112-589: Ongoing Nigerian Armed Forces Nigeria Police Force State Security Service Ebube Agu Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) Biafra Nations League (BNL) Biafra Republic Government in Exile (BRGIE) The insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria is a military conflict that broke out in the city of Orlu , Imo State , Nigeria on 16 January 2021, when the Nigerian Army moved to crush
224-687: A 1973 coup , which resulted in the April Revolution of 1978 . Historically, power in Afghanistan has been decentralized and governance delegated locally to ethnic tribal leadership. Tribal leaders often act as local warlords, representing either a tribal confederacy, a tribal kinship group or a smaller tribal lineage grouping, and are expected to provide security , justice and social services to their respective "constituencies". There are four dominant ethnic tribes in Afghanistan ( Pashtuns , Tajiks , Hazaras , and Uzbeks ), as well as
336-504: A juju priest. The ESN militants were reportedly upset that his protective charms had failed to shield them from the government. In late July, a military officer was injured by suspected ESN militants in Ohafia, Abia, reportedly prompting security forces to take revenge by storming the town and destroying several houses. In early August, Amnesty International declared that Nigerian security forces had killed 115 civilians and militants since
448-666: A series of killings : Okechukwu Okoye, a member of the Anambra State House of Assembly , and his aide were abducted and murdered on 15 May; seven days later, separatist militants murdered 11 northerners in Anambra State: a pregnant woman and her four children in Orumba North ; five commercial motorcycle riders in Onocha, and a salesman at Nnanka. On 23 July, five Cameroonian soldiers were killed when they invaded
560-536: A sovereign state to the rest of the world. This opened up Georgia and Tajikistan as states eligible to receive international aid , which thereafter became a major source of " rent " for the warlords, providing them with resources to increase their power and influence over these societies. As Driscoll observed, the "warlords colluded to create a state". One political theory, pioneered by American economist Mancur Olson , posits that warlords can function as stationary bandits. In some African states, warlord politics can be
672-507: A BNL camp in Bakassi; the BNL lost one fighter during the clash. In August 2022, Ekpa declared the formation of the "Biafra Republic Government in Exile" (BRGIE), a move denounced by IPOB. The separatist group's Media and Publicity Secretary Emma Powerful outright called Ekpa's faction a "scam" organized by dissidents. Meanwhile, IPOB suspected militants attempted to disrupt the preparations for
784-780: A BNL commander was killed by the Cameroonian military in Idabato , Bakassi. On 26 April, reports began circulating that two military gunboats has been bombed by Black Marine, a suspected arm wing of BnL who also claimed responsibility for the attack Few days later, 23 persons were arrested in Ikom, a border town in Cross River State by the Police, at first it was reported that they were members of MASSOB, later, BnL confirmed 17 of them are their members arrested in their houses outside
896-663: A Nigerian military convoy engaged in "Operation Udoka" in May, killing five soldiers and six civilians at Aba in Abia State. By mid-2024, a "vast stretch" of woodlands (about 700 hectares) between Anambra and Imo States had reportedly become a "no man's land" controlled by pro-Biafran militants, many loyal to IPOB. In November 2024, Ekpa was arrested by local police in Finland, with Nigerian military authorities praising this move. List of ongoing armed conflicts The following
1008-705: A TV interview, declaring that the Igbo people were a "dot in a circle" and could be easily crushed. Kanu's arrest precluded a confrontation with his separatist rival Asari-Dokubo who had threatened a "clampdown" on the IPOB leader shortly before. Following the IPOB leader's detention, his "self-acclaimed disciple" Simon Ekpa rose to prominence, promising that Biafran activists would prevent the Anambra State gubernatorial election of November 2021. The Nigerian government also managed to arrest Sunday Adeyemo (alias "Sunday Igboho"),
1120-564: A Yoruba separatist leader, in Benin. In early July, security forces arrested ESN commander Emeoyiri Uzorma Benjamin (alias "Onye Army"), accusing him and his followers of killings, destruction of property, and atrocities in Imo State. In the same month, ESN fighters attacked a military checkpoint at Adani, Uzo Uwani , killing two soldiers. Following several raids by the security forces against ESN camps, militants allegedly murdered Paschal Okeke,
1232-527: A central government that is unable to establish a monopoly over the use of force within its national territory. As political scientist Dr. Ariel Hernandez documented, one example is the Philippines , where successive presidential administrations—at least since Ferdinand Marcos secured power in 1965—have "franchised violence to regional warlords" to counter the inroads of communist insurgents , Islamic rebels and organized criminal gangs . This has led to
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#17327718484091344-630: A highly critical essay on the aristocracy in England, "Piracy and war gave place to trade, politics and letters; the ' war-lords to the law-lord; the privilege was kept, whilst the means of obtaining it were changed." During the First World War , the term appeared in China as Junfa ( 軍閥 ), taken from the Japanese gunbatsu . It was not widely used until the 1920s, when it was used to describe
1456-467: A kidnapped policewoman. Despite this, a police official claimed around the same time that security forces had not yet encountered any ESN camps or even ESN members. In mid-June, IPOB allied with the "Oduduwa Volunteer Force for the Liberation of Southern Nigeria". The latter was a force of Yoruba separatists who advocate the establishment of the " Oduduwa Republic ". The two separatist groups announced
1568-513: A market in Aba; IPOB denied responsibility. On the same day, Ekpa declared that IPOB would no longer take orders from Kanu, as he could not lead the group from prison. However, a large section of IPOB disapproved of Ekpa's position. The strikes in the southeast also continued, and even many schools remained closed. In late February, gunmen suspected to be IPOB/ESN members attacked Ekwulobia and Oko , killing 12 and kidnapping several others. On 13 April,
