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196-478: Since the publication of Edward Said 's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the term 'Orientalism' to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian, and North African societies. In Said's analysis, 'the West' essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped—thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced in

392-688: A Belly-Dancer" (1990), about Tahia Carioca , the Egyptian dancer, actress, and political militant; and a piano sonata, titled Reflections on Exile (1984), which thematically refers to the emotions inherent to being an exile. In 1999, Said and Barenboim co-founded the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra , composed of young Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab musicians. They also established The Barenboim–Said Foundation in Seville , to develop education-through-music projects. Besides managing

588-572: A Geisha (2005) contains orientalist tropes and deep "cultural misrepresentations". She states that Memoirs of a Geisha "reinforces the idea of Japanese culture and geisha as exotic, backward, irrational, dirty, profane, promiscuous, bizarre, and enigmatic." During the Romantic period of the 19th century, ballet developed a preoccupation with the exotic. This exoticism ranged from ballets set in Scotland to those based on ethereal creatures. By

784-556: A Lebanese local resident who said that Said was less than ten metres (ca. 30 ft.) from the Israel Defense Force (IDF) soldiers manning the two-storey guardhouse, when he threw the stone, which hit the barbed wire fence in front of the guardhouse. In the U.S., Said's action was criticised by some students at Columbia University and the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith International (Sons of

980-736: A claim that overrides all the others and entitles that person with that so-called claim to drive people out!" Said's argument against the Religious Zionism traditionally espoused by Jewish fundamentalists (i.e., citing God to project the Jewish/Israeli claim as superior to the Arab/Palestinian claim) asserted that such justifications were inherently irrational because they would, among other factors, enable Christians and Muslims of all ethnic and cultural backgrounds to lay superseding territorial claims to Palestine on

1176-568: A class of 160 students. In retrospect, he viewed being sent far from the Middle East as a parental decision much influenced by "the prospects of deracinated people, like us the Palestinians, being so uncertain that it would be best to send me as far away as possible." The realities of peripatetic life—of interwoven cultures, of feeling out of place, and of homesickness—so affected the schoolboy Edward that themes of dissonance feature in

1372-632: A cultural sphere emerged during the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and early 9th century, limited to the territories of Europe that practiced Western Christianity at the time. Europe underwent social change and transition from the Middle Ages to modernisation, when the cultural movement Renaissance , from the 15th to 16th century, spread values and art techniques across the continent. Surviving European prehistoric art mainly comprises sculpture and rock art. It includes

1568-418: A distinct national style of classical music . One hallmark of "The Five" composers was their reliance on orientalism. Many quintessentially "Russian" works were composed in orientalist style, such as Balakirev's Islamey , Borodin's Prince Igor and Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade . As leader of "The Five", Balakirev encouraged the use of eastern themes and harmonies to set their "Russian" music apart from

1764-573: A distinct style in northern Italy from around 1420, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy , literature , music , and science . It took as its foundation the art of Classical antiquity , but was also influenced by the art of Northern Europe and contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance artists painted a wide variety of themes . Religious altarpieces , fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. Painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned to Jacobus de Voragine 's Golden Legend (1260),

1960-416: A highly influential sourcebook for the lives of saints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. Interest in classical antiquity and Renaissance humanism also resulted in many Mythological and history paintings . Decorative ornament , often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs. Techniques characteristic of Renaissance art include

2156-473: A house to sketch what became Women of Algiers ; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity. When Ingres, the director of the French Académie de peinture , painted a highly colored vision of a hammam , he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model). More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in

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2352-636: A literary environment of colonial exploration from a distinctly European worldview. The current trend in analysis of this movement references a belief in this literature as a mode to justify European colonial endeavors with the expansion of territory. In his novel Salammbô , Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome . He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures . Said argues that

2548-456: A magnificent Great Pagoda designed by William Chambers . The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture . Leighton House , built for the artist Frederic Leighton , has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work. After 1860, Japonism , sparked by

2744-489: A man-to-man contest-of-skill, between a father and his son, and an Arab man's gesture of joy at the end of the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (1985–2000): "It was a pebble; there was nobody there. The guardhouse was at least half a mile away." Said described the incident as trivial and said that he "threw the stone as a symbolic act" into "an empty place". The Beirut newspaper As-Safir (The Ambassador) interviewed

2940-737: A member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. He lectured at more than 200 other universities in North America, Europe, and the Middle East. As a public intellectual, Said was a member of the Palestinian National Council supporting a two-state solution that incorporated the Palestinian right of return , before resigning in 1993 due to his criticism of

3136-603: A member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. In 1974, he was Visiting Professor of Comparative Literature at Harvard; during the 1975–76 period, he was a Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science, at Stanford University . In 1977, he became the Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University, and subsequently

3332-623: A nude", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes, which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton , imagine "the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where]... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks". Other artists concentrated on landscape painting , often of desert scenes, including Richard Dadd and Edward Lear . David Roberts (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities , and published very successful books of lithographs from them. Russian Orientalist art

3528-507: A number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of

3724-480: A pointed analogy with France's own absolute monarchy . Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art. French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon 's ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798–1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology , and

3920-706: A religious taboo. As the Romans conquered Celtic territories, the style vanished, except in the British Isles , where it influenced the Insular style of the Early Middle Ages. Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC

4116-595: A return to ornament, and an accumulation of citations and collages borrowed from past styles. It borrowed freely from classical architecture, Rococo , neoclassical architecture , the Viennese secession , the British Arts and Crafts movement , the German Jugendstil . Deconstructivist architecture is a movement of postmodern architecture which appeared in the 1980s, which gives the impression of

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4312-793: A scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the Eastern world . Among such scholars were officials of the East India Company , who said that the Arab culture , the Indian culture , and the Islamic cultures should be studied as equal to the cultures of Europe . Among such scholars is the philologist William Jones , whose studies of Indo-European languages established modern philology . Company rule in India favored Orientalism as

4508-626: A stationery business in Cairo , Egypt. Although he was raised Protestant, Said became an agnostic in his later years. Said's childhood was split between Jerusalem and Cairo: he was enrolled in Jerusalem's St. George's School , a British boys' school run by the local Anglican Diocese , but stopped going to his classes when growing intercommunal violence between Palestinian Arabs and Palestinian Jews made it too dangerous for him to continue attending, prompting his family to leave Jerusalem at

4704-589: A strain of Orientalism: "the East as a sign or metaphor, as imaginary geography, as historical fiction, as the reduced and totalized other against which we construct our (not less reduced and totalized) sense of ourselves." Taruskin conceded Russian composers, unlike those in France and Germany, felt an "ambivalence" to the theme since "Russia was a contiguous empire in which Europeans, living side by side with 'orientals', identified (and intermarried) with them far more than in

