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129-546: Historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras: In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey , widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms ) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. One of

258-726: A Pasha and was assigned as the Minister of War ; Ahmet Cemal who was the military governor of Constantinople became Minister of the Navy ; and once the postal official Talaat became the Minister of the Interior . These Three Pashas would maintain de facto control of the Empire as a military regime and almost as a personal dictatorship under Talaat Pasha during the World War I . Until the 1919 Ottoman general election , any other input into

387-425: A [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well. In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be , but it is a defective verb. It doesn't have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix. Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil , followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as

516-442: A ceasefire on 2 December, and its territory losses were finalized in 1913 in the treaties of London and Bucharest . Albania became independent, and the Empire lost almost all of its European territory ( Kosovo , Sanjak of Novi Pazar , Macedonia and western Thrace ) to the four allies. These treaties resulted in the loss of 83 percent of their European territory and almost 70 percent of their European population. In

645-866: A clash of arms between the Druze and Ottoman-backed local villagers. Though it is the financial change during second constitutional area; the spread of taxation, elections and conscription, to areas already undergoing economic change caused by the construction of new railroads, provoked large revolts, particularly among the Druzes and the Hauran. Sami Pasha al-Farouqi arrived in Damascus in August ;1910, leading an Ottoman expeditionary force of some 35 battalions. The resistance collapsed. In 1911, Muslim intellectuals and politicians formed " The Young Arab Society ",

774-422: A class or a subset relationship: She was a nurse. Cats are carnivorous mammals. Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, permanent or temporary: The trees are green. I am your boss. The hen is next to the cockerel. The children are confused. Some languages use different copulas, or different syntax, to denote a permanent, essential characteristic of something versus

903-593: A consequence, Albanian intellectuals meeting, the Congress of Manastir on 22 November 1908, chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script. The Hauran Druze Rebellion was a violent Druze uprising in the Syrian province , which erupted in 1909. The rebellion was led by the al-Atrash family, in an aim to gain independence. A business dispute between Druze chief Yahia bey Atrash in the village of Basr al-Harir escalated into

1032-552: A copula. Some co-occurrences are common. The English verb to be is also used as an auxiliary verb , especially for expressing passive voice (together with the past participle ) or expressing progressive aspect (together with the present participle ): The man was killed. (passive) It is raining. (progressive) Other languages' copulas have additional uses as auxiliaries. For example, French être can be used to express passive voice similarly to English be ; both French être and German sein are used to express

1161-605: A decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage. Most Ottoman Turkish was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet ( Ottoman Turkish : الفبا , romanized :  elifbâ ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script . The Armenian , Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish ,

1290-508: A dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet ) The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish .The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc. Table below lists nouns with

1419-674: A document but would use the native Turkish word bal ( بال ) when buying it. The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts. In transcription , the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard. Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides

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1548-430: A human ' , (te) ember vagy ' you are a human ' , mi emberek vagyunk ' we are humans ' , (ti) emberek vagytok ' you (all) are humans ' . The copula also reappears for stating locations: az emberek a házban vannak ' the people are in the house ' , and for stating time: hat óra van ' it is six o'clock ' . However, the copula may be omitted in colloquial language: hat óra (van) ' it

1677-429: A human ' ; Arabic: أنا إنسان , ʾana ʾinsān ' I (am a) human ' ; Hebrew: אני אדם , ʔani ʔadam ' I (am a) human ' ; Geʽez: አነ ብእሲ/ብእሲ አነ , ʔana bəʔəsi / bəʔəsi ʔana ' I (am a) man ' / ' (a) man I (am) ' ; Southern Quechua : payqa runam ' s/he (is) a human ' . The usage is known generically as the zero copula. In other tenses (sometimes in forms other than third person singular),

1806-412: A non-copular use as an existential verb, meaning "to exist". This use is illustrated in the following sentences: I want only to be , and that is enough ; I think therefore I am ; To be or not to be , that is the question. In these cases, the verb itself expresses a predicate (that of existence ), rather than linking to a predicative expression as it does when used as a copula. In ontology it

1935-585: A noun, but they may still behave otherwise like ordinary verbs: -u- in Inuit languages . In some other languages, like Beja and Ket , the copula takes the form of suffixes that attach to a noun but are distinct from the person agreement markers used on predicative verbs . This phenomenon is known as nonverbal person agreement (or nonverbal subject agreement ), and the relevant markers are always established as deriving from cliticized independent pronouns. In some languages, copula omission occurs within