1680-486: A means for war and state making. He argues that the monopoly of crime by the state—in this case being the warlords—is in order to receive protection from external rivals as well as internal political rivals. Political scientist Jesse Driscoll uses the term "redistribution politics" to classify the bargaining process between warlords and the regime in states where cooperative warlord politics prevails, and when that bargaining leads to accords or informal arrangements concerning
1792-623: A message condemning the BRGIE as "treasonous to his quest for Biafran statehood". Meanwhile, suspected separatist rebels ambushed a convoy of U.S. Embassy staffers at Ogbaru in Anambra State, killing two policemen and two local workers, while abducting three others. In July, suspected IPOB/ESN militants reportedly attacked a location in Asaba , Delta State, whereupon the 63 Brigade of the Nigerian Army, police, and State Security Service organized
1904-541: A number of local warlords with infamous reputations, such as Zhang Zongchang . Although Chiang Kai-shek ascended with legitimacy into his role of leadership of the KMT by succeeding Sun Yat-sen and was recognized by foreign nations, Chiang was accused by some of being a warlord because of his rise by military campaign. The two-year Northern Expedition campaign (1926–28) not only defeated the Beiyang Army but also toppled
2016-558: A number of proportionally smaller tribes. The Pashtuns are the largest and most dominant ethnic tribe in the country, whose name translates to "Land of the Pashtuns". The Durand Line , which forms the border between modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, has proved a source of contention in Afghanistan and a source of challenge for the tribal authorities of Afghanistan. The line, which was negotiated between British diplomat and civil servant Mortimer Durand and Afghan Emir Abdur Khan ,
2128-770: A plethora of businessmen—local and foreign—who were bent on making money in Liberia and disregarded UN disapproval. Taylor was detained by the UN-backed Special Court for Sierra Leone in 2006 after a period of enforced exile in Nigeria. He was found guilty in April 2012 of all 11 charges levied by the Special Court, including terror, murder and rape. In May 2012 he was sentenced to 50 years in prison. Local warlords with their own militias began to emerge in
2240-574: A pro-government security network. IPOB declared that the ESN was sufficient, and alleged that the true purpose of Ebube Agu was to fight the ESN. On 14 April, armed men launched several attacks in Njikoka and hoisted a Biafran flag. Before the attack, Nnamdi Kanu had accused the Nigerian government of plotting false-flag attacks to destroy the image of ESN. On 24 April, the top ESN commander known as Ikonso
2352-502: A product of endowment-rich, extractable resources. Some nations, such as Liberia and Sierra Leone, have had stationary bandits who use extraction of resources such as diamonds, cobalt and timber (" conflict resources ") in order to increase their political power. They often enforce their right to these resources by claiming to be protecting the people. These warlords, or stationary bandits, often partner with compliant foreign firms and create symbiotic relationships to yield greater power for
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#17327718484092464-481: A raid which resulted in the death of two rebels and capture of five. In the same month, Ekpa's BRGIE organized a sit-at-home order across southeastern Nigeria. Even though IPOB disavowed the order, it was widely carried out with the support of separatist militants. Around this time, repeated rebel raids heavily affected the town of Izombe , burning houses, killing the local traditional ruler Victor Ijioma, and causing many residents to flee. Izombe had previously been one of
2576-641: A result of the collapse of empires . Warlord states are disproportionately concentrated within two regions—the former European colonies of Africa and the former Soviet republics of Eurasia. While warlords are commonly viewed as regional leaders who threaten the sovereignty of a state, there are a number of states where the central government functions in collusion with warlords to achieve its goal of exercising its sovereignty over regions that would otherwise fall outside its control. In such decentralized states, particularly those where armed groups challenge national sovereignty , warlords can serve as useful allies of
2688-517: A separatist militia called "Angry Vipers" demanded the release of Kanu and threatened various figures including businessman Obi Cubana who they believed supported Fulani herders. From December 2021, the governors in the five southeastern states of Nigeria were tasked by the government to finally organize the Ebube Agu security network. IPOB once again denounced these efforts, arguing that such outfits had previously failed to counter bandits, and that
2800-713: A series of attacks in Anambra State. At the same time, fighting also continued in Bakassi, with several clashes resulting in losses on both sides. Cameroonian security forces captured a BNL camp in Bakassi in August 2022. BNL militants killed two Cameroonian soldiers and raised the Biafran flag at Abana on the peninsula in January 2023. Soon after, Cameroon claimed that its Rapid Intervention Battalion had captured BNL commander Henry Edet at Atabong East in Bakassi. Suspected BNL followers also attacked ships around Bakassi. On 14 February,
2912-950: A situation when the recognized central power had collapsed, such as in the Great Interregnum in Germany (1254–78), in France during the Hundred Years' War after the Battle of Poitiers , or in the Kingdom of Scotland during the Wars of Scottish Independence . Free company mercenary captains, such as Sir John Hawkwood , Roger de Flor of Catalan Company or Hugh Calveley , could be considered warlords. Several condottieri in Italy can also be classified as warlords. Ygo Gales Galama
3024-549: A variety of different capacities within the political, economic, and social structure of states or ungoverned territories . The term is often applied in the context of China around the end of the Qing dynasty , especially during the Warlord Era . The term may also be used for a supreme military leader . The first appearance of the word "warlord" dates to 1856, when used by American philosopher and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson in