4900-607: A strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter was in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers. Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. Lord Byron with his four long "Turkish tales" in poetry,

5096-489: A technique for developing and maintaining positive relations with the Indians—until the 1820s, when the influence of "anglicists" such as Thomas Babington Macaulay and John Stuart Mill led to the promotion of a Western-style education. Additionally, Hebraism and Jewish studies gained popularity among British and German scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries. The academic field of Oriental studies , which comprehended

5292-519: Is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding , until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent is known as Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture . One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in

5488-596: Is a distinct subset of Baroque, leading to the development of secular genres such as still life , genre paintings of everyday scenes, and landscape painting . By the 18th century, Baroque art had developed into Rococo in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful. The artistic movement no longer placed emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from

5684-480: Is a story involving a shah's wife and her illicit relations with a Golden Slave, originally played by Vaslav Nijinsky . The ballet's controversial fixation on sex includes an orgy in an oriental harem. When the shah discovers the actions of his numerous wives and their lovers, he orders the deaths of those involved. Sheherazade was loosely based on folktales of questionable authenticity. Edward Said Edward Wadie Said (1 November 1935 – 24 September 2003)

5880-440: Is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture that emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II . It was based upon new technologies of construction, particularly the use of glass , steel , and reinforced concrete ; and upon a rejection of the traditional neoclassical architecture and Beaux-Arts styles that were popular in the 19th century. Modernist architecture continued to be

6076-749: Is a theatrical one: the Orient is the stage on which the whole East is confined", and that the subject of learned Orientalists "is not so much the East itself as the East made known, and therefore less fearsome, to the Western reading public". In the academy, the book Orientalism (1978) became a foundational text of post-colonial cultural studies . The analyses in Said's works are of Orientalism in European literature, especially French literature , and do not analyse visual art and Orientalist painting . In that vein,

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6272-522: Is an intellectually limiting influence upon scholars, whilst supporters say that the thesis is intellectually liberating. The fields of post-colonial and cultural studies attempt to explain the "post-colonial world, its peoples, and their discontents", for which the techniques of investigation and efficacy in Orientalism , proved especially applicable in Middle Eastern studies . As such,

6468-780: Is characterized by unpredictability and controlled chaos. Antoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with the Cinematograph , in Paris. In 1897, Georges Méliès established the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris. Some notable European film movements include German Expressionism , Italian neorealism , French New Wave , Polish Film School , New German Cinema , Portuguese Cinema Novo , Movida Madrileña , Czechoslovak New Wave , Dogme 95 , New French Extremity , and Romanian New Wave . The cinema of Europe has its own awards,

6664-658: Is collected in the Western canon . The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas , and Australasia , and is not restricted to Europe. The Nobel Prize laureate in Literature Thomas Stearns Eliot , in his 1948 book Notes Towards the Definition of Culture , credited

6860-496: Is derived from Milica Bakić–Hayden's concept of Nesting Orientalisms. In The Impact of "Biblical Orientalism" in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Palestine (2014), the historian Lorenzo Kamel , presented the concept of "Biblical Orientalism" with an historical analysis of the simplifications of the complex, local Palestinian reality, which occurred from the 1830s until the early 20th century. Kamel said that

7056-495: Is known for its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy pillars , groin vaults , large towers, and decorative arcading . Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of a very regular, symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials, and

7252-567: Is most frequently seen in churches. Plenty of examples of this architecture are found alongside the Camino de Santiago . Gothic architecture flourished in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages . It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture . Originating in 12th century France and lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known during

7448-567: Is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. It favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance paintings. In contrast, Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama. Perhaps the best-known Baroque painters are Caravaggio , Rembrandt , Peter Paul Rubens , and Diego Velázquez . Baroque art

7644-594: Is often seen as part of the Counter-Reformation — the revival of spiritual life in the Roman Catholic Church . Religious and political themes are widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures are characterized by a strong element of drama, emotion, and theatricality. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colors with dark undertones. Dutch Golden Age painting

7840-491: Is one of the most important writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a significant theme in the literature of Romanticism . Giuseppe Verdi 's opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypt's tyranny over Ethiopia . Irish Orientalism had a particular character, drawing on various beliefs about early historical links between Ireland and

8036-470: Is to be an alternative to the extremist politics of the social-democratic Fatah and the Islamist Hamas . Said's founding of the group, as well as his other international political activities concerning Palestine, were noticed by the U.S. government, and Said came under FBI surveillance, which became more intensive after 1972. David Price , an anthropologist at Evergreen State College , requested

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8232-484: The Baroque . Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. The style

8428-423: The common practice period from approximately 1600 to 1900, as well as the modernist and postmodernist styles that emerged after 1900 and which continue to the present day. Folk music : Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, traveling, or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, oral tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from

8624-796: The Arab Studies Quarterly in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , on the executive board of International PEN , and was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters , the Royal Society of Literature , the Council of Foreign Relations, and the American Philosophical Society . In 1993, Said presented the BBC's annual Reith Lectures , a six-lecture series titled Representation of

8820-630: The European Film Awards . Main festivals : Cannes Film Festival (France), Berlin International Film Festival (Germany). The Venice Film Festival (Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe . See: History of science in classical antiquity See: post-classical science See: History of science in

9016-478: The Israeli status quo as the remit of the public intellectual who has "to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual" man and woman. In 1999, Said and Argentine-Israeli conductor Daniel Barenboim co-founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra , which is based in Seville , Spain. Said was also an accomplished pianist, and, with Barenboim, co-authored

9212-635: The Orient . His model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle Eastern studies . Born in Jerusalem , Mandatory Palestine , in 1935, Said was a United States citizen by way of his father, who had served in the United States Army during World War I . After the 1948 Palestine war , he relocated the family to Egypt, where they had previously lived, and then to

9408-526: The Oslo Accords . He advocated for the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure political and humanitarian equality in the Israeli-occupied territories , where Palestinians have witnessed the increased expansion of Israeli settlements . However, in 1999, he argued that sustainable peace was only possible with one Israeli–Palestinian state . He defined his oppositional relation with

9604-548: The Ottoman Empire in painting and prints . Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in

9800-666: The Palestinian Authority (PA) banned the sale of Said's books; however, the PA lifted the book ban when Said publicly praised Yasir Arafat for rejecting Prime Minister Ehud Barak 's offers at the Middle East Peace Summit at Camp David (2000) in the U.S. In the mid-1990s, Said wrote the foreword to the history book Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years (1994), by Israel Shahak , about Jewish fundamentalism, which presents

9996-653: The Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts (in The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia ) had similar motivations, giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start. The French artist James Tissot also used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little regard for historical costumes or other fittings. William Holman Hunt produced

