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206-629: French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Regency of Algiers was an early modern semi-independent Ottoman province and tributary state on the Barbary Coast of North Africa from 1516 to 1830. Founded by the privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Reis (also known as the Barbarossa brothers), the Regency succeeded

412-581: A dependency because Algiers had annexed it to the Ottoman Empire, which made the appointment of its pashas a prerogative of the Algerian beylerbeys. Faced with Tunisian opposition to Algerian hegemony and its ambitions in the Constantine region , the Algerian dey took the opportunity provided by the 20 years of civil war between Murad II Bey 's sons to invade in 1694 and put a puppet bey on

618-459: A foreign policy tool to play its European counterparts against one other and hunt merchant ships, prompting European states to sign peace treaties and seek Mediterranean passes to help them secure lucrative cabotage trade. This gave the Regency's elites internal legitimacy as champions of jihad , and according to early modern European authors, international respect for the Regency's sovereignty as an established government, despite still being

824-556: A "nest of pirates". Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) noted that "Algiers exercised the jus ad bellum of a sovereign power through its corsairs". Historian Daniel Panzac stressed: Indeed, privateering was based on two fundamental priniciples: it was one of the forms of war practiced by the Maghreb against the Christian states, which conferred upon it a dimension that was at one and the same time legitimate and religious; and it

1030-568: A French ship for the Italian peninsula . 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia, on 11 July. The French army then recruited the first zouaves (a title given to certain light infantry regiments) in October, followed by the spahis regiments, while France expropriated all the land properties belonging to the Turkish settlers , known as Beliks . In

1236-729: A Muslim background living in Libya. In 2019, the proportion of Melillans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 65.0%, the Roman Catholic churches in Melilla belong to the Diocese of Málaga . Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Ceuta , in 2019, the proportion of Ceutans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 60.0%. The Roman Catholic churches in Ceuta belong to

1442-406: A council of government, they took care to respect local institutions and customs under their dominion. The beylerbeys were usually strongmen who kept most of the Maghreb firmly under Ottoman control, garrisoning the main towns with troops and collecting taxes on land while relying heavily on privateering at sea. Because of their experience in fleet command, some beylerbeys became Kapudan Pasha and led

1648-460: A favorable peace treaty the next year. The treaty of Tafna gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying Constantine . Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed

1854-710: A majority on the tai'fa, amongst whom were former slaves who rose to positions of power. Renegade captain Ali Bitchin became admiral of the Algerian navy in 1621 and raided Spanish harbors. After the Ottoman sultan refused to compensate Algiers for its losses against the Venetians in Valona , Ali Bitchin refused to answer a summons from the sultan to join the Cretan war in 1645, then died quite suddenly. The 17th century

2060-609: A massive revolt, and the rebellious corsairs arrested and imprisoned him. Khalil Agha, commander-in-chief of the janissaries of Algiers, took advantage of the incident and seized power, accusing the pashas sent by the Sublime Porte of corruption and hindering the Regency's affairs with European countries. The janissaries effectively eliminated the authority of the pasha, whose position became purely ceremonial. They assigned executive authority to Khalil Agha, provided that his rule would not exceed two months, and put legislative power in

2266-470: A military expedition against Algiers. Admiral Duperré commanded an armada of 600 ships that originated from Toulon , leading it to Algiers. Using Napoleon 's 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, General de Bourmont then landed 27 kilometres (17 mi) west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. In response to the French, the Algerian dey ordered an opposition consisting of 7,000 janissaries , 19,000 troops from

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2472-584: A military expedition. However, the Count of Villèle , an ultra-royalist , President of the council and the monarch's heir, opposed any military action. The Bourbon Restoration government finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. Meanwhile, the Berber pirates were able to exploit the geography of the coast with ease. Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage

2678-650: A million Europeans , Tunisia was home to 255,000 Europeans , and Libya was home to 145,000 Europeans . In religion, most of the pieds-noirs in Maghreb are Catholic. Due to the exodus of the pieds-noirs in the 1960s, more North African Christians of Berber or Arab descent now live in France than in Greater Maghreb. Prior to independence, the European Catholic settlers had historic legacy and powerful presence in Maghreb countries. Recently,

2884-572: A mixed system of "total domination and total colonization" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities. Some governments and scholars have called France's conquest of Algeria a genocide . For example, Ben Kiernan , an Australian expert on Cambodian genocide wrote in Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur on

