasian populations, such as Negritos , as well as to East Asian peoples . Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage (ENA) trifurcated somewhere in South Asia , and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI), Andamanese and
5617-712: The Kimberley region in what is now Western Australia about 60,000 years ago. They migrated across the continent within 6,000 years. A 2018 study using archaeobotany dated evidence of continuous human habitation at Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen) in the Carnarvon Range in the Little Sandy Desert in WA from around 50,000 years ago. Genetic studies have revealed that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from an Eastern Eurasian population wave during
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5754-517: The Naples government undertook laws to protect Natural areas, which could be used as a game reserve by the royal family; Procida was the first protected site; the difference between the many previous royal hunting preserves and this one, which is considered to be closer to a Park rather than a hunting preserve, is that Neapolitan government already considered the division into the present-day wilderness areas and non-strict nature reserves. In 1810,
5891-683: The Northern Territory to study their genetic makeup (which is not representative of all Aboriginal peoples in Australia). The study concluded that the Warlpiri are descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups, although greatly diminished. The Warlpiri DNA lacks certain information found in modern Asian genomes, and carries information not found in other genomes. This reinforces
6028-517: The Pleistocene epoch and lived over large sections of the Australian continental shelf when the sea levels were lower. At that time, Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea were part of the same landmass, known as Sahul . As sea levels rose, the people on the Australian mainland and nearby islands became increasingly isolated, some on Tasmania and some of the smaller offshore islands when
6165-627: The Rainbow Serpent , Baiame , Dirawong and Bunjil . Similarly, the Arrernte people of central Australia believed that humanity originated from great superhuman ancestors who brought the sun, wind and rain as a result of breaking through the surface of the Earth when waking from their slumber. Taken as a whole, Aboriginal Australians, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with
6302-682: The Tobago Main Ridge Forest Reserve (in what is now Trinidad and Tobago; established in 1776) and the area surrounding Bogd Khan Uul Mountain (Mongolia, 1778), which were restricted from cultivation to protect surrounding farmland, are considered the oldest legally protected areas . Parks Canada , established on May 19, 1911, is the world's oldest national park service. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) have defined "National Park" as its Category II type of protected areas . According to
6439-494: The geomorphological and geological features of heritage value are located, is part of the greater Western Volcanic Plains which cover a large part of western Victoria and extend into south-eastern South Australia and are stated to be the third largest lava plains in the world. These landforms were created by the incision of the Jacksons Creek into thick lava flows that erupted about 2.5 to 2.8 million years ago during
6576-585: The 1920s; their plum tree orchards still exist. The European settlers' period is also borne out by archaeological artefacts in the form of bluestone walls. The stables in the park area were built by the Halls in which the Hayes family lived, and a Jackson Bay fig tree is located near the Information Center. The Bartlett family lived here from 1934 to 1948 and the last owner was E. A. Green. His estate became
6713-778: The 1970s and 1980s, when Aboriginal people moved to tiny remote settlements on traditional land, brought health benefits, but funding them proved expensive, training and employment opportunities were not provided in many cases, and support from governments dwindled in the 2000s, particularly in the era of the Howard government . Indigenous communities in remote Australia are often small, isolated towns with basic facilities, on traditionally owned land . These communities have between 20 and 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons. The long-term viability and resilience of Aboriginal communities in desert areas has been discussed by scholars and policy-makers. A 2007 report by
6850-677: The 19th century. Scholars believe that most Aboriginal Australians originated from Southeast Asia. If this is the case, Aboriginal Australians were among the first in the world to have completed sea voyages. A 2017 paper in Nature evaluated artefacts in Kakadu . Its authors concluded "Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago." A 2021 study by researchers at the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage has mapped
6987-572: The 431 sites managed by the National Park Service of the United States, only 63 carry the designation of National Park. Countries with a large ecotourism industry, such as Costa Rica, often experience a huge economic effect on park management as well as the economy of the country as a whole. Tourism to national parks has increased considerably over time. In Costa Rica for example, a megadiverse country , tourism to parks has increased by 400% from 1985 to 1999. The term national park