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10192-578: The Rococo style. Revivalism was a hallmark of nineteenth-century European architecture. Revivals of the Romanesque , Gothic , Renaissance , and Baroque styles all took place, alongside revivals of the Classical styles. Regional styles, such as English Tudor , were also revived, as well as non-European styles, such as Chinese ( Chinoiserie ) and Egyptian . These revivals often used elements of

10388-434: The Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion. It was, initially at least, directly linked to the Counter-Reformation , a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation . Baroque was characterized by new explorations of form, light, and shadow, and a freer treatment of classical elements. It reached its extreme form in

10584-504: The Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire , when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use. Romanesque architecture combines features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions. It

10780-436: The Ronchamp Chapel Notre-Dame-du-Haut (1950–1955) by Le Corbusier . The style was individualistic, but tendencies include Distortion of form for an emotional effect, efforts at achieving the new, original, and visionary, and a conception of architecture as a work of art. Postmodern architecture emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against the austerity, formality, and lack of variety of modern architecture , particularly in

10976-405: The Zionists have any historical claim to the lands of Israel?" Said: "Of course! But I would not say that the Jewish claim, or the Zionist claim, is the only claim or the main claim; I say that it is a claim among many others. Certainly, the Arabs have a much greater claim because they have had a longer history of inhabitance —of actual residence in Palestine— than the Jews did . If you look at

11172-399: The history of Palestine , there's been some quite interesting work done by biblical archaeologists ... you'll see that the period of actual Israelite —as it was called in the Old Testament —dominance in Palestine amounts to about 200 to 250 years. But there were Moabites , there were Jebusites , there were Canaanites , there were Philistines , there were many other people in Palestine at

11368-443: The international style advocated by Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe . Embraced in the USA first, it spread to Europe. In contrast to Modernist buildings, Postmodern buildings have curved forms, decorative elements, asymmetry, bright colors, and features often borrowed from earlier periods. Colors and textures unrelated to the structure or function of the building. While rejecting the "puritanism" of modernism, it called for

11564-424: The 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture . It spread to all of Western Europe , and much of Southern and Central Europe . In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially England and Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century. Gothic art

11760-411: The 17th century, Palladio's interpretation of this classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, and continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings. Baroque architecture began in 16th-century Italy. It took

11956-487: The 18th and 19th centuries. The thesis of Orientalism develops Antonio Gramsci 's theory of cultural hegemony , and Michel Foucault 's theorisation of discourse (the knowledge - power relation) to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies. Said criticised contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of Arabo -Islamic cultures, especially Bernard Lewis and Fouad Ajami . Furthermore, Said said that "The idea of representation

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12152-424: The 19th century. At that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France, where the dismissive use of the term "Orientalist" was made popular by the art critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary . Despite such social disdain for a style of representational art , the French Society of Orientalist Painters was founded in 1893, with Jean-Léon Gérôme as the honorary president; whereas in Britain,

12348-399: The 19th century. It was expressed through decoration. The buildings were covered with ornament in curving forms, based on flowers, plants, or animals: butterflies, peacocks, swans, irises, cyclamens, orchids, and water lilies. Façades were asymmetrical, and often decorated with polychrome ceramic tiles. The decoration usually suggested movement; there was no distinction between the structure and

12544-402: The American's image of Okinawa rather than about the Okinawan people ." The film characterizes the Okinawans as "merry but backward" and "de-politicized", which ignored the real-life Okinawan political protests over forceful land acquisition by the American military at the time. Kimiko Akita, in Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in 'Memoirs of a Geisha' , argues that Memoirs of

12740-427: The Anglo–American Orientalist, as "a perfect exemplification [of an] Establishment Orientalist [whose work] purports to be objective, liberal scholarship, but is, in reality, very close to being propaganda against his subject material." Lewis responded with a harsh critique of Orientalism accusing Said of politicizing the scientific study of the Middle East (and Arabic studies in particular); neglecting to critique

12936-466: The Arab–Israeli dispute, or to people who are judged "too conservative." It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So, Orientalism , for many people, is a word that substitutes for thought, and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Saïd meant, at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan. In Orientalism , Said described Bernard Lewis ,

13132-420: The Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson 's La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l'Égypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities . Eugène Delacroix 's first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited Greece or

13328-536: The British involvement in successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, but also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake". But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists" Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in

13524-401: The Byzantine art of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Gothic art that emerged in Western Europe over the same period. Byzantine art was strongly influenced by its classical heritage but distinguished itself by the development of a new, abstract, aesthetic, marked by anti-naturalism and a favor for symbolism. The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial:

13720-571: The Byzantine era. Migration Period art includes the art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the distinct Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art of the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic fusion in the British Isles . It covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the Scythian and Germanic animal style . After Christianization , Migration Period art developed into various schools of Early Medieval art in Western Europe, which are normally classified by region, such as Anglo-Saxon art and Carolingian art , before

13916-428: The Covenant). The university provost published a five-page letter stating that Said's action was protected under academic freedom : "To my knowledge, the stone was directed at no-one; no law was broken; no indictment was made; no criminal or civil action has been taken against Professor Saïd." In February 2001, the Freud Society in Austria cancelled a lecture by Said due to the stone-throwing incident. The President of

14112-562: The East, and followed his friend Théodore Géricault 's The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as the more Near Eastern parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of

14308-505: The East, few of which are now regarded as historically correct. The mythical Milesians are one example of this. The Irish were also conscious of the views of other nations seeing them as comparably backward to the East, and Europe's "backyard Orient." In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca , used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven . The musicologist Richard Taruskin identified in 19th-century Russian music

14504-770: The FBI file on Said through the Freedom of Information Act on behalf of CounterPunch and published a report there on his findings. The released pages of Said's FBI files show that the FBI read Said's books and reported on their contents to Washington. Besides having been a public intellectual, Edward Said was an accomplished pianist, worked as the music critic for The Nation magazine, and wrote four books about music: Musical Elaborations (1991); Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), with Daniel Barenboim as co-author; On Late Style: Music and Literature Against

14700-841: The Freud Society said "[t]he majority [of the society] decided to cancel the Freud lecture to avoid an internal clash. I deeply regret that this has been done to Professor Said". In the revised edition of Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (1997), Said criticized the Orientalist bias of the Western news media's reportage about the Middle East and Islam, especially

14896-500: The German symphonism of Anton Rubinstein and other Western-oriented composers. Edward Said originally wrote that Germany did not have a politically motivated Orientalism because its colonial empire did not expand in the same areas as France and Britain. Said later stated that Germany "had in common with Anglo-French and later American Orientalism [...] a kind of intellectual authority over the Orient". However, Said also wrote that "there