2064-485: A particular grammatical context. For example, speakers of Bengali , Russian , Indonesian , Turkish , Hungarian , Arabic , Hebrew , Geʽez and Quechuan languages consistently drop the copula in present tense: Bengali: আমি মানুষ , Aami manush, 'I (am a) human'; Russian: я человек , ya chelovek ' I (am a) human ' ; Indonesian: saya seorang manusia ' I (am) a human ' ; Turkish: o insan ' s/he (is a) human ' ; Hungarian: ő ember ' s/he (is)

2193-590: A political committee in the capital. Calling themselves the Savior Officers , its members were committed to reducing the autocratic control wielded by the CUP over military operations. Supported by the Freedom and Accord in parliament, these officers threatened violent action unless their demands were met. Said Pasha resigned as Grand Vizier on 17 July 1912, and the government collapsed. A new government, so called

2322-472: A post-Ottoman state . See the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below. Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in

2451-459: A result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, H. H. Asquith , from accepting. Instead the offer went to William of Wied , a German prince who accepted and became sovereign of the new Principality of Albania . Albania's neighbours still cast covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic state. The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of

2580-411: A single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words. Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك tepmek meaning 'to kick', whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ tep . Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك -mek at

2709-596: A small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from

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2838-427: A standalone for 3rd person. Generally, the verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula , the word وار var . The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine". The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in

2967-453: A temporary state. For examples, see the sections on the Romance languages , Slavic languages and Irish . In many languages the principal copula is a verb , like English (to) be , German sein , Mixtec kuu , Touareg emous , etc. It may inflect for grammatical categories like tense , aspect and mood , like other verbs in the language. Being a very commonly used verb, it

3096-766: A transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script. There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems. Fall of the Ottoman Empire The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) was a period of history of the Ottoman Empire beginning with the Young Turk Revolution and ultimately ending with the empire's dissolution and the founding of the modern state of Turkey . The Young Turk Revolution restored

3225-536: A unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that the English there -sentences are subtypes of inverse copular constructions . Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same referent or express an identical concept: I want only to be myself. The Morning Star is the Evening Star. They may also express membership of

3354-435: A variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes. The table includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with the letter ه ـه ([a] or [e]), both back and front vowels, word that ends in a ت ([t]) sound, and word that ends in either ق or ك ([k]). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions: Table below shows

3483-616: A very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts ; for example, the Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny") is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining"). In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools,

3612-410: Is a human ' ; but: (paykuna) runakunam kanku ' (they) are human ' . In Māori , the zero copula can be used in predicative expressions and with continuous verbs (many of which take a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages) — He nui te whare , literally ' a big the house ' , ' the house (is) big ' ; I te tēpu te pukapuka , literally ' at (past locative particle)

3741-482: Is also used by a variety of other English speakers. An example is the sentence "I saw twelve men, each a soldier." In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with an article, the copula is understood: ὁ οἴκος ἐστὶ μακρός , "the house is large", can be written μακρός ὁ οἴκος , "large the house (is)." In Quechua ( Southern Quechua used for the examples), zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular ( kan ): Payqa runam ' (s)he

3870-559: Is big ' ; Ko te pukapuka kei te tēpu ' It is the book (that is) on the table ' ; Ko au kei te kai ' It is me eating ' . However, when expressing identity or class membership, ko must be used: Ko tēnei tāku pukapuka ' This is my book ' ; Ko Ōtautahi he tāone i Te Waipounamu ' Christchurch is a city in the South Island (of New Zealand) ' ; Ko koe tōku hoa ' You are my friend ' . When expressing identity, ko can be placed on either object in

3999-409: Is compound verbs. This consists of adding a Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do ( ایتمك etmek ) or to become ( اولمق olmaq ). For example, note the following two verbs: Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb "etmek" isn't straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into

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4128-479: Is likely that the copula has irregular inflected forms; in English, the verb be has a number of highly irregular ( suppletive ) forms and has more different inflected forms than any other English verb ( am , is , are , was , were , etc.; see English verbs for details). Other copulas show more resemblances to pronouns . That is the case for Classical Chinese and Guarani , for instance. In highly synthetic languages , copulas are often suffixes , attached to

4257-539: Is often called a linking verb . In other languages, copulas show more resemblances to pronouns , as in Classical Chinese and Guarani , or may take the form of suffixes attached to a noun, as in Korean , Beja , and Inuit languages . Most languages have one main copula (in English, the verb "to be"), although some (like Spanish , Portuguese and Thai ) have more than one, while others have none . While

4386-399: Is often considered to be part of the predicate , the remainder being called a predicative expression . A simple clause containing a copula is illustrated below: The book is on the table. In that sentence, the noun phrase the book is the subject, the verb is serves as the copula, and the prepositional phrase on the table is the predicative expression. In some theories of grammar,