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#17327656908057124-527: The Director of the park "to preserve and protect the natural environment of the Park, and its natural and other features." It also stipulates the use of the park by the public for enjoyment, recreation and education, apart from the needed research. The Park Regulations 1992 Section 4 (Objects) is related to visitor activities and Section 17 of the National Parks Act governs the management of
7261-496: The Dreaming . Studies of Aboriginal groups' genetic makeup are ongoing, but evidence suggests that they have genetic inheritance from ancient Asian but not more modern peoples. They share some similarities with Papuans , but have been isolated from Southeast Asia for a very long time. They have a broadly shared, complex genetic history, but only in the last 200 years were they defined by others as, and started to self-identify as,
7398-620: The East/Southeast Asian lineage, including ancestors of the Native Americans . Papuans may have received approximately 2% of their geneflow from an earlier group (xOOA) as well, next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region. Aboriginal people are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of Papua New Guinea , and more distantly related to groups from East Indonesia. They are more distinct from
7535-590: The English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a "sort of national property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy." The painter George Catlin , in his travels through the American West , wrote during the 1830s that Native Americans in the United States might be preserved "(by some great protecting policy of government) ... in
7672-881: The Holocene ( c. 4,200 years ago). The researchers had two theories for this: either some Indians had contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those Indian genes to Aboriginal Australians, or a group of Indians migrated from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals directly. However, a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology. They investigated their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing
7809-599: The IUCN definition. In many countries, including Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, national parks do not adhere to the IUCN definition, while some areas which adhere to the IUCN definition are not designated as national parks. As many countries do not adhere to the IUCN definition, the term "national park" may be used loosely. In the United Kingdom , and in some other countries such as Taiwan ,
7946-506: The IUCN, 6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006. IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. The largest national park in the world meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park , which was established in 1974 and is 972,000 km (375,000 sq mi) in area. In 1969, the IUCN declared a national park to be a relatively large area with
8083-644: The Maribyrnong River, which has a catchment area of 1,300 square kilometres (500 sq mi). Jackson Creek rises in the Wombat State Forest , flows east to the Roslynn Reservoir, joining Deep Creek near Sydenham Park. It outflows from the reservoir through Gisborne, Sunbury before flowing through Organ Pipes National Park. The park lies in a rain shadow area. According to records maintained at Melbourne Airport since 1972,
8220-859: The Northern, Southern and Central cultural areas. The Northern and Southern areas, having richer natural marine and woodland resources, were more densely populated than the Central area. There are various other names from Australian Aboriginal languages commonly used to identify groups based on geography , known as demonyms , including: Other group names are based on the language group or specific dialect spoken . These also coincide with geographical regions of varying sizes. A few examples are: However, these lists are neither exhaustive nor definitive, and there are overlaps. Different approaches have been taken by non-Aboriginal scholars in trying to understand and define Aboriginal culture and societies, some focusing on
8357-534: The OPNP range from birds, mammals (such as eastern grey kangaroo , swamp wallaby ), reptiles (including long-necked tortoise, the eastern bearded dragon , and the red-bellied black snake ), and echidnas . With the park's programme of intensive induction of native vegetation in the area, several faunal species also started to proliferate. A 1988 mammal survey conducted at OPNP by the Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research found bats to be
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#17327656908058494-587: The OPNP's indigenous flora and fauna, supplemented the work of the Victoria Park system under which the OPNP was declared a National Park. The park's importance to the whole region as a "center for education about the geology, flora and fauna of the Keilor Plains, and the restoration of degraded land" is important. With its inclusion in the IUCN Category III (Natural Monuments) of the United Nations' list of National Parks and Protected Areas, there
8631-482: The Park. The Park is also reserved as a "Geological Monument" under the final recommendations for the Melbourne Study Area (LCC 1977) and also continues as a National Park for the Melbourne Area District 1 Review (LCC 1987). Fire Protection Plan, Port Phillip Area (former Melbourne Region) (CNR 1996); Draft Conservation Program for Native Grasslands and Grassy Woodlands in Victoria (CNR 1992) and Code of Practice for Fire Management on Public Land (CNR 1995) are some of