3136-469: A weapons stockpile assembled by Oduduwan nationalists. As sporadic attacks on southeastern INEC offices continued into the new year, a commission official warned that the election could be forced into postponement if the attacks were not stopped. Although the comment was quickly retracted and the commission promised to hold the election as scheduled, concerns continued considering the deadly attacks—like previous southeastern attacks on INEC, experts stated that
3248-451: Is a list of ongoing armed conflicts that are taking place around the world. This list of ongoing armed conflicts identifies present-day conflicts and the death toll associated with each conflict. The criteria of inclusion are the following: The 6 conflicts in the following list have caused at least 10,000 direct, violent deaths per year in battles between identified groups, in the current or previous calendar year. The 15 conflicts in
3360-576: Is common in periphery regions of countries which do not have a strong central government. Modern-day Afghanistan is a multiethnic, multilingual country inhabited by distinct and often competing tribal societies, its national borders defined only following the Treaty of Rawalpindi of 1919 between the United Kingdom and the Emirate of Afghanistan . Afghanistan was briefly a democratic state until
3472-463: Is through the lens of history. Warlordism was a widespread, dominant political framework that ordered many of the world's societies until the modern state became globally ubiquitous. Often warlord governance in pre-modern state history was constructed along tribal or kinship lines and was congruent with early perception of " nation ". In colonial empires warlords served in both cooperative political capacities and as leaders of rebellions. In modern states
Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria - Misplaced Pages Continue
3584-534: Is viewed by Pashtun leaders as a threat to their dominance within Afghanistan, emboldening rival ethnic tribes, and has provoked cross-border tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan. While having significant political, economic and social impact on Afghanistan, the intervention of the Soviet Union (1979–89), Afghan Civil War (1989–96), Taliban regime (1996–2001, 2021–present) and United States invasion and occupation (2001–2021) have not noticeably disrupted
3696-706: The 2023 Nigerian elections , attacking offices of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) across the southeast. INEC responded by increasing its efforts at registration drives, though remained hampered by logistical issues. In September, gunmen attacked the convoy of Senator Ifeanyi Ubah of the Young Progressives Party at Enugwu-Ukwu; five people were killed, though the senator remained unharmed. IPOB continued to accuse local security forces of cooperating with militant herdsmen and Islamists, describing
3808-633: The Ambazonia Governing Council (AGovC), an Ambazonian separatist movement led by Ayaba Cho Lucas and with its own armed wing, the Ambazonia Defence Forces (ADF). In April, IPOB and AGovC moved towards a formal alliance. This move was not unprecedented, as the BNL/BNYL had already openly aligned itself with Ambazonian separatists in 2017. While separatist movements formed a unified front, militants escalated
3920-626: The Ancien Régime , the French Revolution and democratization in Europe, that commitment was contingent upon a bargaining process in which the king or queen had to guarantee additional territory, revenue, status or other privileges, meaning that these early European states were weak and the relationship between the crown and feudal lords constituted the form of interdependent warlordism known as cooperative warlord politics. Under
4032-567: The Bakassi conflict . The group threatened to launch pirate raids against Nigerian and Cameroonian vessels in the Gulf of Guinea . On 27 June, Nnamdi Kanu was arrested by Interpol in Kenya or another location, extradited to Nigeria, and handed over to Nigerian authorities. The latter stated that the IPOB leader is supposed to face trial. Meanwhile, President Buhari referenced the separatist unrest in
4144-720: The Beiyang government . Chiang also conquered and conscripted the forces of rival warlords in the Central Plains War of 1930. This war essentially ended the Warlord Era, albeit with the continuing autonomy of several provinces. After the fall of the Mongol Empire , Mongolia was divided between the Eastern and Western Mongols . At the time of disintegration, many warlords tried to enthrone themselves or rule
4256-731: The Federal High Court in Abakaliki ordered the disbandment of the Ebube Agu network in Ebonyi State, declaring the group an illegal armed force. In April 2023, Simon Ekpa declared himself "Prime Minister" of the Biafran Republic Government in Exile (BRGIE), calling for the United Nations to acknowledge Biafra and release Nnamdi Kanu. Despite this, Kanu ordered one of his followers to release
4368-758: The Middle Ages and up into the Early Modern period ; such examples include Brian Boru of Ireland and Guthrum of the Danelaw , who was the commander of the Great Heathen Army and nearly conquered all of England, Alfred of Anglo-Saxon England , first man to unify the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Europe, although it would not be completed until Edward the Elder 's reign, in which he conquered
4480-575: The Warlord Era lasted until the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party) consolidated its rule over much of the country under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in 1928. Among the prominent leaders called warlords were Yan Xishan in Shanxi province, Feng Yuxiang , and Wu Peifu , who had reputations as reformers; Zhang Zuolin , who ruled in Manchuria until the Japanese invasion of 1931; and
4592-681: The khanate jointly; however, there had been powerful de facto leaders in all parts of the Mongol Empire before. The empire and the states that emerged from it were born and shaped in part from the heavy influence of roving bandits. These warlords, such as Genghis Khan and his immediate successors, conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia. Roving bandits, contrary to the concept of stationary bandits offered by Mancur Olson , extract from region to region and stay mobile. Warlords in Mongolia could be characterized by this title because of
Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-569: The paramilitary wing of the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), the Eastern Security Network (ESN). The conflict escalated after the ESN managed to repulse the initial push by the Nigerian Army, but IPOB ended the initial crisis by unilaterally withdrawing the ESN from Orlu. After a few weeks of quiet, Nigeria launched a military offensive in the area to destroy the ESN. On 19 February 2021, IPOB declared that as of