15092-519: The Grain (2006); and Music at the Limits (2007) in which final book he spoke of finding musical reflections of his literary and historical ideas in bold compositions and strong performances. Elsewhere in the musical world, the composer Mohammed Fairouz acknowledged the deep influence of Edward Said upon his works; compositionally, Fairouz's First Symphony thematically alludes to the essay "Homage to

15288-518: The Haractas, Followed by his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists traveled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes. In many of these works, artists portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped . Such works typically concentrated on Arab, Jewish, and other Semitic cultures, as those were

15484-519: The Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most European visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancé's face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as a Westerner in the background beats his way up

15680-538: The Intellectual , wherein he examined the role of the public intellectual in contemporary society, which the BBC published in 2011. In his work, Said frequently researches the term and concept of the cultural archive , especially in his book Culture and Imperialism (1993). He states the cultural archive is a major site where investments in imperial conquest are developed, and that these archives include "narratives, histories, and travel tales." Said emphasizes

15876-667: The Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company ) and France (the French East India Company ). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine Ming -era blue and white porcelain from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain ). Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in

16072-530: The Orient that comprehended East Asia : "the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas." Edward Said said that Orientalism "enables the political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West, not just during colonial times, but also in the present." In art history , the term Orientalism refers to the works of mostly 19th-century Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia , during

16268-772: The Paris Opera, with choreography by Joseph Mazilier . Marius Petipa re-choreographed the ballet for the Maryinsky Ballet in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1899. Its complex storyline, loosely based on Lord Byron's poem , takes place in Turkey and focuses on a love story between a pirate and a beautiful slave girl. Scenes include a bazaar where women are sold to men as slaves, and the Pasha's Palace, which features his harem of wives. In 1877, Marius Petipa choreographed La Bayadère ,

16464-606: The Peace Process (2000). During a lecture conference at the University of Washington in 2003, Said affirmed that Israeli Jews had grounds for a territorial claim to Palestine (or the Land of Israel ), but maintained that it was not "the only claim or the main claim" vis-à-vis all of the other ethnic groups (including Jews and Arabs ) who have inhabited the region throughout human history: Halleran: "Professor Said, do

16660-431: The Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travelers wearing what look very like togas . Many travelers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron , as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour . The growing French interest in exotic Oriental luxury and lack of liberty in the 18th century to some extent reflected

16856-571: The Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode"; ( Gallery, below ) Orientalist sculptors include Charles Cordier . Though British political interest in

17052-602: The U.S. government in the late 1970s. Especially troublesome to Said was his belief that Yasir Arafat had betrayed the right of return of the Palestinian refugees to their houses and properties in the Green Line territories of pre-1967 Israel , and that Arafat ignored the growing political threat of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories that had been established since the conquest of Palestine in 1967. In 1995, in response to Said's political criticisms,

17248-690: The United States. Said enrolled at the secondary school Victoria College while in Egypt and Northfield Mount Hermon School after arriving in the United States. He graduated with a BA in English from Princeton University in 1957, and later with an MA (1960) and a PhD (1964) in English Literature from Harvard University . His principal influences were Antonio Gramsci , Frantz Fanon , Aimé Césaire , Michel Foucault , and Theodor W. Adorno . In 1963, Said joined Columbia University as

17444-555: The West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art, and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as the Veroli casket , hardstone carvings , enamels , glass , jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout

17640-964: The West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, the Barenboim–Said Foundation assists with the administration of the Academy of Orchestral Studies, the Musical Education in Palestine Project, and the Early Childhood Musical Education Project, in Seville. Besides honors, memberships, and postings to prestigious organizations worldwide, Edward Said was awarded some twenty honorary university degrees in the course of his professional life as an academic, critic, and Man of Letters. Among

17836-465: The analytical reader approaches a scripture from the perspective of a colonial reader. Another book in this area is Postcolonial Theory (1998), by Leela Gandhi , explains Post-colonialism in terms of how it can be applied to the wider philosophical and intellectual context of history. In 1967, consequent to the Six-Day War , Said became a public intellectual when he acted politically to counter

18032-827: The ancient world, and "the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master – is almost entirely French in origin", though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other European painters. John Frederick Lewis , who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo , painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His careful and seemingly affectionate representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his later works. He "never painted

18228-555: The art historian Linda Nochlin applied Said's methods of critical analysis to art, "with uneven results". Other scholars see Orientalist paintings as depicting a myth and a fantasy that did not often correlate with reality. There is also a critical trend within the Islamic world . In 2002, it was estimated that in Saudi Arabia alone some 200 books and 2,000 articles discussing Orientalism had been penned by local or foreign scholars. The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament

18424-522: The article "Resources of Hope" (2 April 2003), Said said that the U.S. war against Iraq was a politically ill-conceived military enterprise. In 2003, Haidar Abdel-Shafi , Ibrahim Dakak, Mustafa Barghouti , and Said established Al-Mubadara (the Palestinian National Initiative ), headed by Barghouti, a third-party reformist, democratic party meant to be an alternative to the usual two-party politics of Palestine. Its ideology

18620-490: The artistic forms and ornamentation of Far Eastern Asia , resulting in the rise in favor of porcelain figurines and chinoiserie in general. Rococo soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning. Neoclassicism began in the 18th century as a counter-movement opposing Rococo. It desired for a return to the simplicity, order, and 'purism' of classical antiquity, especially ancient Greece and Rome. Neoclassicism

18816-434: The arts and commission works. Increased literacy and a growing body of secular vernacular literature encouraged the representation of secular themes in art. With the growth of cities, trade guilds were formed, and artists were often required to be members of a painters' guild —as a result, because of better record-keeping, more artists are known to us by name in this period than any previous. Renaissance art emerged as

19012-698: The basis of their faith. From 1977 until 1991, Said was an independent member of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). In 1988, he was a proponent of the two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , and voted for the establishment of the State of Palestine at a meeting of the PNC in Algiers. In 1993, Said quit his membership in the Palestinian National Council, to protest

19208-935: The beginning of the Mesolithic in Europe, the figurative sculpture was greatly reduced, and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot . The oldest European cave art dates back to 40,800 and can be found in the El Castillo Cave in Spain, but cave art exists across

19404-548: The best-known neoclassicists. Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism, Romanticism rejected the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists, specifically the highly objective and ordered nature of Neoclassicism, favoring instead a more individual and emotional approach to the arts. Emphasis was placed on nature, especially when aiming to portray the power and beauty of the natural world, and emotions. Romantic art often used colors in order to express feelings and emotions. Romantic art

19600-556: The book Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), a compilation of their conversations and public discussions about music at Carnegie Hall in New York City. Said was born on 1 November 1935 into a family of Palestinian Christians in the city of Jerusalem , at the time under the British Mandate for Palestine . His parents were born in the Ottoman Empire : his mother Hilda Said (née Musa)