8768-653: The Philippines known as Mamanwa . This study confirms Aboriginal Australians as one of the oldest living populations in the world. They are possibly the oldest outside Africa, and they may have the oldest continuous culture on the planet. A 2016 study at the University of Cambridge suggests that it was about 50,000 years ago that these peoples reached Sahul (the supercontinent consisting of present-day Australia and its islands and New Guinea ). The sea levels rose and isolated Australia about 10,000 years ago, but Aboriginal Australians and Papuans diverged from each other genetically earlier, about 37,000 years BP, possibly because
8905-464: The Pleistocene Period. These lavas overlie steeply dipping Silurian sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rock and fossils found in the park are also dated back 400 million years, an indication that the area was once a sea. The rocks seen in the park have mostly dark grey or brown colour. Graptolites are seen as fossils of sea snails , sea worms and extinct floating animals in the rocks here. About 2.5 to 2.8 million years ago giant lava flows known as
9042-420: The Sandstone layer. Jackson Creek , which meets with Deep Creek to become the Maribyrnong River , has slowly worn a deep valley in the basaltic plain formation of hard, dark rock revealing the old volcanic geological formations such as the hexagonal basalt columns known as the "Organ Pipes"; the lava deposit in the bed of the creek is of the order of 70 metres (230 ft). As the lava cooled over several years
9179-444: The ancient people expanded and differentiated into distinct groups, each with its own language and culture. More than 400 distinct Australian Aboriginal peoples have been identified, distinguished by names designating their ancestral languages, dialects, or distinctive speech patterns. According to noted anthropologist , archaeologist and sociologist Harry Lourandos , historically, these groups lived in three main cultural areas,
9316-418: The ancient river valley and the Silurian sedimentary rock lies buried beneath the basaltic volcanic rocks of the New Volcanic Group. Marine fossils found in the Silurian sedimentary rocks demonstrate that they accumulated beneath a prehistoric ocean. A Friends' group, (the first in Australia) the "Friends of Organ Pipes" (FOOPS), comprising conservation activists to support the efforts of rehabilitation of
9453-453: The area as they found the terrain to be drab and filled with strange animals like kangaroo. They introduced new variety of plants such as boxthorn hedges for fences and trees such as oaks, willows and pine, creating an ambiance of their homeland. Kangaroos were hunted, rabbits and furred animals were killed for their valuable skin. This had ill effects on the native vegetation and faunal species. So much so that "high artichoke thistles blanketed
9590-437: The area is established by archaeological findings in the area in the form of their campsites and isolated artefacts within the park. The environment along Jackson Creek environment facilitated shelter, water and plentiful food for their original settlement. In early 19th century, Europeans from Tasmania started settling in the area. They were chiefly responsible for introducing several species of exotic plants and animals into
9727-428: The area of the Keilor Plains after burning every year. The climate and rainfall also favoured growth of native grasses in the rolling plains. Animal species such as kangaroos, dingoes, tiger, bandicoots, gliders and platypuses were common. Bird species of cockatoos, kookaburras, quails, finches and hawks also flourished. The vegetation was lush with grass lands and plenty of plants with flowering blooms. Their habitation of
9864-467: The average annual rainfall in the park area is 580 millimetres (23 in) (occurs during winter and spring). Occasionally, heavy rainfall occurs in the area and one such event caused heavy floods during winter in the flood plains of Maribyrnong, in September 1993, causing loss of vegetation, destroying the viewing platform and also scouring the banks of the creek. The earliest settlers in the plains of
10001-544: The best idea we ever had. Absolutely American, absolutely democratic, they reflect us at our best rather than our worst." The first area to use "national park" in its creation legislation was the U.S.'s Mackinac National Park , in 1875. (The area was later transferred to the state's authority in 1895, thus losing its official "national park" status. ) Following the idea established in Yellowstone and Mackinac, there soon followed parks in other nations. In Australia, what
10138-578: The car park and the Organ Pipes. They are stated to be part of a deep lead—an ancient stream bed buried by a lava flow, and later revealed by the downcutting of Jackson Creek. Deep leads were mined for gold in Ballarat during the Gold Rushes . The volcanic soils in the park formed above basaltic rock base are found in the valleys and have gentle or flat slopes. Soil types have been classified as zonal types comprising red-brown earths (dominant type in
10275-436: The category of rare or threatened or significant. Some of the significantly recreated basalt plain grassland plants are: Chloris truncata (windmill grass—native species), Bothriochloa macra (or redleg grass which are red or purplish colour that grow in late summer), Rytidosperma species or wallaby grasses (important native pasture grasses), Dicanthium sericeum (silky bluegrass), Themeda triandra (kangaroo grass,