4816-448: The "main oil-bearing areas and [the] food basket of" Imo State. On 4 September 2023, Simon Ekpa released a video displaying weapons purportedly belonging to a group he dubbed "Biafran Liberation Army" (BLA), followed shortly by an ambush that resulted in the deaths of five to eight security personnel in Imo State. The Biafra Liberation Army was identified as the armed wing of Ekpa's BRGIE, having emerged from IPOB's "Autopilot" faction. Over
4928-627: The 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War , Biafra would win. Within a few days, the danger of spillover into other parts of the former East Region became evident. In response to the Nigerian military operation in and around Orlu, the Biafra Nations League threatened to attack all oil installations in Bakassi . In Aguata , Anambra State , suspected Biafran separatists killed four policemen at a checkpoint and took off with their weapons on 24 February. Another four policemen were killed in Calabar
5040-425: The 1990s. Liberia's former president Charles Taylor was indicted as a diamond -embezzling warlord who aided and abetted African rebels who committed heinous atrocities against millions of African people. After seizing power from President Samuel Doe in a rebellion, Taylor won elections in 1997 . His critics say that he bullied and bought his way to power, and once he obtained it he established himself as one of
5152-559: The 302 Artillery Regiment led by Col. Abdulkarim Usman launched "Exercise Golden Dawn", an operation aimed at combating MASSOB, IPOB, ESN, and other anti-government groups in Anambra State. On 8 November, the BNL took control of a border crossing between Akpabuyo and Bakassi, blocking the road leading to the Peninsula and raising the Biafran flag. The militants retreated before a Nigerian Armed Forces contingent arrived. The BNL consequently claimed that it had taken control of parts of Bakassi, setting up its headquarters there and declaring that it
5264-409: The BCG, declaring that it would support any Biafran independence movement. A few days later, the MASSOB led by Ralph Uwazuruike , endorsed the BCG. However, Asari-Dokubo and Nnamdi Kanu had previously quarrelled with each other, and the rivalry continued after the BCG's formation, especially after some IPOB leaders had officially switched allegiance to the BCG. Internationally, IPOB gained the support of
5376-408: The ESN and the authorities declared a curfew which was brutally enforced. The curfew and the anticipation of imminent heavy fighting caused civilians to flee the city en masse. Later on the same day, Nnamdi Kanu declared a unilateral ceasefire and ordered the ESN withdraw from Orlu to focus on Fulani raiders instead. Kanu claimed that this decision was based on intelligence information that revealed that
5488-494: The ESN had captured a prominent Fulani bandit leader named Mohammed Isa in Benue State. In mid-March, the leader of the Niger Delta People's Salvation Force, Asari-Dokubo, declared the formation of the Biafra Customary Government (BCG). The BCG was intended as the first step of establishing a de facto government for an independent State of Biafra. Dokubo stated that Biafra would not go to war, but that it would go through with secession from Nigeria. IPOB soon threw its support behind
5600-406: The ESN invaded Eleme to expel Fulani herders. A week into the ESN offensive, Fulani raiders invaded Agbonchia and committed atrocities against the civilian population. On 5 April, armed men stormed a prison in Owerri , enabling some 1,800 inmates to escape. The Nigerian government blamed IPOB, which in turn denied any involvement. In mid-April, state governors announced the formation of Ebube Agu,
5712-546: The ESN to enforce a ban if the authorities did not do so. However, the ESN did not wait 14 days; a few days later, ESN operatives attacked a Fulani camp in Isuikwuato , Abia State , killing their livestock and burning down their houses. Following the raid, some governors responded by heeding the ESN's call and banning open grazing. At some point in mid-February, the Nigerian Army 34 Artillery Brigade launched an operation to find ESN camps around Orlu and Orsu . The Nigerian Army also reinforced Orlu, deploying military helicopters to
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#17327718484095824-457: The ESN was primarily concerned with combating banditry by "Fulani jihadists" and accused Gumi of becoming a "mouthpiece for bandits and terrorists". In addition, five governors of southeastern Nigerian states denounced pro-Biafran groups, resulting in IPOB and the BNL condemning the governors in turn. In addition, the BNL publicly threatened to expand the insurgency, arguing that the Biafran separatists also should continue fighting against Cameroon in
5936-431: The Mongol Empire's lack of definitive borders and consistent expansion and conquest during the 13th and 14th centuries. The Twelve Warlords War was a period ranging from 966–968 characterized by chaos and civil war. The reason this period received the title of "Twelve Warlords War", or Anarchy of the 12 Warlords , is because of the struggle for power after the illegitimate succession to the throne by Dương Tam Kha after
6048-584: The Nigerian Army raided Abia and clashed with the ESN, resulting in death of six soldiers. This counter-insurgency operation reportedly resulted in many civilians fleeing Elu, Amangwu and Amekpu out of fear of government reprisals. Furthermore, the verbal struggle between the separatist leaders Asari-Dokubo and Kanu worsened due to both accusing each other of embezzling funds of the separatist movement. In late June, Islamic cleric Ahmad Gumi accused IPOB of murdering northerners, "while bandits only abducted students for money". In response, IPOB leader Kanu reiterated that
6160-527: The Nigerian and Cameroonian militaries and attempted to prevent ships from approaching the peninsula. On 1 February, claims began to circulate on social media according to which "Black Marine", a group suspected of being part of the BNL, had killed a Nigerian Navy officer at Oron Beach . The Nigerian Navy stated that these claims were false. A few days later, the Nigerian Army claimed to have killed four ESN militants at Ihiala. On 15 February, gunmen suspected to be separatists killed eight traders and 51 cows at