19796-466: The case of other colonial powers". Nonetheless, Taruskin characterized Orientalism in Romantic Russian music as having melodies "full of close little ornaments and melismas", chromatic accompanying lines, drone bass—characteristics which were used by Glinka , Balakirev , Borodin , Rimsky-Korsakov , Lyapunov , and Rachmaninov . These musical characteristics evoke: not just the East, but

19992-553: The clothes of the Near East . The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. In general art with Biblical settings would not be considered as Orientalist except where contemporary or historicist Middle Eastern detail or settings is a feature of works, as with some paintings by Gentile Bellini and others, and a number of 19th-century works. Renaissance Venice had a phase of particular interest in depictions of

20188-439: The colonial and imperial ambitions of the European powers and of the U.S. Likewise, Said denounced the political and the cultural malpractices of the régimes of the ruling Arab élites who he felt internalized the false and romanticized representations of Arabic culture that were created by Anglo–American Orientalists. Orientalism proposed that much Western study of Islamic civilization was political intellectualism, meant for

20384-401: The company of his son, Wadie, Said revisited the places of his boyhood, and confronted injustices meted out to ordinary Palestinians in the contemporary West Bank . Despite the social and cultural prestige afforded to BBC cinema products in the U.S., the documentary was never broadcast by any American television company. On 3 July 2000, whilst touring the Middle East with his son, Wadie, Said

20580-572: The concept of Nesting Orientalisms (1992), derived from the ideas of the historian Larry Wolff ( Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment , 1994) and Said's ideas in Orientalism (1978). The Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova ( Imagining the Balkans , 1997) presented the ethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms ( Ethnologia Balkanica , 1997), which

20776-478: The continent-wide styles of Romanesque art and finally Gothic art developed. Romanesque art and Gothic art dominated Western and Central Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Renaissance style in the 15th century or later, depending on the region. The Romanesque style was greatly influenced by Byzantine and Insular art. Religious art, such as church sculpture and decorated manuscripts,

20972-678: The continent. Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those paintings have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi in the Saimaa area of Finland. The Rock Art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin forms a distinct group with the human figure the main focus, often seen in large groups, with battles, dancing, and hunting all represented, as well as other activities and details such as clothing. The figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with

21168-513: The continuity of Orientalism into the present can be found in influential images, particularly through the Cinema of the United States , as the West has now grown to include the United States. Many blockbuster feature films, such as the Indiana Jones series, The Mummy films, and Disney's Aladdin film series demonstrate the imagined geographies of the East. The films usually portray

21364-508: The cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realizations". The concept of European culture is arguably linked to the classical definition of the Western world . In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary , scientific , political , artistic , and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge

21560-418: The cultural proposition that Israel's mistreatment of the Palestinians is rooted in a Judaic requirement (of permission) for Jews to commit crimes, including murder, against Gentiles (non-Jews). In his foreword, Said said that Jewish History, Jewish Religion is "nothing less than a concise history of classic and modern Judaism , insofar as these are relevant to the understanding of modern Israel"; and praised

21756-473: The cultures of the Near East and the Far East , became the fields of Asian studies and Middle Eastern studies . In his book Orientalism (1978), cultural critic Edward Said redefines the term Orientalism to describe a pervasive Western tradition—academic and artistic—of prejudiced outsider-interpretations of the Eastern world , which was shaped by the cultural attitudes of European imperialism in

21952-709: The division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order , the Ionic Order , and the Corinthian Order , was to have a profound effect on the Western architecture of later periods. Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans , but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture . Roman architecture flourished in

22148-516: The dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 1980s, when it was challenged by postmodernism . Expressionist architecture is a form of modern architecture that began during the first decades of the 20th century, in parallel with the expressionist visual and performing arts that especially developed and dominated in Germany . In the 1950s, the second movement of expressionist architecture developed, initiated by

22344-515: The early 14th and lasted until the early 17th century. It demonstrates a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman architectural thought and material culture, particularly the symmetry , proportion , geometry , and the regularity of parts of ancient buildings. Developed first in Florence , with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style

22540-478: The exotic Orient. This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Henri Matisse 's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres' pupil Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre ) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of

22736-463: The field of post-colonial studies , for what the British intellectual Terry Eagleton said is the book's "central truth ... that demeaning images of the East, and imperialist incursions into its terrain, have historically gone hand in hand." Both Said's supporters and his critics acknowledge the transformative influence of Orientalism upon scholarship in the humanities; critics say that the thesis

22932-544: The finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings. Egyptian Revival architecture became popular in the early and mid-19th century and continued as a minor style into the early 20th century. Moorish Revival architecture began in the early 19th century in the German states and was particularly popular for building synagogues. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture

23128-832: The formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid . Thomas Chippendale 's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, c. 1753–1770. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream " chinoiserie ". Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin ( tôle ) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has

23324-531: The fragmentation of the constructed building. It is characterized by an absence of harmony, continuity, or symmetry. Its name comes from the idea of " Deconstruction ", a form of semiotic analysis developed by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida . Besides fragmentation, Deconstructivism often manipulates the structure's surface skin and creates by non- rectilinear shapes which appear to distort and dislocate elements of architecture . The finished visual appearance

23520-672: The gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania , in Southern Italy, especially at Pompeii and Herculaneum . Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil , pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape. Early Christian art grew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted its iconography from these sources. Medieval art can be broadly categorized into

23716-487: The historian Shahak for describing contemporary Israel as a nation subsumed in a "Judeo–Nazi" cultural ambiance that allowed the dehumanization of the Palestinian Other : In all my works, I remained fundamentally critical of a gloating and uncritical nationalism. ... My view of Palestine ... remains the same today: I expressed all sorts of reservations about the insouciant nativism, and militant militarism of

23912-476: The historical and cultural realities of the peoples represented in the Middle East, featured in journalism (print, photograph, television) and some types of scholarship (specialist journals). In the essay " Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Victims " (1979), Said argued in favour of the political legitimacy and philosophical authenticity of the claims and right to a Jewish homeland , while also asserting

24108-521: The honors bestowed to him were: Culture of Europe The culture of Europe is diverse, and rooted in its art , architecture , traditions , cuisines , music , folklore , embroidery , film , literature , economics , philosophy and religious customs . Whilst there are a great number of perspectives that can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing concept of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming

24304-510: The ideas and culture that writers of the time reflected in their work. During this time, the culture and objects of the East began to have a profound effect on Europe. Extensive traveling by artists and members of the European elite brought travelogues and sensational tales back to the West creating a great interest in all things "foreign". Romantic Orientalism incorporates African and Asian geographic locations, well-known colonial and "native" personalities, folklore , and philosophies to create

24500-567: The importing of ukiyo-e , became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Claude Monet and Edgar Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt , an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images. The paintings of James Abbott McNeill Whistler 's The Peacock Room demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of