10412-499: The creation of Yellowstone, Yosemite, and nearly 37 other national parks and monuments, another 44 years passed before an agency was created in the United States to administer these units in a comprehensive way – the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). The 64th United States Congress passed the National Park Service Organic Act , which President Woodrow Wilson signed into law on 25 August 1916. Of
10549-438: The creek flats and slopes, horehound had spread everywhere, boxthorn bushes crowded the slopes and plains, and other weed species filled the gaps. Erosion gullies scarred the steep slopes. Rubbish was piled here and there". During this period, there was a hamlet near the Organ Pipes and a suspension bridge across Jacksons Creek to reach a school and farm lands that surrounded the village. The Hall family lived here between 1870 and
10686-582: The decade a further nine national parks had been designated in the UK. Europe has some 359 national parks as of 2010. The Vanoise National Park in the Alps was the first French national park, created in 1963 after public mobilization against a touristic project . In 1971, Lahemaa National Park in Estonia was the first area to be designated a national park in the former Soviet Union . In 1973, Mount Kilimanjaro
10823-519: The deep split between Leang Panninge and Aboriginal/Papuans. Mallick et al. 2016 and Mark Lipson et al. 2017 study found the bifurcation of Eastern Eurasians and Western Eurasians dates to least 45,000 years ago, with indigenous Australians nested inside the Eastern Eurasian clade. Two genetic studies by Larena et al. 2021 found that Philippines Negrito people split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans before
10960-497: The desert-dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of European people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people, and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night. A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine , a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism , helps to regulate body temperature in response to fever. The effect of this
11097-519: The development and operation of interpretive and recreational programs for the benefit of the visiting public. Park rangers also have fire fighting responsibilities and execute search and rescue missions. Activities also include heritage interpretation to disseminate information to visitors of general, historical, or scientific information. Management of resources such as wildlife, lake shores, seashores, forests, historic buildings, battlefields, archaeological properties, and recreation areas are also part of
11234-461: The dichotomy between nature and humans (also known as the nature–culture divide ). They see the creation of national parks as a form of eco- land grabbing . Others claim that traveling to national parks to appreciate nature there leads people to ignore the nature that exists around them every day. Still others argue that tourism can actually negatively impact the areas that are being visited. Australian Aboriginal Aboriginal Australians are
11371-639: The dominion parks under the administration of the Dominion Park Branch (now Parks Canada ), within the Department of the Interior. The branch was established to "protect sites of natural wonder" to provide a recreational experience, centred on the idea of the natural world providing rest and spiritual renewal from the urban setting. Canada now has the largest protected area in the world with 450,000 km of national park space. Even with
11508-531: The ecology of the area. The park is also a popular tourist destination as it houses the Organ Pipes, The Tessellated Pavement, the Rosette Rock and much more. There is a Visitors Center and picnic area next to the car park and short walking tracks down a rather steep hill to Jacksons Creek and the rock features. The park is under the flight path of Melbourne Airport and adjacent to the Calder Park Raceway so aircraft and/or motor sport noise can be
11645-752: The first national parks were a set of nine parks in Sweden in 1909, followed by the Swiss National Park in 1914. Africa's first national park was established in 1925 when Albert I of Belgium designated an area of what is now Democratic Republic of Congo centred on the Virunga Mountains as the Albert National Park (since renamed Virunga National Park ). In 1895, the Groenkloof Nature Reserve
11782-614: The following defining characteristics: In 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. These include: While the term national park is now defined by the IUCN, many protected areas in many countries are called national park even when they correspond to other categories of the IUCN Protected Area Management Definition, for example: While national parks are generally understood to be administered by national governments (hence
11919-714: The haplogroup C chromosomes. They found a divergence time of about 54,100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative C5, as well as about 54,300 years between haplogroups K*/M and their closest haplogroups R and Q. The deep divergence time of 50,000-plus years with the South Asian chromosome and "the fact that the Aboriginal Australian Cs share a more recent common ancestor with Papuan Cs" excludes any recent genetic contact. The 2016 study's authors concluded that, although this does not disprove