6272-486: The Nigerian government. In late June, IPOB leader Nnamdi Kanu was arrested by Interpol and handed over to Nigerian authorities. In 1967, separatists in Nigeria's southeast declared the formation of the independent state of Biafra . The subsequent Nigerian Civil War lasted two and a half years, led to over a million dead, and ended with the defeat of Biafra. Over the following decades, Nigeria continued to suffer from regional instability and revolts, but Biafra separatism
6384-514: The Nigerian security forces launched "Operation Udoka" under Major General Hassan Taiwo Dada to reduce the presence and influence of separatist forces across the southeast. In March 2024, the Nigerian Army eliminated a number of separatist camps, including a longstanding rebel base near Orsumoghu and the B44 camp in Oru, Imo State. By April, the contingents involved in "Operation Udoka" claimed to have destroyed 16 IPOB camps, killed 35 rebels, and arrested 137. However, suspected IPOB/ESN militants ambushed
6496-430: The Orlu Crisis. The Police Commissioner of Delta State alleged that IPOB elements had crossed the Niger River to infiltrate the state. To prevent such infiltrations, the Nigerian Navy started patrolling the river. In early March, IPOB threatened to deploy the ESN to Benue State to protect Igbos against Fulani raiders; this came after the killings of IPOB activists by armed Fulani. Days later, Nnamdi Kanu declared that
6608-422: The Transbaikalia region, and the 'Bloody Baron' Ungern von Sternberg was the dictator of Mongolia for a short time. Meanwhile, generals such as Kolchak or Denikin are typically not considered warlords as they created more stable military and governing structures that claimed legitimacy from the prewar Tsarist state. The term "warlord" was frequently used when Russian and Chechen conflicts were reignited in
6720-632: The action, a majority in several settlements across southeastern Nigeria complied with the lockdown. Militant separatists burned at least three buses whose drivers had not taken part in the protest and continued to work. Kanu's trial began in Abuja in October 2021, with him pleading non-guilty. The trial was accompanied by protests of the separatist leader's supporters, and Voice of America journalist Timothy Obiezu argued that IPOB appeared to be gaining strength instead of losing it. A new "sit-at-home" strike affected southeastern Nigeria, shutting down most services and businesses there. From early October 2021,
6832-476: The army and the police had agreed to withdraw from Orlu also. During the fighting, police officers of the Imo State Police were caught on video flogging civilians, possibly as punishment for curfew violations. After the ceasefire, at least ten police officers were arrested, and Commissioner of Police Nasiru Mohammed condemned their behavior. Days after the Orlu Crisis, IPOB gave all the governors of southeast Nigeria 14 days to ban open grazing, threatening to deploy
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#17327718484096944-414: The army had actually detained Godwin Nnaji, a civilian with IPOB sympathies, and falsely portrayed him as an ESN leader. In January 2022, tensions further rose regionally and locally. IPOB began boycotting northern products such as cow meat in the southeast, whereupon northerners called for boycotts of southeastern goods. At the same time, Dokubo Asari called for the execution of all IPOB members, signifying
7056-432: The attacks were most likely conducted by violent secessionist groups attempting to "delegitimise the electoral process and boost their separatist agenda." The attacks continued until the election, as did concerns that the election would be postponed at the last moment. Separatists like Simon Ekpa called for lockdowns in the period leading up the election. Just before the election, suspected separatists killed seven policemen in
7168-403: The behavior of citizens within a particular geographical space". Driscoll termed this warlordism "militia coalition politics". A truce was reached without any disarmament of militias; instead, the warlord coalitions reached a non-violent "order producing equilibrium", and eventually agreed upon a warlord-friendly civilian figurehead to assume head-of-state duties to demonstrate the legitimacy as
7280-408: The central government is unable to extend political, military or bureaucratic control over large swaths of territories outside the capital—functions cooperatively within the framework of the state, at times. The warlords, with their established militias, are able to maintain a monopoly of violence within certain territories. They form coalitions with competing warlords and local tribal leaders to present
7392-502: The central government with a challenge, and often the state will bargain to gain access to resources or " rent ", loyalty from the warlord and peace in the region. In exchange for peaceful coexistence, the warlord coalitions are granted special status and privileges, including the right to maintain de facto political rule within the agreed-upon territory, exert force to retain their monopoly over violence and extract rent and resources. "By limiting access to these privileges, members of
7504-407: The chaos after 1918, when provincial military leaders took local control and launched the period that would come to be known in China as the Warlord Era . In China, Junfa is applied retroactively to describe the leaders of regional armies who threatened or used violence to expand their rule, including those who rose to lead and unify kingdoms. The other major consideration in categorizing warlords
7616-529: The city. Hostilities were renewed on 18 February, when the Nigerian Army and the ESN fought a gun battle in the forest outside Orlu while the Nigerian Air Force conducted air strikes in the area. A day into the fighting, the confrontation had spread to Ihiala , Anambra State . Nigerian forces captured an ESN base in the village of Udah outside Orsu on 21 February. The Nigerian Army 82 division also arrested 20 suspected IPOB members and confiscated their weapons. The same day as hostilities were renewed, IPOB said that
7728-415: The country outside of Kabul. While most warlords have power vested in them through traditional tribal customs, some hold formal regional government positions, but in both cases cooperation with the central government remains voluntary and reliant on incentives. Beginning in 2008, as it became increasingly evident that the central government in Kabul was incapable of extending its power and control to much of