24696-608: The internal politics that led to the signing of the Oslo Accords (Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, 1993), which he thought had unacceptable terms, and because the terms had been rejected by the Madrid Conference of 1991 . Said disliked the Oslo Accords for not producing an independent State of Palestine, and because they were politically inferior to a plan that Yasir Arafat had rejected—a plan Said had presented to Arafat on behalf of

24892-468: The investigation and analysis Said applied in Orientalism proved especially practical in literary criticism and cultural studies , such as the post-colonial histories of India by Gyan Prakash , Nicholas Dirks and Ronald Inden , modern Cambodia by Simon Springer, and the literary theories of Homi K. Bhabha , Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Hamid Dabashi ( Iran: A People Interrupted , 2007). In Eastern Europe , Milica Bakić–Hayden developed

25088-484: The languages, histories, and peoples of Asia. Therefore, Orientalist scholarship implies that the colonial subaltern (the colonised people) were incapable of thinking, acting, or speaking for themselves, thus are incapable of writing their own national histories. In such imperial circumstances, the Orientalist scholars of the West wrote the history of the Orient—and so constructed the modern, cultural identities of Asia—from

25284-509: The late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, c. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the East India Company ), Denmark (the Danish East India Company ),

25480-425: The later part of the century, ballets were capturing the presumed essence of the mysterious East. These ballets often included sexual themes and tended to be based on assumptions of people rather than on concrete facts. Orientalism is apparent in numerous ballets. The Orient motivated several major ballets, which have survived since the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Le Corsaire premiered in 1856 at

25676-523: The lead heroic characters as being from the Western world, while the villains often come from the East. The representation of the Orient has continued in film, although this representation does not necessarily have any truth to it. In The Tea House of the August Moon (1956), as argued by Pedro Iacobelli, there are tropes of orientalism. He notes, that the film "tells us more about the Americans and

25872-428: The love story of an Indian temple dancer and Indian warrior. This ballet was based on Kalidasa's play Sakuntala . La Bayadere used vaguely Indian costuming, and incorporated Indian inspired hand gestures into classical ballet. In addition, it included a 'Hindu Dance,' motivated by Kathak, an Indian dance form. Another ballet, Sheherazade , choreographed by Michel Fokine in 1910 to music by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov ,

26068-402: The movement of Realism emerged, which sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. While Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism, Realism

26264-526: The nationalist consensus; I suggested, instead, a critical look at the Arab environment, Palestinian history, and the Israeli realities, with the explicit conclusion that only a negotiated settlement, between the two communities of suffering, Arab and Jewish, would provide respite from the unending war. In 1998, Said made In Search of Palestine (1998), a BBC documentary film about Palestine, past and present. In

26460-793: The nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk music continues to influence popular music in Europe, however its prominence varies across countries. See the list of European folk music . Popular music : Europe has imported many different genres of popular music, including Rock , Blues , R&B Soul , Jazz , Hip-Hop and Pop . Various modern genres named after Europe are rooted in Electronic dance music (EDM), and include Europop , Eurodisco , Eurodance and Eurobeat . Popular music can vary considerably across Europe. Styles of music from nations formerly under Ottoman rule enrich this variation, with their native musical traditions having fused with Ottoman musical influences over centuries. The Neolithic long house

26656-404: The oldest known representation of the human body, the Venus of Hohle Fel , dating from 40,000 to 35,000 BC, found in Schelklingen , Germany , and the Löwenmensch figurine , from about 30,000 BC, the oldest undisputed piece of figurative art. The Swimming Reindeer of about 11,000 BCE is among the finest Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in the art of the Upper Paleolithic . At

26852-508: The ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix , Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques . They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting , have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in

27048-420: The only acceptable criterion for true knowledge." The appearance of academic impartiality was part of Lewis's role as an academic authority for zealous "anti–Islamic, anti–Arab, Zionist, and Cold War crusades." Moreover, in the Afterword to the 1995 edition of the book, Said replied to Lewis's criticisms of the first edition of Orientalism (1978). In the academy, Orientalism became a foundational text of

27244-406: The onset of the 1947–1949 Palestine War . By the late 1940s, Said was in Alexandria , enrolled at the Egyptian branch of Victoria College , where "classmates included Hussein of Jordan , and the Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Saudi Arabian boys whose academic careers would progress to their becoming ministers, prime ministers, and leading businessmen in their respective countries." However, he

27440-415: The original style in a freer way than original examples, sometimes borrowing from multiple styles at once. At Alnwick Castle, for example, Gothic revival elements were added to the exterior of the original medieval castle, while the interiors were designed in a Renaissance style. Art Nouveau architecture was a reaction against the eclectic styles which dominated European architecture in the second half of

27636-576: The ornament. Art Deco architecture began in Brussels in 1903–04. Early buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the facades; they marked a clean break with the Art Nouveau style. After the First World War, art deco buildings of steel and reinforced concrete began to appear in large cities across Europe and the United States. Buildings became more decorated, and interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics, and stainless steel. Modernist architecture

27832-439: The outbreak of the Second World War, German dominance of Orientalism was practically unchallenged." Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on oppression during the Ottoman Empire period, battles between Ottoman and Christian armies, as well as themes like the Ottoman Imperial Harem , although the latter was a less common theme than in French depictions. The Saidian analysis has not prevented

28028-461: The period as Opus Francigenum ("French work"), with the term Gothic first appearing during the latter part of the Renaissance . Its characteristics include the pointed arch , the ribbed vault (which evolved from the joint vaulting of Romanesque architecture), and the flying buttress . Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the great cathedrals , abbeys , and churches of Europe. Renaissance architecture began in

28224-544: The period. Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish attire for much of the time when he was back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th-century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travelers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering

28420-474: The perspective that the West is the cultural standard to emulate, the norm from which the "exotic and inscrutable" Orientals deviate. Orientalism provoked much professional and personal criticism for Said among academics. Traditional Orientalists, such as Albert Hourani , Robert Graham Irwin , Nikki Keddie , Bernard Lewis , and Kanan Makiya , suffered negative consequences, because Orientalism affected public perception of their intellectual integrity and

28616-421: The previous year, and The Death of Sardanapalus , inspired by Lord Byron , which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting. In 1832, Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria , recently conquered by the French, and Morocco , as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco . He

28812-438: The prominent Christian influence upon the European culture: "It is in Christianity that our arts have developed; it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted." In the 5th century BCE, Greek philosopher Herodotus conceptualized what it was that divided Europe and Asia, differentiating Europe, as the West (where the sun sets), from the East (where the sun rises). A later concept of Europe as

29008-414: The quality of their Orientalist scholarship . The historian Keddie said that Said's critical work about the field of Orientalism had caused, in their academic disciplines: Some unfortunate consequences ... I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East [studies] field to adopt the word Orientalism as a generalized swear-word, essentially referring to people who take the "wrong" position on