12056-401: The idea of ancient Aboriginal isolation. Genetic data extracted in 2011 by Morten Rasmussen et al., who took a DNA sample from an early-20th-century lock of an Aboriginal person's hair, found that the Aboriginal ancestors probably migrated through South Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia , into Australia, where they stayed. As a result, outside of Africa, the Aboriginal peoples have occupied
12193-653: The increased suicide rate, many researchers have suggested that the inclusion of more cultural aspects into suicide prevention programs would help to combat mental health issues within the community. Past studies have found that many indigenous leaders and community members, do in fact, want more culturally-aware health care programs. Similarly, culturally-relative programs targeting indigenous youth have actively challenged suicide ideation among younger indigenous populations, with many social and emotional wellbeing programs using cultural information to provide coping mechanisms and improving mental health. The outstation movement of
12330-511: The indigenous populations of Borneo and Malaysia , sharing drift with them than compared to the groups from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. This indicates that populations in Australia were isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia. They remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area, which can be explained by the Wallace line . In a 2001 study, blood samples were collected from some Warlpiri people in
12467-469: The interior molten lava got insulated and developed into undisturbed columns of basalt (with uniform composition) as the lava heat dissipated. The cooling effect caused shrinkage and as scientifically elaborated: As seen now, the rock formation rises to a height of 20 metres (66 ft) and is considered as the best example of columnar jointing in Victoria. The unusual shape of Jackson Creek Organ Pipes
12604-572: The islands of Tasmania , K'gari (previously Fraser Island) , Hinchinbrook Island , the Tiwi Islands , Kangaroo Island and Groote Eylandt . Indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands, however, are not Aboriginal. In the 2021 census , people who self-identified on the census form as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin totalled 812,728 out of a total of 25,422,788 Australians, equating to 3.2% of Australia's population and an increase of 163,557 people, or 25.2%, since
12741-755: The job of a park ranger. Since the establishment of the National Park Service in the US in 1916, the role of the park ranger has shifted from merely being a custodian of natural resources to include several activities that are associated with law enforcement. They control traffic, manage permits for various uses, and investigate violations, complaints, trespass/encroachment, and accidents. National parks in former European colonies have come under criticism for allegedly perpetuating colonialism . National parks were created by individuals who felt that pristine, natural sections of nature should be set aside and preserved from urban development. In America, this movement came about during
12878-459: The land donated by the E. A. Green Charitable Foundation as a national park. Under Schedule 2 of The National Parks Act 1971 (Vic.), the area was declared as National Park on 12 March 1972. There were several objectives of this declaration, but the intent was to restore the park with both direct and indirect interventions to improve the ecosystem. Direct intervention came in the form of planting indigenous species as seedlings, and indirect format
13015-455: The land was inundated at the start of the Holocene , the inter-glacial period that started about 11,700 years ago. Scholars of this ancient history believe that it would have been difficult for Aboriginal people to have originated purely from mainland Asia. Not enough people would have migrated to Australia and surrounding islands to fulfill the beginning of the size of the population seen in
13152-406: The last 10,000 years it may have occurred—newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions. Bergstrom's 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture, the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50,000 years ago. He writes "There
13289-524: The latter two diverged from each other, but after their common ancestor diverged from the ancestor of East Asian peoples . The dingo reached Australia about 4,000 years ago. Near that time, there were changes in language (with the Pama-Nyungan language family spreading over most of the mainland), and in stone tool technology. Smaller tools were used. Human contact has thus been inferred, and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support
13426-496: The likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the Australian continent to its southern reaches and what is now Tasmania , then part of the mainland. The modelling is based on data from archaeologists , anthropologists , ecologists , geneticists , climatologists , geomorphologists , and hydrologists . It is intended to compare this data with the oral histories of Aboriginal peoples, including Dreaming stories, Australian rock art , and linguistic features of