7840-540: The country, the US military and diplomatic corps began exploring the option of engaging ethnic tribal warlords in negotiations, a strategy that continued through the Obama administration. Warlordism was widespread in Civil War-era Russia (1918–22). Many territories were not under the control of either the Red government in Petrograd (later in Moscow) or the White governments in Omsk and Rostov . These territories were controlled by warlords of various political colors. The Cossack ataman Semyonov held territories in
7952-512: The day before, a state of war existed between Nigeria and Biafra. Three weeks later, another separatist group declared the formation of a Biafran interim government which was subsequently endorsed by IPOB. Since then, the Biafran separatists have begun to form alliances with other separatist groups in Nigeria and Cameroon . Despite these developments, the separatists claimed that their militant operations were mainly aimed at defending local communities from armed herders and bandits instead of fighting
8064-507: The death of Ngô Quyền . The ensuing two years were marked by local warlords rebelling in order to seize power within their local governments and challenging the Dương court. As a result, the country fractured into 12 regions, each led by a warlord. Warlordism in Europe is usually connected to various mercenary companies and their chieftains, which often were de facto powerholders in the areas where they resided. Such free companies would arise in
8176-579: The destructive Boko Haram insurgency as well as banditry in the north, while the Nigerian security forces faced accusations of corruption, ineffectiveness, and abuse. Journalists Cai Nebe and Muhammad Bello argued that "swathes of Nigeria remain near-ungovernable" as of Muhammadu Buhari 's second presidency. Tensions in the southeast continued to rise after the local economy, heavily dependent on exporting oil, suffered under worldwide low oil prices. By 2020, IPOB had managed to rally substantial following to its cause, although polls showcased that Biafran separatism
8288-420: The dominant warlord coalition create credible incentives to cooperate rather than fight among themselves." In the case of Afghanistan, state–warlord bargaining sometimes extends beyond these informal accords and elevates to the status of political clientelism , in which the warlords are appointed to formal government positions, such as regional governor; a title which provides them political legitimacy . During
8400-583: The effort to defeat the Taiping Rebellion of the 1860s as the Manchu bannerman armies faltered and the central authorities lost much of their control. The Republic of China was led by Yuan Shikai , a dictator. The modern Warlord Era began in 1916 upon his death. The national government existed and handled foreign affairs, but it had little internal control until the late 1920s. A period of provincial and local rule under military strongmen known as
8512-584: The extraction of rent—which can refer to natural resources, territory, labor, revenue or privilege. In his study of warlordism in Georgia and Tajikistan, Driscoll cites " land reform , property ownership and transfers, privatization in non-transparent closed-bid settings, complex credit swaps cemented via marriages, money laundering , price-fixing schemes , and bribery", as principal sources of exchange in redistribution politics. Noted theorist Max Weber suggested that classic feudalism in pre-modern-state Europe
8624-435: The feudal system of Europe, nobility—whether feudal lords, knights, princes or barons—were warlords in that they served as regional leaders who exercised military, economic and political control over subnational territories and maintained private armies to maintain that status. While their political power to exercise social order, welfare and regional defense within their territory was derived from hereditary rights or edicts from
8736-514: The following list have caused at least 1,000 and fewer than 10,000 direct, violent deaths in the current or previous calendar year. Conflicts causing at least 1,000 deaths in one calendar year are considered wars by the Uppsala Conflict Data Program . The 20 conflicts in the following list have caused at least 100, and fewer than 1,000, direct, violent deaths in the current or previous calendar year. The 15 conflicts in
8848-427: The following list have caused fewer than 100 direct, violent deaths in the current or previous calendar year. Warlord Warlords are groups of individuals who exercise military , economic , and political control over a region , often one without a strong central or national government , typically through informal control over local armed forces . Warlords have existed throughout much of history, albeit in
8960-531: The formation of at least 93 "Partisan Armed Groups", armed militias loyal to regional warlords who, in exchange for their loyalty and willingness to use their private armies to quell the threats from these opposition groups, are granted a degree of autonomy within designated regions, the exclusive right to use violence and the right "to profit from the 'economy of violence' that they establish in their own areas". Warlordism in Afghanistan—another state where
9072-421: The formation of the "Biafra and Oduduwa Volunteer Force" to coordinate their efforts to fight armed Fulani herders. Meanwhile, Imo State authorities claimed that IPOB militants had killed 128 security personnel since the insurgency's start. IPOB strongly denied these claims, arguing that it remained committed to non-violent solutions and had no interest in openly fighting against Nigerian security forces. Soon after,
9184-494: The formation of the ESN to protect Igbos against Fulani raiders. Unwilling to countenance the formation of a non-state-sanctioned paramilitary organization on its territory, the Nigerian government deployed the army to locate ESN camps two weeks later. On 16 January, Nigerian police attacked the ESN in their camp. However, the attack was repulsed by the militia. On 22 January 2021, Nigerian soldiers invaded Orlu to search for ESN operatives. Eight buildings were burnt and one person
9296-654: The growing tensions among the Biafran separatists. BNL condemned Asari's call for violence, arguing that IPOB had indeed sidelined and offended other Biafran groups, but that this should not cause violent infighting among the anti-government forces. In this month suspected IPOB members also abducted an ex-Assembly speaker and four others in Imo State, while the Nigerian Armed Forces claimed the destruction of an IPOB/ESN stronghold in Lilu forest at Ihiala . Fighting also became more intense at Bakassi, as BNL clashed with