4515-451: Is omitted when introducing oneself. Bora ben ' I am Bora ' is grammatically correct, but Bora ben im (same sentence with the copula) is not for an introduction (but is grammatically correct in other cases). Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example, in the Irish language , is , the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate

4644-467: Is six o'clock ' . Hungarian uses copula lenni for expressing location: Itt van Róbert ' Bob is here ' , but it is omitted in the third person present tense for attribution or identity statements: Róbert öreg ' Bob is old ' ; ők éhesek ' they are hungry ' ; Kati nyelvtudós ' Cathy is a linguist ' (but Róbert öreg volt ' Bob was old ' , éhesek voltak ' they were hungry ' , Kati nyelvtudós volt ' Cathy

4773-582: Is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, Aristotle held, is to be something . However, Abelard in his Dialectica made a reductio ad absurdum argument against the idea that the copula can express existence. Similar examples can be found in many other languages; for example, the French and Latin equivalents of I think therefore I am are Je pense, donc je suis and Cogito ergo sum , where suis and sum are

4902-478: Is to denote an obligatory action or expected occurrence: "I am to serve you". "The manager is to resign". This can be put also into past tense: "We were to leave at 9". For forms like "if I was/were to come", see English conditional sentences . (By certain criteria, the English copula be may always be considered an auxiliary verb; see Diagnostics for identifying auxiliary verbs in English .) The English to be and its equivalents in certain other languages also have

5031-521: The 1912 Ottoman general election . Decentralization (the Liberal Union's position) was rejected and all effort was directed toward streamline of the government, streamlining the administration (bureaucracy), and strengthening the armed forces. The CUP, which got the public mandate from the electorate, did not compromise with minority parties like their predecessors (that is being Sultan Abdul Hamid) had been. The first three years of relations between

5160-552: The 1913 Ottoman coup d'état . The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) government became increasingly radicalised during this period, and conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against the empire's Armenian , Assyrian , and Greek citizens, events collectively referred to as the Late Ottoman genocides . Ottoman participation in World War I ended with defeat and the partition of the empire's remaining territories under

5289-701: The Adana Massacre , shook in April the ARF-CUP relations to the core. On 24 April the 31 March Incident and suppression of the Adana violence followed each other. The Ottoman authorities in Adana brought in military forces and ruthlessly stamped out both real opponents, while at the same time massacring thousands of innocent people. In July 1909, the CUP government announced the trials of various local government and military officials, for "being implicated in

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5418-681: The Ottoman constitution of 1876 . The revolution created multi-party democracy . Once underground, the Young Turk movement declared its parties. Among them was " Committee of Union and Progress " (CUP), and the " Liberty Party ." There were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party and ethnic parties which included People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Section) , Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs , Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion) , Al-Fatat (also known as

5547-566: The Ottoman public debt , the Ottoman Bank or Ottoman Public Debt Administration because of their international character. The same held true of most of the companies which were formed to execute public works such as Baghdad Railway , tobacco and cigarette trades of two French companies the " Regie Company ", and "Narquileh tobacco". Italy declared war, the Italo-Turkish War , on the Empire on 29 September 1911, demanding

5676-534: The Six Vilayets and the nomination of a Christian governor and religiously balanced council over the unified provinces, the establishment of a second Gendarmerie over Ottoman Gendarmerie commanded by European officers, the legalization of the Armenian language and schools, and the establishment of a special commission to examine land confiscations empowered to expel Muslim refugees. The most important clause

5805-552: The constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system for the Ottoman parliament . At the same time, a nascent movement called Ottomanism was promoted in an attempt to maintain the unity of the Empire, emphasising a collective Ottoman nationalism regardless of religion or ethnicity. Within the empire, the new constitution was initially seen positively, as an opportunity to modernize state institutions and resolve inter-communal tensions between different ethnic groups. Additionally, this period

5934-641: The millet system, consisting of confessional communities for each religion. The Empire never fully integrated its conquests economically and therefore never established a binding link with its subjects. Between 1828 and 1908 , the Empire tried to catch up with industrialization and a rapidly emerging world market by reforming state and society. The Treaty of Balta Liman (1838) with Great Britain “will abolish all monopolies, allow British merchants and their collaborators to have full access to all Ottoman markets and will be taxed equally to local merchants”. Thus English manufacturers could sell their products cheaply in

6063-750: The occupation of Smyrna (modern-day İzmir ), mobilized the Turkish national movement , which ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence . The formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was performed by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1922. The Sultan was declared persona non grata from the lands the Ottoman Dynasty had ruled since 1299. Europe became dominated by nation states with

6192-410: The perfect forms of certain verbs (formerly English be was also): Je suis arrivé(e) French for ' I have arrived ' , literally ' I am arrived ' . The auxiliary functions of these verbs derived from their copular function, and could be interpreted as special cases of the copular function (with the verbal forms it precedes being considered adjectival). Another auxiliary usage in English