13563-423: The many Aboriginal languages which reveal how the peoples developed separately. The routes, dubbed "superhighways" by the authors, are similar to current highways and stock routes in Australia. Lynette Russell of Monash University believes that the new model is a starting point for collaboration with Aboriginal people to help reveal their history. The new models suggest that the first people may have landed in
13700-403: The micro-level (tribe, clan, etc.), and others on shared languages and cultural practices spread over large regions defined by ecological factors. Anthropologists have encountered many difficulties in trying to define what constitutes an Aboriginal people/community/group/tribe, let alone naming them. Knowledge of pre-colonial Aboriginal cultures and societal groupings is still largely dependent on
13837-401: The most diverse group of native mammals in occurrence. A very successful bat roosting box project has been underway for twenty years. Avifaunal species (such as the wedge-tailed eagle ) are proliferating. Growling grass frog , and many indigenous fish species (such as the mountain galaxias ) have also reappeared. The sugar glider ( Petaurus breviceps) which was previously in the OPNP in 1916
13974-508: The name), in Australia, with the exception of six national parks, national parks are run by state governments and predate the Federation of Australia ; similarly, national parks in the Netherlands are administered by the provinces. In Canada, there are both national parks operated by the federal government and provincial or territorial parks operated by the provincial and territorial governments, although nearly all are still national parks by
14111-554: The natural, thermal springs and adjoining mountainsides for the future disposal of the U.S. government. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation , but no legal authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877. The work of important leaders who fought for animal and land conservation were essential in the development of legal action. Some of these leaders include President Abraham Lincoln, Laurance Rockefeller, President Theodore Roosevelt, John Muir, and First Lady Lady Bird Johnson to name
14248-407: The objective of conserving nature and to provide exposure to the public at large to the natural and cultural heritages of the national parks as also promote tourism. For this purpose, the park has been divided into management zones to provide a geographical context to manage the park, appropriate actions to be taken to meet the specific requirements of the zones, avoid any conflicting actions and review
14385-411: The observers' interpretations, which were filtered through colonial ways of viewing societies. Some Aboriginal peoples identify as one of several saltwater, freshwater, rainforest or desert peoples . The term Aboriginal Australians includes many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50,000 years. These peoples have a broadly shared, though complex, genetic history, but it
14522-418: The oldest continuous cultures in the world, although this is disputed. At the time of European colonisation of Australia, the Aboriginal people consisted of complex cultural societies with more than 250 languages and varying degrees of technology and settlements. Languages (or dialects) and language-associated groups of people are connected with stretches of territory known as "Country", with which they have
14659-638: The oldest living populations in the world, certainly the oldest outside of Africa." Their ancestors left the African continent 75,000 years ago. They may have the oldest continuous culture on earth. In Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory , oral histories comprising complex narratives have been passed down by Yolngu people through hundreds of generations. The Aboriginal rock art , dated by modern techniques, shows that their culture has continued from ancient times. The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australian people migrated from Southeast Asia by sea during
14796-480: The original 250–400 Aboriginal languages (more than 250 languages and about 800 dialectal varieties on the continent) are endangered or extinct, although some efforts are being made at language revival for some. As of 2016, only 13 traditional Indigenous languages were still being acquired by children, and about another 100 spoken by older generations only. Dispersing across the Australian continent over time,
14933-429: The other legalese connected with the park. The particular site was chosen because of the presence of several interesting geological features, including the "Organ Pipes", themselves a pattern of vertical pipe-like rock structures exposed by the erosion of the creek, and a tessellated pavement , where the rock surface has been split into regular "tiles" by joints related to columnar jointing . The Keilor Plains, where
15070-420: The other studies had utilised complete Y chromosome sequencing, which has the highest precision. For example, use of a ten Y STRs method has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times. Gene flow across the island-dotted 150-kilometre-wide (93 mi) Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within
15207-597: The park area and its vicinity were the Australian Aboriginal Woiworung people of the Kulin nation in the Yarra and Maribyrnong River valleys. Jackson Creek formed part of the boundary between two clan estates, Marin–Bulluk and Wurundjeri–Willam. They were farmers and hunters who lived on the forest products and harvested grass species and spear grass ( Stipa spp.) that were grown and regrown in