9408-515: The main town, the remaining 6 who are Igbo traders were arrested inside a shop in the main town. On Friday 13 May 2022, suspected militants of BnL attacked the Ikang jetty, in Bakassi Area of Cross River State killing a Police officer and injuring many others, this is barely a week after the Police arrested 23 members of BnL in Ikom. In the second half of May, suspected IPOB militants carried out
9520-456: The military deployment constituted a "declaration of war against the Igbos" and accused the Nigerian government of planning a " final solution to the Biafran question". The group declared that Nigeria had "crossed the line of no return" and that Igbos now had no choice but defend themselves. The next day, IPOB declared that the "second Nigeria/Biafra war" had begun on 18 February, and that unlike in
9632-500: The monarch, their military strength afforded them independence and strength to negotiate for privileges. Should the feudal lord or other noble withdraw his support from the king , either in rebellion or to form an alliance with a rival kingdom , that feudal lord or noble was now ascribing to the political order of ungoverned warlordism. Within political science there is a growing body of research and analysis on warlordism that has emerged within weak states that have gained independence as
9744-597: The most brutal and murderous warlords in Africa. During his term of office Taylor was accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity as a result of his involvement in the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002). His close friends included the late Col. Muammar Gaddafi of Libya; the conservative former ruler of Ivory Coast, Félix Houphouët-Boigny ; the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaoré ; and
9856-490: The new force was still aimed at countering the ESN. On Christmas Eve 2021, the ESN raided Akpawfu . In response, Nigerian Army troops involved in "Exercise Golden Dawn" attacked a nearby location suspected of harboring ESN militants. The military claimed that it arrested an important ESN commander named Godwin Nnamdi after a short firefight. In contrast, the "International Society for Civil Liberties and Rule of Law" claimed that
9968-486: The new head of the 82 Division, Major General Ahmed Chinade, as "another Fulani stooge and Igbo hater" who previously had killed and abused "Biafrans" in the Port Harcourt area. On their part, the security forces attempted to contain the militant activities which were disrupting the election preparations, launching security sweeps and capturing or killing some suspected ESN militants. The police also reportedly seized
10080-689: The next day. On 26 February, a police station was attacked in Aboh Mbaise , Imo State. On 3 March, gunmen killed two policemen in Cross River State. The attacks were condemned by the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra. MASSOB also condemned Imo State Governor Hope Uzodinma for inviting the Nigerian Army. Local authorities blamed the ESN and IPOB for many attacks on police stations, some of which preceded
10192-617: The next months, Ekpa repeatedly made claims about successful BLA attacks on security forces, though journalist Kunle Adebajo identified many of these claims as false and misleading. On 11 November 11, the Biafran Liberation Army temporarily captured Eke Market in Imo State. On 17 November, unidentified gunmen killed two policemen in Ebonyi, followed by the killing of two more policemen in Ahiara on 27 November. In December 2023,
10304-455: The other of firing the first shot. Following the incident, IPOB pledged to retaliate and called on its members to start practicing self-defense. In late-September, at least two Nigerian soldiers were killed during clashes with unidentified gunmen in Enugu; however, IPOB denied any involvement, announcing that "we are not armed and have no plans to pick up arms." On 12 December 2020, Kanu announced
10416-437: The presence of warlords is often seen as an indicator of state weakness or failure. American historian David G. Herrmann noted, "Warlordism is the default condition of humanity." Economist Stergios Skaperdas views warlordism as a default—albeit inefficient—competitive economic model that emerges in states where state capacity is low, but that innately evolves into an institution governing political order that uses violence or
10528-558: The primacy of ethnic tribal authority, and thus the power and influence of warlords, in ordering Afghan society. Although the United States and its coalition allies have expended a considerable amount of time, effort and resources attempting to foment the centralization of government and consolidation of power in the state with its seat of power in Kabul , tribal warlords continue to maintain political influence and power throughout
10640-538: The property or resources from the people and land and redistribute the riches in exchange for monetary value . When people live in a particular region dominated by a warlord, they can choose to flee or live within the political structure the warlords have created. If the warlords provide protection against external threats of violence, the people will be likely to stay and continue living and working in that region, even though they are being extorted . The trade-off becomes protection for extraction, and this political framework
10752-539: The restored Biafran Armed Forces , declared its intent to conquer southeastern Nigeria, starting with Anambra State. In early June, President Buhari tweeted a warning to southeastern Nigerians in response to the IPOB insurgency. Regarding the tweet as incitement to violence, Twitter deleted it, prompting the Nigerian government to ban Twitter entirely from 5 June. On 8 June, the Nigerian Police raided and destroyed another ESN camp in Imo State, reportedly freeing
10864-716: The rise of militant, independence-seeking nationalist movements within the republics —particularly within the Central Asian and Caucasus regions—resulting in armed conflict and civil war. Many strongmen warlords had served in the Soviet military , police units or intelligence services and had experience operating within highly organized bureaucracies. These warlords formed well-structured militias that not only established political and economic control over territories, but institutionalized bureaucracies to establish and maintain their monopolies over violence and rent and "incentivizing