3090-581: A mysterious man arrived in Kabiliya. He presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the Prophet ), but is more commonly known as Sherif Boubaghla . He was probably a former lieutenant in the army of Emir Abdelkader , defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. Boubaghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylia. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing guerrilla tactics. Boubaghla

3296-555: A natural barrier that severely limited contact between the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa . The Berber people have inhabited western North Africa since at least 10,000 BC. Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains (stretching from present-day Morocco to present-day Tunisia) and by the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Maghreb have long had commercial and cultural ties across

3502-402: A period between 1860 and 1870, the then-French emperor Napoleon III transformed Algeria into a client state , expanding freedoms, and limiting colonisation, a move deeply unpopular by the French colonists. As a recognized jurisdiction of France, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants. They were first known as colons , and later as pieds-noirs ,

3708-659: A point of no return in Franco-Algerian relations and led to the outbreak of the Algerian War which was characterised by the use guerrilla warfare by National Liberation Front , and crimes against humanity by the French. The war ended in 1962, with Algeria gaining independence following the Évian Accords in March 1962 and a self-determination referendum in July 1962. During its last years as part of France, Algeria

3914-571: A policy of penetration." —Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil When France recognized the Armenian genocide , Turkey accused France of having committed genocide against 15% of Algeria's population. On 1 December 1830, King Louis-Philippe named the Duc de Rovigo as head of military staff in Algeria. De Rovigo took control of Bône and initiated colonisation of the land. He was recalled in 1833 due to

4120-627: A political union of the North African countries, which they call al-Maghrib al-Kabir (the grand Maghrib) or al-Maghrib al-Arabi (the Arab Maghrib). Some 9,000 years ago, Earth's tilt was 24.14 degrees, as compared with the current 23.45 degrees. Around 3,500 BC, these changes in the tilt of the Earth's orbit appear to have caused a rapid desertification of the Sahara region forming

4326-751: A prosperous Algiers for 25 years until he died in 1791. He built fortifications, fountains and a municipal water supply; he also strengthened the navy, kept the janissaries in check and developed trade. Algerian historian Nasreddin Saidouni reports that the dey placed in the state treasury 200,000 Algerian sequins that he had saved from his private salary, which he did not reclaim, during the Spanish attacks on Algiers. His governor of Constantine , Salah Bey , managed to re-assert Regency authority as far south as Touggourt . Algiers also maintained its military superiority over its neighbors under his rule. The dey increased

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4532-643: A ransom and annual tribute equal to $ 10 million over 12 years in accordance to a peace treaty with Algiers in 1795. However, Algiers was defeated in the Second Barbary War by the United States in 1815 when U.S. commodore Stephen Decatur 's squadron killed Algerian admiral Raïs Hamidou in the battle off Cape Gata on 17 June 1815, ending the Algerian threat to U.S. shipping in the Mediterranean. The new European order that emerged from

4738-638: A resourceful warrior. From his capital in Tlemcen , Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity. The French in Algiers viewed with concern

4944-479: A small number of Anglicans. A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to Christianity in Algeria . The number of Moroccans who converted to Christianity (most of them secret worshipers) are estimated between 40,000 -150,000. The International Religious Freedom Report for 2007 estimates thousands of Tunisian Muslims have converted to Christianity. A 2015 study estimate some 1,500 believers in Christ from

5150-461: A term applied primarily to ethnic Europeans born in Algeria. The indigenous Muslim population comprised the majority of the territory throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, due to their lack of political and economic freedom, fueled calls for greater political autonomy , and eventually independence from France. The Sétif and Guelma massacre , in 1945, marked

5356-429: A text that defined the rights of the subjects of Algiers and of all inhabitants of the Regency of Algiers. It codified the behavior of the different army units: janissaries, gunners, chaouchs and sipahis. In the three beyliks (provinces), the beys relied on local notables since they had a limited number of janissaries. This allowed the coulouglis to become beys. Baba Mohammed ben-Osman became dey in 1766 and ruled over

5562-478: A trading center known as the Bastion de France , which exported coral legally under its monopoly and wheat illegally. The bastion was fortified and turned into a military supply base and a center of espionage , which Algerians were displeased by. Khider Pasha destroyed the bastion in 1604. The Ottoman Porte had him assassinated and replaced by the more compliant Mohammed Koucha  [ fr ] Pasha, but

5768-727: A unique corsair state that drew revenue and political power from its maritime strength. In the 17th century, when the wars between the Spanish Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire, Kingdom of France , Kingdom of England and Dutch Republic ended, Barbary corsairs started capturing merchant ships and their crews and goods from these states. When the Ottomans could not prevent these attacks, European powers negotiated directly with Algiers and also took military action against it. This emancipated Algiers diplomatically and increased its autonomy. The Regency held significant naval power in