6321-511: The rise of nationalism in Europe . The 19th century saw the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire which resulted in the establishment of an independent Greece in 1821, Serbia in 1835, and Bulgaria in 1877–1878. Unlike the European nations, the Ottoman Empire made little attempt to integrate conquered peoples through cultural assimilation. Instead, Ottoman policy was to rule through

6450-489: The "Great cabinet", was formed by Ahmet Muhtar Pasha . The members of the government were prestigious statesmen, technocrat government, and they easily received the vote of confidence. The CUP excluded from cabinet posts. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons established by largely under French guidance in 1912. Squadrons were established in a short time as Louis Blériot and the Belgian pilot Baron Pierre de Caters performed

6579-437: The 288 seats in the 1908 election . The other 4 Armenians represented parties with no ethnic affiliation. The ARF was aware that the elections were shaky ground and maintained its political direction and self-defence mechanism intact and continued to smuggle arms and ammunition. On 13 April 1909, while Constantinople was dealing with the consequences of 31 March Incident , an outbreak of violence, known today as

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6708-633: The Albanians declared independence. The European Great Powers endorsed an independent Albania in 1913, after the Second Balkan War leaving outside the Albanian border more than half of the Albanian population and their lands, that were partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece. They were assisted by Aubrey Herbert , a British MP who passionately advocated their cause in London. As

6837-492: The Albanians, their spoken language, lacked a standard literary form and even a standard alphabet. Under the new regime the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language lifted. The new regime also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to impose the Arabic alphabet. The Albanians refused to submit to the campaign to "Ottomanize" them by force. As

6966-443: The Arab world. They also requested that Arab conscripts to the Ottoman army not be required to serve in non-Arab regions except in time of war. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces. Nationalist movement become prominent during this Ottoman period, but it has to be mentioned that this

7095-634: The Armenian massacres.". On 15 January 1912, the Ottoman parliament dissolved and political campaigns began almost immediately. After the election, on 5 May 1912, Dashnak officially severed the relations with the Ottoman government; a public declaration of the Western Bureau printed in the official announcement was directed to "Ottoman Citizens." The June issue of Droshak ran an editorial about it. In October 1912, George V of Armenia engaged in negotiations with General Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov to discuss Armenian reforms inside

7224-515: The Balkans felt that the CUP no longer represented their aspirations. They had heard the CUP's arguments before, under the Tanzimat reforms: Those in the vanguard of reform had appropriated the notion of Ottomanism, but the contradictions implicit in the practical realization of this ideology – in persuading Muslims and non-Muslims alike that the achievement of true equality between them entailed

7353-654: The CUP identified the Turks as the "dominant nation" around which the empire should be organized, not unlike the position of Germans in Austria-Hungary. According to Reynolds, only a small minority in the Empire occupied themselves with Pan-Turkism , at least in 1908. The election was held in October and November 1908. CUP-sponsored candidates were opposed by the Liberals. The latter became a centre for those opposing

7482-416: The CUP to call elections with unionists holding the upper hand. After 1914 elections, the democratic structure had a better representation in the parliament; the parliament that emerged from the elections in 1914 reflected better ethnic composition of the Ottoman population. There were more Arab deputies, which were under-represented in previous parliaments. The CUP had a majority government. Ismail Enver became

7611-433: The CUP to seize control of the government. The Freedom and Accord Party presented the peace proposal to the Ottoman government as a collective démarche, which was almost immediately accepted by both the Ottoman cabinet and by an overwhelming majority of the parliament on 22 January 1913. The 1913 Ottoman coup d'état (23 January), was carried out by a number of CUP members led by Ismail Enver and Mehmed Talaat , in which

7740-478: The CUP. Mehmed Sabahaddin , who returned from his long exile, believed that in non-homogeneous provinces a decentralized government was best. The Liberals were poorly organized in the provinces, and failed to convince minority candidates to contest the election under the Liberty Party banner; it also failed to tap into the continuing support for the old regime in less developed areas. During September 1908,

7869-427: The Empire was proclaimed in the old capital of Tarnovo by Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria , who afterwards took the title " Tsar ". The Bosnian crisis on 6 October 1908 erupted when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , territories formally within the sovereignty of the Empire. This unilateral action was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence (5 October) from

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7998-563: The Empire's interest. The debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (or Central bank). The total pre-World War debt of Empire was $ 716,000,000. France had 60 percent of the total. Germany had 20 percent. The United Kingdom owned 15 percent. The Ottoman Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of