10976-635: The secessionist group IPOB. Other hardline Biafran groups included the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB), the Biafra Nations League (BNL; initially known as Biafra Nations Youth League / BNYL), and the Biafran National Guard (BNG). The latter already declared war on the Nigerian Army in 2017. At the same time, Nigerians became disaffected as the central government failed to suppress
11088-464: The state–warlord bargaining phase, warlords in Afghanistan have a high motivation to prolong war to create political instability, expose weakness of the central state, prompt regional criticism against the government and continue economic extraction. In his study of warlordism in Georgia and Tajikistan , political scientist Jesse Driscoll emphasizes how the collapse of the Soviet Union precipitated
11200-510: The threat of it to secure its access to " rent "-producing resources. It may actually have a stabilizing effect on a region. In both cases there is an inherent inefficiency in the model, as "resources are wasted on unproductive arming and fighting." However, the functionality is often sustainable because it presents citizens with no choice but to accept rent levies in exchange for protection. Charles Tilly , an American political scientist and sociologist, theorized that organized crime can function as
11312-409: The unrest's start, while the government stated that 127 members of the security forces had been killed. Amnesty International argued that the security forces had made numerous arbitrary arrests of often uninvolved civilians, and accused them of human rights abuses. On 9 August, IPOB supporters began a stay-at-home protest for the release of Kanu. Despite orders by the government to ignore IPOB's calls for
11424-478: The violent conflict in the Niger Delta , and previously anti-Biafran communities such as Ijaw began to reevaluate their commitment to Nigeria. Coupled with disaffection among the youth due to high unemployment, this contributed to a resurgence of Biafran nationalism in the entire southeast. While most of the local political leadership distanced themselves from separatism, radical Biafran nationalists organized in
11536-618: The war. Soon after the formation of the BCG, the BNL declared that it had taken control over "creeks and bushes" in the Bakassi Peninsula, and threatened to hijack any oil vessels coming from there. On 19 March, gunmen attacked a prison and a police station in Ekwulobia , releasing several prisoners and killing two policemen and two prison officials, but failing to burn down the police station. IPOB denied any involvement. On 15 March,
11648-475: The warlords and a source of wealth for external firms. The result is a political system in which a dominant coalition of warlords' strips and distributes valuable assets in exchange for bureaucratic services and security from foreign firms. Stationary bandits can amass power because of their economic connections with foreign firms. Oftentimes warlords will exert violence on a particular region in order to gain control. Once in control, these warlords can expropriate
11760-613: Was a famous Frisian warlord, and so was his cousin Pier Gerlofs Donia , who was the leader of the Arumer Zwarte Hoop . The Imperial commanders-in-chief during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I did hold the title Kriegsherr , of which the direct translation was "warlord", but they were not warlords in the sense of the word today. Other warlords could be found in the British Isles during
11872-527: Was a political boundary drawn in 1893 which clearly defined and demarcated the border between Afghanistan and the British Raj . Afghanistan unilaterally disputes the legitimacy of the border. Pashtuns are the prominent ethnic group in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and the Durand Line served to split their traditional homeland between two nation states. The partitioning of their tribal lands
11984-452: Was an example of warlordism, as the state regime was unable to "exercise a monopoly on the use of force within its territory" and the monarch relied on the commitment of loyal knights and other nobility to mobilize their private armies in support of the crown for specific military campaigns. As noted French philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville and political scientists such as E. J. Hobsbawm and Theda Skocpol observed in their analyses of
12096-461: Was killed in the ensuing events. Security forces re-invaded the area three days later, clashing with the ESN and killing at least five people before being repulsed by the ESN. Four Nigerian soldiers were killed in the fighting. The Nigerian Army withdrew, and in the following days, Nigerian Air Force planes and helicopters were deployed to search for ESN operatives in and around Orlu. On 28 January, more than 400 Nigerian soldiers were deployed to oust
12208-416: Was killed when the Nigerian Army allegedly raided an ESN camp in Imo State. IPOB blamed governor Hope Uzodinma, as their intelligence stated he was killed in his house. After less than 24 hours, IPOB announced that a new top commander had been instated. In May, the Biafran National Guard (BNG), now headed by the so-called "Biafran Supreme Military Council of Administration" (BSMCA) which posed as high command of
12320-462: Was mobilizing its "marine members" for a " show of force ." Reactions to the BNL activities were mixed at the border communities, with some protesting against and others for the group. In this month, the BNG also looted a number of shops, resulting in IPOB dismissing it as "a criminal group". In response, BNG claimed that they had acquired military rockets in preparation for the "secessionist war". Meanwhile,
12432-548: Was mostly dormant until the 2000s. Some Niger Delta communities such as the Ijaw people even integrated anti-Biafran sentiment into their own popular narratives, as they had mostly sided with the central government during the Nigerian Civil War. From the 1990s, a growing number of people in southeastern Nigeria such as Igbo and Niger Delta natives felt marginalized by the Nigerian central government. This resulted in
12544-639: Was not widely supported in the southeast. Non-IPOB groups also began to support separatism such as the Niger Delta People's Salvation Force led by " warlord " Asari-Dokubo . However, there were tensions within the Biafran separatist movement, with Kanu having been accused of intolerance toward non- Jews . The IPOB leader self-identifies as Jew and claims that Judaism is the Igbo's traditional religion. In August 2020, Nigerian police forces went to an IPOB meeting in Enugu and executed 21 unarmed IPOB members with two police officers dead. Both sides accused
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