5974-582: Is Turks, who migrated with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire . Africans from south of the Sahara joined the population mix during centuries of trans-Saharan trade . Traders and slaves went to the Maghreb from the Sahel region. On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are small communities of black populations, sometimes called Haratine . In Algeria especially, a large European minority, known as

6180-653: Is believed to have emerged in North Africa. Common subclades include E1b1b1a, E1b1b1b and E1b1b1*. E1b1b1b is distributed along a west-to-east cline with frequencies that can reach as high as 100 percent in Northwest Africa. E1b1b1a has been observed at low to moderate frequencies among Berber populations with significantly higher frequencies observed in Northeast Africa relative to Northwest Africa. Loosdrecht et al. 2018 demonstrated that E1b1b

6386-582: Is for their part that civilization is situated." French forces deported and banished entire Algerian tribes. The Moorish families of Tlemcen were exiled to the Orient, and others were emigrated elsewhere. The tribes that were considered too troublesome were banned, and some took refuge in Tunisia, Morocco and Syria or were deported to New Caledonia or Guyana. Also, French forces also engaged in wholesale massacres of entire tribes. All 500 men, women and children of

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6592-547: Is known as the Franco-Algerian war , which ended when a 100-year peace treaty was signed between Dey Hussein Mezzo Morto and Louis XIV. Algiers entered a period of peaceful relations with Europe. The resulting decline in privateering forced Algiers to seek other sources of revenue. Dey Hadj Chabane set his sights on his Maghrebi neighbors, Tunis and Morocco . For historical reasons, Algiers considered Tunisia

6798-711: Is most likely indigenous to North Africa and migrated from North Africa to the Near East during the Paleolithic . Haplogroup J-M267 is another very common haplogroup in the Maghreb, being the second most-frequent haplogroup in the Maghreb. It originated in the Middle East , and its highest frequency of 30%–62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East. A study found out that

7004-411: Is primarily inhabited by peoples of Arab and Berber mixed ancestral origin. Arabs inhabit Algeria (70% to 80% ), Libya (97% ), Morocco (67% ), and Tunisia (98% ). Berbers inhabit Algeria (20% ), Libya (10% ), Morocco (35% ), and Tunisia (1% ). Ethnic French, Spanish, West African, and Sephardic Jewish populations also inhabit the region. Centuries of Arabization and Arab migration to

7210-472: The Algerian War (1954-1962), the French used deliberate illegal methods against the Algerians, including (as described by Henri Alleg , who himself had been tortured, and historians such as Raphaëlle Branche) beatings, torture by electroshock, waterboarding , burns, and rape. Prisoners were also locked up without food in small cells, buried alive , and thrown from helicopters to their death or into

7416-588: The Arab Maghreb ( Arabic : اَلْمَغْرِبُ الْعَرَبِيُّ , romanized :  al-Maghrib al-ʿArabi , lit.   'the Arab west') and Northwest Africa , is the western part of the Arab world . The region comprises western and central North Africa , including Algeria , Libya , Mauritania , Morocco , and Tunisia . The Maghreb also includes the disputed territory of Western Sahara . As of 2018,

7622-529: The Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Arabs in the 11th century played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara . It also heavily transformed the culture in the Maghreb into Arab culture , and spread Bedouin nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant. These Bedouin tribes accelerated and deepened

7828-617: The Barbary Wars at the beginning of the 19th century, when Algiers was decisively defeated for the first time. Internal central authority weakened in Algiers due to political intrigue, failed harvests and the decline of privateering. Violent tribal revolts followed, mainly led by maraboutic orders such as the Darqawis and Tijanis . In 1830, France took advantage of this domestic turmoil to invade. The resulting French conquest of Algeria led to colonial rule until 1962. Encouraged by

8034-603: The Bourbon Restoration by Charles X , as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people. He particularly hoped to appeal to the many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars who lived in Paris. His intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey." In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for

8240-667: The Coalition Wars and the Congress of Vienna did not tolerate Algerian raids and viewed them as a "barbaric relic of a previous age". In August 1816 Lord Exmouth carried out a bombardment of Algiers that ended in a British and Dutch victory, a weakened Algerian navy and the liberation of 1,200 slaves. Dey Ali Khodja , with support from the Kouloughlis and the Kabyles, disposed of the turbulent janissaries and transferred