8127-600: The Empire. The Ottoman Empire protested Bulgaria's declaration with more vigour than the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had no practical prospects of governing. A boycott of Austro-Hungarian goods and shops occurred, inflicting commercial losses of over 100,000,000 kronen on Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary agreed to pay the Ottomans ₤ 2.2 million for the public land in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bulgarian independence could not be reversed. Just after

8256-514: The Empire. The council had power over financial affairs; its control even extended to determine the tax on livestock in the districts. In July 1908, the Young Turk Revolution changed the political structure of the Empire. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) rebelled against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II to establish the Second Constitutional Era . On 24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid II capitulated and restored

8385-664: The European governments, while the Political Council "seconded by the Constantinople and Tbilisi Commissions" were to negotiate the reform question internally with the Ottoman and Russian governments. The Armenian reform package was established in February ;1914 based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano . The plan called for the unification of

8514-782: The Italians had defeated the disorganized Ottomans, the members of the Balkan League attacked the Empire before the war with Italy had ended. On 18 October 1912, Italy and the Empire signed a treaty in Ouchy near Lausanne. Often called Treaty of Ouchy, but also named as the First Treaty of Lausanne. The Freedom and Accord Party , successor to the Liberty Party, was in power when the First Balkan War broke out in October. The Party of Union and Progress won landslide

8643-399: The Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use the Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making

8772-457: The Ottoman Empire and the abandonment of the idea of an independent Armenia. Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian managed the political campaign for the 1908 Ottoman Elections. ARF field workers were dispatched to the provinces containing significant Armenian populations; for example, Drastamat Kanayan (Dro), went to Diyarbakir as a political organizer. The Committee of Union and Progress could only able to bring 10 Armenian representatives to

8901-401: The Ottoman Empire, and “the Ottomans were unable to ... raise revenues for investments in development projects”, which undermined Ottoman efforts to industrialize. The Ottoman state did try to industrialize. For example, in 1840s, it built a complex of industries west of Istanbul including spinning and weaving mills, a foundry, steam-operated machine works, and a boatyard for small steamships. In

9030-472: The Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar , Bashkir , and Uyghur . From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of

9159-582: The Russian Empire. In December 1912, Kevork V formed the Armenian National Delegation and appointed Boghos Nubar . The delegation established itself in Paris. Another member appointed to the delegation was James Malcolm who resided in London and became the delegation's point man in its dealings with the British. In early 1913, Armenian diplomacy shaped as Boghos Nubar was to be responsible for external negotiations with

9288-549: The Young Arab Society; Jam’iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat ), Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization , and Armenians were organized under the Armenakan , Hunchakian and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF/Dashnak). At the onset, there was a desire to remain unified, and the competing groups wished to maintain a common country. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO) collaborated with

9417-416: The acceptance by both of obligations as well as rights – posed CUP a problem. October 1908 saw the new regime suffer a significant blow with the loss of Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Crete, over which the empire still exercised nominal sovereignty. The system became multi-headed, with old and new structures coexisting, until the CUP took full control of the government in 1913 and, under the chaos of change, power

9546-442: The additional - ـنـ [n] is a vowel, the final vowel ی is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını versus kitaplarından ). Examples below : Below table shows the positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels,

9675-470: The advocates of representative parliamentary government, mutinous demonstrations by disenfranchised regimental officers broke out on 13 April 1909, which led to the collapse of the government. On 27 April 1909 the counter-coup was put down using the 11th Salonika Reserve Infantry Division of the Third Army . Some of the leaders of Bulgarian federalist wing like Sandanski and Chernopeev participated in

9804-411: The cause of the riot is (not are ) these pictures of the wall . Compare Italian la causa della rivolta sono queste foto del muro ; notice the use of the plural sono to agree with plural queste foto ' these photos ' rather than with singular la causa ' the cause ' . In instances where an English syntactical subject comprises a prepositional object that is pluralized, however,

9933-506: The clause without changing the meaning ( ko tēnei tāku pukapuka is the same as ko tāku pukapuka tēnei ) but not on both ( ko tēnei ko tāku pukapuka would be equivalent to saying "it is this, it is my book" in English). In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular and plural: Ő ember / Ők emberek  — ' s/he is a human ' / ' they are humans ' ; but: (én) ember vagyok ' I am

10062-725: The collective note of the powers was handed. CUP responded to demands of European powers on reforms in Macedonia on 14 October. While the Powers were asking Empire to reform Macedonia, under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912, and Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for

10191-628: The command of this army in November 1914] and began working on its operational area which was the straits. This became a scandal and intolerable for St. Petersburg . The Russian Empire developed a plan for invading and occupying the Black Sea port of Trabzon or the Eastern Anatolian town of Bayezid in retaliation. To solve this issue Germany demoted Otto Liman von Sanders to a rank with which he could barely command an army corps. If there