15344-423: The park with low permeability), grey duplex soils in flat areas (with high permeability) and uniform medium loams (on steep slopes on the southern direction of shallow depth and well drained); azonal soil types consisting of alluvial soils (fertile soils in the park consisting of clay loams to gravels suitable to grow tolerant plant species like river red gum and river bottle-brush ), colluvial soils (at
15481-483: The park. As of 2002, large areas of trees and shrubbery began to be re-established, systematic planting of native grass, plants and trees was started, which has created large swathes of kangaroo grass ( Themeda triandra ). The effect of the revegetation project in progress for now more than two decades has created a variety of ecosystems. Seven types of wattle were seen blooming at one time and many other indigenous plants. Six types of vegetation witnessed, consequent to
15618-543: The passage of enabling legislation by the United States Congress to create Yellowstone National Park. Theodore Roosevelt and his group of conservationists, the Boone and Crockett Club , were active campaigners and were highly influential in convincing fellow Republicans and big business to back the bill. Yellowstone National Park soon played a pivotal role in the conservation of these national treasures, as it
15755-440: The presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology; none of
15892-414: The previous census in 2016. Reasons for the increase were broadly as follows: Most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure ). Some Aboriginal people, especially those living in remote areas, are multi-lingual. Many of
16029-502: The progress achieved from time to time. Some of the set management actions taken over the years to bring in a change from a degraded ecosystem to a near natural ecosystem are: Weed control through mechanical and chemical methods with occasional use of fire; removal of noxious weeds, vermin control, check on growth of rabbits, and rehabilitation of degraded land through a major re-vegetation programme with erosion control, maintaining seed banks and nurseries. Organ Pipes were formed approximately
16166-429: The property of Stan Payne which was eventually donated to the Organ Pipes National Park in 1972. Consequent to the deterioration of the environmental conditions, the well-meaning, environmentally conscious citizens decided to rehabilitate the environment by reinvigorating the area. The first step towards this end was initiated by the National Park Service in 1972 by declaring initially an area of 65 hectares (160 acres) of
16303-423: The re-vegetation programme launched by the Park Administration with assistance from FOOPS, are in three landform zones reflecting the soils derived from the underlying geology. These landforms are the plains and the escarpment. The overall picture of floral abundance that has emerged after the area was declared a national park is identification of 124 indigenous plant species including more than 20 species which are in
16440-487: The remaining land bridge was impassable. This isolation makes the Aboriginal people the world's oldest culture. The study also found evidence of an unknown hominin group, distantly related to Denisovans, with whom the Aboriginal and Papuan ancestors must have interbred, leaving a trace of about 4% in most Aboriginal Australians' genome. There is, however, increased genetic diversity among Aboriginal Australians based on geographical distribution. Carlhoff et al. 2021 analysed
16577-402: The responsibility of subnational, regional, or local authorities. The United States established Yellowstone National Park , the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people," in 1872. Although Yellowstone was not officially termed a "national park" at the time, in practice it is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. However,
16714-406: The same territory continuously longer than any other human populations. These findings suggest that modern Aboriginal Australians are the direct descendants of the eastern wave, who left Africa up to 75,000 years ago. This finding is compatible with earlier archaeological finds of human remains near Lake Mungo that date to approximately 40,000 years ago. The idea of the "oldest continuous culture"
16851-531: The smaller offshore islands and Tasmania when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene inter-glacial period , about 11,700 years ago. Despite this, Aboriginal people maintained extensive networks within the continent and certain groups maintained relationships with Torres Strait Islanders and the Makassar people of modern-day Indonesia. Aboriginal Australians have a wide variety of cultural practices and beliefs that some scientists believe make up
16988-418: The soils has been arrested with extensive re vegetation. Intense propagation of vegetation of native species, in an otherwise plain degraded area infested with weeds (semblance of native vegetation seen mainly as thistles and boxthorns), started from the time of declaring the area as a national park in 1972. Work continued to remove introduced plants and vermin, and reintroduce natural vegetation and wildlife to
17125-402: The state of California. According to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for "public use, resort, and recreation". Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation and improvement. A public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was