8446-537: The Diocese of Cádiz y Ceuta . The earliest documented Jewish presence in the Maghreb dates to the third century BCE, with Jews being settled in eastern Libya by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt. During the Roman Empire , Jewish communities expanded across the Maghreb, with archaeological evidence, including synagogues and inscriptions, indicating their presence in what are now Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco from

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8652-517: The Duke of Montemar 's forces recaptured the city . The pashas plotted in secret, created conflicts and instigated sedition to overthrow the unpopular deys and regain some of their lost authority. From 1710 the deys assumed the title of pasha at the initiative of Dey Baba Ali Chaouch and no longer accepted representatives from the Sublime Porte. When the Austrian Habsburg monarchy signed

8858-633: The Fatimid Caliphate . The most enduring rule was that of the local Arab empires of the Aghlabids , Idrisids , Salihids , Sulaymanids , Umayyads of Cordoba , Hammudids , Nasrids , Saadians , Alawites and the Sennusids , as well as the Berber empires of the Ifranids , Almoravids , Almohads , Hammadids , Zirids , Marinids , Zayyanids , Hafsids and Wattasids , extending from

9064-561: The First (1801–05) and Second (1815) Barbary Wars. An Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth , carried out a punitive expedition , the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers . The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties , because the technological advantage of U.S., British, and French forces overwhelmed the Algerians' expertise at naval warfare . Following the conquest under

9270-405: The French army . One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed. Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of Morocco , Abd ar Rahman II , and launched raids into Algeria. This alliance led the French Navy to bombard and briefly occupy Essaouira ( Mogador ) under

9476-449: The Gulf of Tunis ( Carthage , Utica, Tunisia ) along the North African littoral , between the Pillars of Hercules and the Libyan coast east of ancient Cyrenaica . They dominated the trade and intercourse of the Western Mediterranean for centuries. Rome 's defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars (264 to 146 BC) enabled Rome to establish the Province of Africa (146 BC) and to control many of these ports. Rome eventually took control of

9682-410: The Hafsids ; then Tripoli from the Hafsids in 1510, making other coastal cities submit to them such as Algiers, where they built an island fortress known as the Peñón of Algiers . In addition to territorial ambitions and Catholic missionary fervor, Spanish economical aims included control over the caravan trade routes from western Sudan, Tripoli and Tunis in the east and Ceuta to Melilla in

9888-404: The July monarchy , France referred to the Algerian territories as "French possessions in North Africa". This was disputed by the Ottoman Empire, which had not given up its claim. In 1839 Marshal General Jean-de-Dieu Soult , Duke of Dalmatia, first named these territories as "Algeria". The invasion of Algeria against the Regency of Algiers (Ottoman Algeria) was initiated in the last days of

10094-476: The Kabyles were pushed to the north. The Berbers took refuge in the mountains whereas the plains were Arabized. These Arabs had been set upon the Berbers by the Fatimids in punishment for their Zirid former Berber clients who defected and abandoned Shiism in the 11th century. Throughout this period, the Maghreb most often was divided into three states, roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and Tunisia . The Maghreb region

10300-427: The Kingdom of Tlemcen as an infamous and formidable pirate base that plundered and waged maritime holy war on European Christian powers. Ottoman regents ruled as heads of a stratocracy —an autonomous military government controlled by the janissary corps —known as Garp ocakları ( lit.   ' Western Garrison ' ) in Ottoman terminology. The Regency emerged in the 16th-century Ottoman–Habsburg wars as

10506-400: The Marquesas Islands or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs. Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing French presence there. France had reason for concern that Britain , which

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10712-400: The Mitidja Plain and envisioned the large-scale production there of cotton . As governor-general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in

10918-412: The Peace of Passarowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1718, Dey Ali Chaouch had Austrian ships captured despite the treaty and refused to pay compensation when an Ottoman-Austrian delegation approached him. The deys also imposed their authority on the janissaries and the raïs . The latter did not approve of treaty provisions which restricted privateering, their main source of income, and remained attached to

11124-409: The Prince de Joinville on August 16, 1844. A French force was destroyed at the Battle of Sidi-Brahim in 1845. However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of Oran Province, General Louis de Lamoricière , at the end of 1847. Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to Egypt or Palestine if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. He accepted these conditions, but

11330-433: The Republic of Salé in the 17th century. He conducted several raids on Spanish coasts and vanquished the Genoese fleet of Andrea Doria at Cherchell . Hayreddin also rescued over 70,000 Andalusian refugees from the Spanish inquisition and brought them to Algeria, where they contributed to the flourishing culture of the Regency. The Barbarossa brothers turned Algiers into an Islamic bastion against Catholic Spain in