29204-422: The realists who carefully painted what they observed such as Gustav Bauernfeint; and those who imagined Orientalist scenes without ever leaving the studio. French painters such as Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904) are widely regarded as the leading luminaries of the Orientalist movement. In the late 18th century, 19th century and early 20th century, the term Orientalist identified

29400-443: The relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. Prehistoric Celtic art is another distinct grouping from much of Iron Age Europe and survives mainly in the form of high-status metalwork skillfully decorated with complex, elegant, and mostly abstract designs, often using curving and spiral forms. Full-length human figures of any size are so rare that their absence may represent

29596-533: The return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography . He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including

29792-514: The role of the Western imperial project in the disruption of cultural archives, and theorizes that disciplines such as comparative literature, English, and anthropology can be directly linked to the concept of empire. Said's first published book, Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966), was an expansion of the doctoral dissertation he presented to earn the PhD degree. Abdirahman Hussein said in Edward Saïd: Criticism and Society (2010), that Conrad's novella Heart of Darkness (1899)

29988-407: The scholarly findings of the Orientalists; and giving "free rein" to his biases. Said retorted that in The Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982), Lewis responded to his thesis with the claim that the Western quest for knowledge about other societies was unique in its display of disinterested curiosity, which Muslims did not reciprocate towards Europe. Lewis was saying that "knowledge about Europe [was]

30184-453: The seductive East that emasculates, enslaves, renders passive. In a word, it signifies the promise of the experience of nega , a prime attribute of the orient as imagined by the Russians.... In opera and song, nega often simply denotes S-E-X a la russe, desired or achieved. Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exoticism , including the influence of Javanese gamelan in Claude Debussy 's piano music all

30380-438: The selective usage and simplification of religion, in approaching the place known as "The Holy Land", created a view that, as a place, the Holy Land has no human history other than as the place where Bible stories occurred, rather than as Palestine, a country inhabited by many peoples. The post-colonial discourse presented in Orientalism , also influenced post-colonial theology and post-colonial biblical criticism, by which method

30576-422: The self-affirmation of European identity, rather than objective academic study; thus, the academic field of Oriental studies functioned as a practical method of cultural discrimination and imperialist domination—that is to say, the Western Orientalist knows more about "the Orient" than do "the Orientals." Western Art, Orientalism continues, has misrepresented the Orient with stereotypes since Antiquity , as in

30772-404: The service of imperial power . Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior. This allows 'Western imagination' to see 'Eastern' cultures and people as both alluring and a threat to Western civilization. Journalist and art critic Jonathan Jones pushed back on Said’s claims, and suggested that the majority of Orientalism

30968-467: The simultaneously inherent right of national self-determination for the Palestinian people . He also characterized Israel's founding as it happened, the displacement of the Palestinian Arabs that accompanied it, and the subjugation of the Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied territories as a manifestation of Western-style imperialism . His books on this topic include The Question of Palestine (1979), The Politics of Dispossession (1994), and The End of

31164-462: The source of the false cultural representations in western-eastern relations. The thesis of Orientalism proposes the existence of a "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo–Islamic peoples and their culture", which originates from Western culture 's long tradition of false, romanticized images of Asia, in general, and the Middle East in particular. Said wrote that such cultural representations have served as implicit justifications for

31360-490: The stereotyped misrepresentations (factual, historical, cultural) with which American news media explained the Arab–Israeli conflict ; reportage divorced from the historical realities of the Middle East , in general, and from Israel and the Palestinian territories , in particular. To address, explain, and correct such perceived orientalism , Said published The Arab Portrayed (1968), a descriptive essay about images of "the Arab " that are meant to evade specific discussion of

31556-407: The street with his stick. This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings. When Gérôme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was "widely found offensive", partly because

31752-429: The tendency to editorialize "speculations about the latest conspiracy to blow up buildings, sabotage commercial airliners, and poison water supplies." He criticized the American military involvement in the Kosovo War (1998–99) as an imperial action; and described the Iraq Liberation Act (1998), promulgated during the Clinton Administration, as the political license that predisposed the U.S. to invade Iraq in 2003, which

31948-519: The term Orientalist identified "an artist". The formation of the French Orientalist Painters Society changed the consciousness of practitioners towards the end of the 19th century, since artists could now see themselves as part of a distinct art movement. As an art movement, Orientalist painting is generally treated as one of the many branches of 19th-century academic art ; however, many different styles of Orientalist art were in evidence. Art historians tend to identify two broad types of Orientalist artist:

32144-423: The territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for nude women. The leading British genre painter , Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during

32340-456: The time and before and after. And to isolate one of them and say, 'That's the real owner of the land,' I mean, that is—that is fundamentalism. Because the only way you can back it up is say, 'Well, God gave it to us .' [...] So, I think the people who have a history of residence in Palestine for a certain amount of time—including Jews, yes, and, of course, the Arabs—have a claim. But... this is very important: I don't think any claim [...] nobody has

32536-442: The tragedy The Persians (472 BCE), by Aeschylus , where the Greek protagonist falls because he misperceived the true nature of The Orient. The European political domination of Asia has biased even the most outwardly objective Western texts about The Orient, to a degree unrecognized by the Western scholars who appropriated for themselves the production of cultural knowledge—the academic work of studying, exploring, and interpreting

32732-411: The two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. However, the Byzantines inherited the Early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs , of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of

32928-446: The use of proportion and linear perspective ; foreshortening , to create an illusion of depth; sfumato , a technique of softening of sharp outlines by subtle blending of tones to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality; and chiaroscuro , the effect of using a strong contrast between light and dark to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality. Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements— Mannerism and

33124-412: The use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century. Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in

33320-466: The way to the sitar being used in recordings by the Beatles . In the United Kingdom, Gustav Holst composed Beni Mora evoking a languid, heady Arabian atmosphere. Orientalism, in a more camp fashion also found its way into exotica music in the late 1950s, especially the works of Les Baxter , for example, his composition "City of Veils". The Romantic movement in literature began in 1785 and ended around 1830. The term Romantic references

33516-429: The west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges , and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House ( c.  1805 ) in Gloucestershire , built for a nabob returned from Bengal , and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton . Turquerie , which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both

33712-506: The work and worldview of the academic Said. At school's end, he had become Edward W. Said—a polyglot intellectual (fluent in English, French, and Arabic). He graduated with an A.B. in English from Princeton University in 1957 after completing a senior thesis titled "The Moral Vision: André Gide and Graham Greene ." He later received Master of Arts (1960) and Doctor of Philosophy (1964) degrees in English Literature from Harvard University . In 1963, Said joined Columbia University as