10320-437: The copula in bold and the predicative expression in italics: Mary and John are my friends . The sky was blue . I am taller than most people . The birds and the beasts were there . The three components (subject, copula and predicative expression) do not necessarily appear in that order: their positioning depends on the rules for word order applicable to the language in question. In English (an SVO language),

10449-412: The copula usually reappears. Some languages drop the copula in poetic or aphoristic contexts. Examples in English include Such poetic copula dropping is more pronounced in some languages other than English, like the Romance languages . In informal speech of English, the copula may also be dropped in general sentences, as in "She a nurse." It is a feature of African-American Vernacular English , but

10578-566: The coup in June 1913. Cemal Pasha's posting as commendante of Constantinople put the party underground. The execution of former officials had been an exception since the Tanzimat (1840s) period; punishment was usually exile. The public life could not be far more brutish 75 years after the Tanzimat. The Foreign Ministry was always occupied by someone from the inner circle of the CUP except for the interim appointment of Muhtar Bey. Said Halim Pasha who

10707-410: The difficulty of maintaining, in the case of such sentences, the usual division into a subject noun phrase and a predicate verb phrase . Another issue is verb agreement when both subject and predicative expression are noun phrases (and differ in number or person): in English, the copula typically agrees with the syntactical subject even if it is not logically (i.e. semantically ) the subject, as in

10836-415: The end. Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of

10965-470: The equivalents of English "am", normally used as copulas. However, other languages prefer a different verb for existential use, as in the Spanish version Pienso, luego existo (where the verb existir ' to exist ' is used rather than the copula ser or estar ' to be ' ). Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the there is ... or there are... type. Languages differ in

11094-549: The first flight demonstration in the Empire on 2 December 1909. The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century and Montenegro , sought additional territories from the Albania , Macedonia , and Thrace regions, behind their nationalistic arguments. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for the Balkan Wars . On 10 October 1912

11223-410: The first time), and political rights. The new constitution was perceived as a big step for the establishment of a common law for all subjects. The position of Sultan was greatly reduced to a figurehead, while still retaining some constitutional powers, such as the ability to declare war. The new constitution, aimed to bring more sovereignty to the public, could not address certain public services, such as

11352-421: The grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic. In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish: A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel ( عسل ) to refer to honey when writing

11481-680: The group made a surprise raid on the central Ottoman government buildings, the Sublime Porte (Turkish: Bâb-ı Âlî ). During the coup, the Minister of the Navy Nazım Pasha was assassinated and the Grand Vizier , Kâmil Pasha , was forced to resign. The CUP established tighter control over the faltering Ottoman state. The new grand vizier Mahmud Sevket Pasha was assassinated by Freedom and Accord supporters just in 5 months after

11610-512: The important Hejaz Railway opened, construction of which had started in 1900. Ottoman rule was firmly re-established in Hejaz and Yemen with the railroad from Damascus to Medina. Historically, Arabia's interior was mostly controlled by playing one tribal group off against another. As the railroad finished, opposing Wahhabi Islamic fundamentalists reasserted themselves under the political leadership of Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud . Christian communities of

11739-450: The issue would be solved with negotiations. 1908 Ottoman general election was preceded by political campaigns. In the summer of 1908, a variety of political proposals were put forward by the CUP. The CUP stated in its election manifesto that it sought to modernize the state by reforming finance and education, promoting public works and agriculture, and the principles of equality and justice. Regarding nationalism, (Armenian, Kurd, Turkic..)

11868-406: The main supporters of the reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp . It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet . The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being

11997-458: The march on Capital to depose the "attempt to dismantle constitution". Abdul Hamid II was removed from the throne, and Mehmed V became the Sultan. On 5 August 1909, the revised constitution was granted by the new Sultan Mehmed V . This revised constitution, as the one before, proclaimed the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, military service (allowing Christians into the military for

12126-748: The members of the CUP, and Greeks and Bulgarians joined under the second biggest party, the Liberty Party. The Bulgarian federalist wing welcomed the revolution, and they later joined mainstream politics as the People's Federative Party . The former centralists of the IMRO formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs , and, like the PFP, they participated in 1908 Ottoman general election . The de jure Bulgarian Declaration of Independence on 5 October [ O.S. 22 September] 1908 from

12255-560: The movement Ottomanism for accepting all ethnicities and religions in the empire, for equality among millets and equality of subjects before the law. Proponents believed that this could solve social issues. The structure of the Empire was greatly changed by the Tanzimat reforms : the millet system remained in essence, but secular organizations and policies were established; and primary education and conscription were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike. Michael Hechter argues that

12384-462: The new government, discontent found expression in a fundamentalist movement which attempted to dismantle Constitution and revert it with a monarchy. The 31 March Incident began when Abdul Hamid promised to restore the Caliphate , eliminate secular policies, and restore the rule of Islamic law , as the mutinous troops claimed. CUP also eliminated the time for religious observance. Unfortunately for