17262-589: The story of creation known as The Dreamtime . Additionally, traditional healers were also custodians of important Dreaming stories as well as their medical roles (for example the Ngangkari in the Western desert ). Some core structures and themes are shared across the continent with details and additional elements varying between language and cultural groups. For example, in The Dreamtime of most regions,
17399-409: The term Aboriginal has changed over time and place, with the importance of family lineage, self-identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance. The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the term is conventionally only used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed, or by self-identification by
17536-628: The toe of steep slopes of dark grey to dark brown in colour, suitable to grow wide variety of vegetation) and lithosols (reddish brown soils on steep slopes and frequently support boxthorn and indigenous lightwoods ( Acacia implexa ); and other lithosols which are pre-basaltic sands and gravels seen near the foot of Grey Box Gully and in lower slopes of the Jacksons Creek valley. Soils in the park have been subject to erosion, weed growth, human activity and animal burrowing, particularly by rabbits. They are generally found not suitable for plant growth due to their poor water holding property. The degradation of
17673-408: The total area of 121 hectares (300 acres), the conservation area is 107.3 hectares (265 acres) (88.6%), conservation and recreation area is 13 hectares (32 acres) (10.8%), visitor center accounts for 0.7 hectares (1.7 acres) (0.6%), and 2 hectares (4.9 acres) (1.6%) is the special management area. The park is drained by Jacksons Creek. This with Deep Creek and Mount Emu creek are the major tributaries of
17810-474: The various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, excluding the ethnically distinct people of the Torres Strait Islands . Humans first migrated to Australia at least 65,000 years ago, and over time formed as many as 500 language-based groups . In the past, Aboriginal people lived over large sections of the continental shelf . They were isolated on many of
17947-517: The wider Australian community. Due to the aforementioned disadvantage, Aboriginal Australian communities experience a higher rate of suicide, as compared to non-indigenous communities. These issues stem from a variety of different causes unique to indigenous communities, such as historical trauma, socioeconomic disadvantage, and decreased access to education and health care. Also, this problem largely affects indigenous youth, as many indigenous youth may feel disconnected from their culture. To combat
18084-602: Was classified as a National Park and was opened to public access in 1977. In 1989, the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve (QNNP) was created to protect 3.381 million hectares on the north slope of Mount Everest in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. This national park is the first major global park to have no separate warden and protection staff—all of its management consists of existing local authorities, allowing
18221-515: Was established as the first game sanctuary in Africa. In 1926, the government of South Africa designated Kruger National Park as the nation's first national park, although it was an expansion of the earlier Sabie Game Reserve established in 1898 by President Paul Kruger of the old South African Republic , after whom the park was named. Argentina became the third country in the Americas to create
18358-601: Was established in Jamaica to conserve and protect 41,198 hectares, including tropical montane rainforest and adjacent buffer areas. The site includes Jamaica's tallest peak ( Blue Mountain Peak ), hiking trails and a visitor center. The Park was also designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015. The world's first national park service was established May 19, 1911, in Canada. The Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act placed
18495-547: Was relocated into the park in 1989 from Toolern Vale . This is one of many projects run by the Friends of the Organ Pipes National Park. Overall, OPNP authorities have reported 15 mammal native species, 88 species of avifauna, 13 reptile species and six amphibian species. A Management Plan was approved by the Conservation and Management of Parks, Victoria under Section 17 of the National Parks Act 1975 (Vic.), in 1996, with
18632-535: Was suffering at the hands of poachers and others who stood at the ready to pillage what they could from the area. Theodore Roosevelt and his newly formed Boone and Crockett Club successfully took the lead in protecting Yellowstone National Park from this plight, resulting in laws designed to conserve the natural resources in Yellowstone and other parks under the Government's purview. American Pulitzer Prize -winning author Wallace Stegner wrote: "National parks are
18769-464: Was to de-weed the area. As a result, the overstorey plants of indigenous variety and understorey species are now well established. An area of 20 hectares (49 acres) of land was added under the National Parks (Amendment) Act 1978 (Vic.) and another 36 hectares (89 acres) of Crown land (including land acquired previously forcibly for the Park) was added on 4 June 1997. The National Parks Act enjoins on
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