33908-433: The world; the sky whence comes the sun; the east; the rising sun, etc.; yet the denotation changed as a term of geography. In the " Monk's Tale " (1375), Geoffrey Chaucer wrote: "That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee." The term orient refers to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe . In In Place of Fear (1952), Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of

34104-425: Was "foundational to Said's entire career and project". In Beginnings: Intention and Method (1974), Said analyzed the theoretical bases of literary criticism by drawing on the insights of Vico , Valéry , Nietzsche , de Saussure , Lévi-Strauss , Husserl , and Foucault . Said's later works included Said became an established cultural critic with the book Orientalism (1978), a critique of Orientalism as

34300-405: Was a Palestinian-American academic, literary critic, and political activist. As a professor of literature at Columbia University , he was among the founders of post-colonial studies . As a cultural critic , Said is best known for his book Orientalism (1978), a foundational text which critiques the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism —how the Western world perceives

34496-746: Was a genre that arose in the late 19th century in the British Raj . Orientalist tendencies in Western art have a long history. Oriental scenes may be found in medieval and Renaissance art, and Islamic art has itself had a profound and formative influence on Western artistic output. Oriental subject matter further proliferated in the 19th century, in step with Western colonialism in Africa and Asia. Depictions of Islamic " Moors " and " Turks " (imprecisely named Muslim groups of southern Europe , North Africa and West Asia ) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting , secondary figures, especially Romans, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected

34692-596: Was a literary as well as an artistic movement. Other contemporary movements were more Historicist in nature, such as the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood , which attempted to return art to its state of "purity" prior to Raphael , and the Arts and Crafts Movement , which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship. This broad era encompasses early music , which generally comprises Medieval music (500–1400) and Renaissance music (1400–1600), but sometimes includes Baroque music (1600–1760). This era includes

34888-414: Was a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers in Europe beginning at least as early as the period 5000 to 6000 BC . Knap of Howar and Skara Brae , the Orkney Islands , Scotland, are stone-built Neolithic settlements dating from 3,500 BC. Megaliths found in Europe and the Mediterranean were also erected in the Neolithic period. See Neolithic architecture . Ancient Greek architecture

35084-426: Was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially Antoine-Jean Gros , although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at

35280-423: Was authorised with the Iraq Resolution (2 October 2002); and the continual support of Israel by successive U.S. presidential governments, as actions meant to perpetuate regional political instability in the Middle East. In the event, despite being sick with leukemia, as a public intellectual, Said continued criticising the U.S. Invasion of Iraq in mid-2003; and, in the Egyptian Al-Ahram Weekly newspaper, in

35476-433: Was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia, and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact Palladian architecture was derived from and inspired by the designs of the Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Palladio's work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective, and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans . From

35672-402: Was derived out of a genuine fascination and admiration of Eastern cultures, not prejudice or malice. Orientalism refers to the Orient , in reference and opposition to the Occident ; the East and the West, respectively. The word Orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient . The root word oriēns , from the Latin Oriēns , has synonymous denotations : The eastern part of

35868-429: Was expelled in 1951 for troublesome behaviour, though his academic performance was high. Having relocated to the United States, Said attended Northfield Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts —a socially élite, college-prep boarding school where he struggled with social alienation for a year. Nonetheless, he continued to excel academically and achieved the rank of either first (valedictorian) or second (salutatorian) out of

36064-411: Was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching women, and many of his scenes featured Jews or warriors on horses. However, he was apparently able to get into the women's quarters or harem of

36260-451: Was half Palestinian and half Lebanese, and was raised in the city of Nazareth ; and his father Wadie "William" Said was a Jerusalem-based Palestinian businessman. Both Hilda and Wadie were Arab Christians , adhering to Protestantism . During World War I , Wadie served in the American Expeditionary Forces , subsequently earning United States citizenship for himself and his immediate family. In 1919, Wadie and his cousin established

36456-422: Was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more local Etruscan art of Italy. The sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. The Roman sculpture is primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of

36652-421: Was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art and mythology, but also takes much of its aesthetic qualities from medievalism and Gothicism , as well as later mythology and folklore . Among the greatest Romantic artists were Eugène Delacroix , Francisco Goya , J. M. W. Turner , John Constable , Caspar David Friedrich , and William Blake . In response to these changes caused by Industrialisation ,

36848-493: Was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light. The explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky played a major role in popularising an exotic view of "the Orient" and advocating imperial expansion. " The Five " Russian composers were prominent 19th-century Russian composers who worked together to create

37044-417: Was nothing in Germany to correspond to the Anglo-French presence in India, the Levant, North Africa. Moreover, the German Orient was almost exclusively a scholarly, or at least a classical, Orient: it was made the subject of lyrics, fantasies, and even novels, but it was never actual." According to Suzanne L. Marchand , German scholars were the "pace-setters" in oriental studies. Robert Irwin wrote that "until

37240-442: Was often typological in nature, showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Saints' lives were often depicted. Images of the Virgin Mary changed from the Byzantine iconic form to a more human and affectionate mother, often showing the refined manners of a courtly lady. Secular art came into its own during the gothic period alongside the creation of a bourgeois class who could afford to patronize

37436-563: Was particularly prominent. Art of the period was characterized by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. Colors tended to be very striking and mostly primary. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to be squeezed into the shapes of historiated initials , column capitals, and church tympanums . Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism. Gothic art developed from Romanesque art in Northern France in

37632-423: Was photographed throwing a stone across the Blue Line Lebanese–Israel border , which image elicited much political criticism about his action demonstrating an inherent, personal sympathy with terrorism; and, in Commentary magazine, the journalist Edward Alexander labelled Said as "The Professor of Terror", for aggression against Israel. Said explained the stone-throwing as a two-fold action, personal and political;

37828-418: Was produced by the Greek-speaking people whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese , the Aegean Islands , and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD. Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalized characteristics, both of structure and decoration. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular

38024-442: Was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in Ancient Greek sculpture . There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery. Black-figure pottery and the subsequent red-figure pottery are famous and influential examples of the Ancient Greek decorative arts. Roman art

38220-438: Was the Old Dominion Foundation Professor in the Humanities; and in 1979 was Visiting Professor of Humanities at Johns Hopkins University. Said also worked as a visiting professor at Yale University , and lectured at more than 200 other universities in North America, Europe, and the Middle East. In 1992, Said was promoted to full professor. Editorially, Said served as president of the Modern Language Association , as editor of

38416-559: Was the artistic component of the intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment . Neoclassicism had become widespread in Europe throughout the 18th century, especially in the United Kingdom . In many ways, Neoclassicism can be seen as a political movement as well as an artistic and cultural one. Neoclassical art places emphasis on order, symmetry, and classical simplicity; common themes in Neoclassical art include courage and war, as were commonly explored in ancient Greek and Roman art. Ingres , Canova , and Jacques-Louis David are among

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