12513-664: The new regime and the Great Powers were demoralizing and frustrating. The Powers refused to make any concessions over the Capitulations and loosen their grip over the Empire's internal affairs. When the Italian War and the counterinsurgency operations in Albania and Yemen began to fail, a number of high-ranking military officers, who were unhappy with the counterproductive political involvement in these wars, formed

12642-421: The ordering given above is the normal one, but certain variation is possible: It is also possible, in certain circumstances, for one (or even two) of the three components to be absent: Inverse copular constructions , in which the positions of the predicative expression and the subject are reversed, are found in various languages. They have been the subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to

12771-599: The outbreak of World War I. At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italy, and Balkan war erupted in the fall of 1912. Freedom and Accord flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the CUP The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled

12900-521: The parliament the Liberty Party accused the CUP of authoritarianism. Abdul Hamid's Grand Viziers Said and Kâmil Pasha and his Foreign Minister Tevfik Pasha continued in the office. They were now independent of the Sultan and were taking measures to strengthen the Porte against the encroachments of both the Palace and the CUP. Said and Kâmil were nevertheless men of the old regime. After nine months into

13029-673: The partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War . A nationalist uprising broke out in Albania, and on 8 October, the Balkan League , consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, mounted a joint attack on the Empire, starting the First Balkan War . The strong march of the Bulgarian forces in Thrace pushed the Ottoman armies to the gates of Constantinople. The Second Balkan War soon followed. Albania declared independence on 28 November. The empire agreed to

13158-534: The political process was restricted with the outbreak of the World War I. The Albanians of Tirana and Elbassan , where the Albanian National Awakening spread, were among the first groups to join the constitutional movement, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. However, due to shifting national borders in the Balkans, the Albanians had been marginalized as a nation-less people. The most significant factor uniting

13287-497: The prepositional object agrees with the predicative expression, e.g. "What kind of birds are those?" The definition and scope of the concept of a copula is not necessarily precise in any language. As noted above, though the concept of the copula in English is most strongly associated with the verb to be , there are many other verbs that can be used in a copular sense as well. And more tenuously A copular verb may also have other uses supplementary to or distinct from its uses as

13416-400: The proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory tax system. This ruined every struggling industry by the graft, and fought against every show of independence on the part of Empire's many subject peoples. The Ottoman public debt was part of a larger scheme of control by the European powers, through which the commercial interests of the world had sought to gain advantages that may not have been of

13545-537: The revolution in 1908, the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece, taking advantage of the revolution as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island. 1908 ended with the issue still unresolved between the Empire and the Cretans. In 1909, after the parliament elected its governing structure (first cabinet), the CUP majority decided that if order was maintained and the rights of Muslims were respected,

13674-496: The rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire was the result of a backlash against Ottoman attempts to institute more direct and central forms of rule over populations which had previously had greater autonomy. The Capitulations were the main discussion of economic policy during the period. It used to be believed incoming foreign assistance with capitulation could benefit the Empire. Ottoman officials, representing different jurisdictions, sought bribes at every opportunity and withheld

13803-496: The same way, with a possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var , followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section. The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used. Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from

13932-607: The second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronounciation and modern Latin orthograhpy). Below table shows the conjugation of a negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love). Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish),

14061-410: The suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above. For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in a vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter - ـنـ [n] comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ی is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding

14190-486: The switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until the 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to

14319-477: The table the book ' , ' the book (was) on the table ' ; Nō Ingarangi ia , literally ' from England (s)he ' , ' (s)he (is) from England ' , Kei te kai au , literally ' at the (act of) eating I ' , ' I (am) eating ' . Alternatively, in many cases, the particle ko can be used as a copulative (though not all instances of ko are used as thus, like all other Māori particles, ko has multiple purposes): Ko nui te whare ' The house

14448-399: The term copula is generally used to refer to such principal verbs, it may also be used for a wider group of verbs with similar potential functions (like become , get , feel and seem in English); alternatively, these might be distinguished as "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas". The principal use of a copula is to link the subject of a clause to a subject complement . A copular verb

14577-658: The terms of the Treaty of Sèvres . The treaty, formulated at the conference of London , allocated nominal land to the Ottoman state and allowed it to retain the designation of "Ottoman Caliphate" (similar to the Vatican , a sacerdotal - monarchical state ruled by the Catholic Pope ), leaving it severely weakened. One factor behind this arrangement was Britain's desire to thwart the Khilafat Movement . The occupation of Constantinople ( Istanbul ), along with

14706-401: The three months following the inauguration of the new regime there were more than 100 strikes, constituting three-quarters of the labor force of the Empire, mainly in Constantinople and Salonika ( Thessaloniki ). During previous strikes ( Anatolian tax revolts in 1905-1907 ) the Sultan remained above criticism and bureaucrats and administrators were deemed corrupt; this time CUP took the blame. In

14835-524: The turnover of Tripoli and Cyrenaica . Italian forces took those areas on 5 November of that year. Although minor, the war was an important precursor of World War I as it sparked nationalism in the Balkan states. The Ottomans lost their last directly ruled African territory. The Italians also sent weapons to Montenegro, encouraged Albanian dissidents, and seized the Dodecanese . Seeing how easily

14964-453: The two-year period between September 1911 and September 1913 ethnic cleansing sent hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees , or muhacir , streaming into the Empire, adding yet another economic burden and straining the social fabric. During the wars, food shortages and hundreds of thousands of refugees haunted the empire. After the war there was a violent expulsion of the Muslim peasants of eastern Thrace. The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913

15093-476: The way they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an expletive pronoun like the English there , while other languages use different verbs and constructions, like the French il y a (which uses parts of the verb avoir ' to have ' , not the copula) or the Swedish finns (the passive voice of the verb for "to find"). For details, see existential clause . Relying on

15222-429: The whole expression is on the table may be called a predicate or a verb phrase . The predicative expression accompanying the copula, also known as the complement of the copula, may take any of several possible forms: it may be a noun or noun phrase, an adjective or adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase (as above), or an adverb or another adverbial phrase expressing time or location. Examples are given below, with

15351-473: The words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia , prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares

15480-545: The words of Edward Clark: “In variety as well as in number, in planning, in investment, and in attention given to internal sources of raw materials these manufacturing enterprises far surpassed the scope of all previous efforts and mark this period as unique in Ottoman history.” Inspired by the French Revolution social contract theorists Montesquieu and Rousseau , the Young Ottomans society started

15609-425: Was a linguist ' ). In Turkish, both the third person singular and the third person plural copulas are omittable. Ali burada and Ali burada dır both mean ' Ali is here ' , and Onlar aç and Onlar aç lar both mean ' They are hungry ' . Both of the sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct, but sentences with the copula are more formal. The Turkish first person singular copula suffix

15738-456: Was a short-lived agreement signed in July ;1913 between the Ottoman sultan Mehmed V and the British over several issues. However the status of Kuwait that came to be the only lasting result, as its outcome was formal independence for Kuwait. Albania had been under Ottoman rule since about 1478. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece laid claim to Albanian-populated lands during Balkan Wars,

15867-531: Was already Foreign Minister, became Grand Vizier in June 1913 and remained in office until October 1915. He was succeeded in the Ministry by Halil Menteşe . In May 1913 a German military mission assigned Otto Liman von Sanders to help train and reorganize the Ottoman army . Otto Liman von Sanders was assigned to reorganize the First Army , his model to be replicated to other units; as an advisor [he took

15996-799: Was among Arab nobles and common Arabs considered themselves loyal subjects of the Caliph. Instead of Ottoman Caliph, the British, for their part, incited the Sharif of Mecca to launch the Arab Revolt during the First World War. In 1908, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) or Dashnak Party embraced a public position endorsing participation and reconciliation in the Imperial Government of

16125-475: Was characterised by continuing military failures by the empire. Despite military reforms , the Ottoman Army met with disastrous defeat in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), resulting in the Ottomans being driven out of North Africa and nearly out of Europe. Continuous unrest leading up to World War I resulted in the 31 March Incident , the 1912 Ottoman coup d'état and

16254-432: Was exercised without accountability. The Senate of the Ottoman Empire was opened by the Sultan on 17 December 1908. The new year brought the results of 1908 elections. Chamber of Deputies gathered on 30 January 1909. The CUP needed a strategy to realize their Ottomanist ideals. In 1909, public order laws and police were unable to maintain order; protesters were prepared to risk reprisals to express their grievances. In

16383-476: Was no solution through Naval occupation of Constantinople, the next Russian idea was to improve the Russian Caucasus Army . The Empire lost territory in the Balkans, where many of its Christian voters were based before the 1914 elections . The CUP made efforts to win support in the Arab provinces by making conciliatory gestures to Arab leaders. Weakened Arab support for Freedom and Accord enabled

16512-450: Was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things. A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word, though this is not universally the case. A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb . In English primary education grammar courses, a copula

16641-407: Was obligating the European powers to enforce the reforms, by overriding the regional governments. Copula (linguistics)#Existential usage In linguistics , a copula /‘kɒpjələ/ ( pl. : copulas or copulae ; abbreviated cop ) is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement , such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase

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