11536-414: The Spanish Catholic Reconquista . Other European contributions included French, Italian, and English crews and passengers taken captive by corsairs . In some cases, they were returned to families after being ransomed; in others, they were used as slaves or assimilated and adopted into tribes. Historically, the Maghreb was home to significant historic Jewish communities called Maghrebim , who predated

11742-411: The Sunni Maliki school. Small Ibadi communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating marabouts and saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. This practice was also common among the Jews of the region. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of " Sidi "s, showing places named after the marabouts. This tradition has declined through

11948-459: The Umayyad capital of Damascus in the 7th century AD. The term was used to refer to the region extending from Alexandria in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. Etymologically, it means both "the western place/land" and "the place where the sun sets", in contrast to the Mashriq , the Fertile Crescent and eastern part of the Arab world. In Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Ma'rifat al-Aqālīm (c. 985 AD), medieval Arab geographer Al-Maqdisi used

12154-401: The expedition to Mostaganem of the Spanish governor of Oran Count Alcaudete 's in 1558. The last beylerbey of Algiers was Calabrian -born corsair Uluç Ali Pasha. He captured Tunis from Hafsid vassals of Spain in 1569 before losing it to the Christian forces under Spanish commander John of Austria in 1573, leaving 8,000 men in the Spanish presidio of La Goletta ; Uluç Ali recaptured

12360-420: The janissary coup of 1659, the Regency became a sovereign military republic , and its rulers were thenceforth elected by the council known as the diwan rather than appointed by the Ottoman sultan previously. Despite wars over territory with Spain and the Maghrebi states in the 18th century, Mediterranean trade and diplomatic relations with European states expanded. Bureaucratisation efforts stabilized

12566-479: The locust plagues of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867–68, which caused a famine followed by an epidemic of cholera . The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in Algiers . As occupation turned into colonization, Kabylia remained the only region independent of the French government. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylia increased as well. In about 1849,

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12772-442: The " pied noirs ", immigrated to the region, settling under French colonial rule in the late 19th century. As of the last census in French-ruled Algeria, taken on 1 June 1960, there were 1,050,000 non-Muslim civilians (mostly Catholic , but including 130,000 Algerian Jews ) in Algeria, 10 per cent of the population. They established farms and businesses. The overwhelming majority of these, however, left Algeria during and following

12978-452: The 10th century, as the social and political environment in Baghdad became increasingly hostile to Jews, some Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especially Kairouan , Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribi, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean world. They passed this identification on from father to son. Their tight-knit pan-Maghreb community had

13184-408: The 12th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Although there were numerous conversions after the conquest, Muslims did not become a majority until some time late in the 9th century. During the 10th century, Islam became by far the dominant religion in the region. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active and continued their relations with the Christian Church of Rome. As late as

13390-403: The 14th to 16th centuries, the Maghreb experienced an influx of Jews fleeing from Spain and Portugal due to growing persecution and the Spanish Inquisition . Following the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and the forced mass conversions in Portugal in 1497, many Sephardic Jews settled in North Africa, establishing new communities and integrating with the existing Jewish populations. In

13596-399: The 16th and 17th centuries and well into the end of the Napoleonic wars despite European naval superiority. Its institutionalised privateering dealt substantial damage to European shipping , took captives for ransom, plundered booty, hijacked ships and eventually demanded regular tribute payments. In the rich and bustling city of Algiers , the Barbary slave trade reached an apex. After

13802-454: The 20th century. A network of zaouias traditionally helped teach basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions. Communities of Christians, mostly Catholics and Protestant , persist in Algeria (100,000–380,000), Mauritania (10,000), Morocco (~380,000), Libya (170,000), and Tunisia (100,750). Most of the Roman Catholics in Greater Maghreb are of French, Spanish, and Italian descent, with ancestors who immigrated during

14008-411: The 7th-century introduction and conversion of the region to Islam. The earliest recorded Jewish settlement in the region dates back to the third century BCE under Ptolemaic rule in what is now Libya, although Jewish presence may have begun even earlier. Jewish communities continued to develop throughout the Roman period in present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, with evidence of their existence during

14214-452: The 8th to 13th centuries. The Ottoman Empire also controlled parts of the region for a period. Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region was ruled by European powers: France ( Algeria , Tunisia , Mauritania and most of Morocco ), Spain ( northern Morocco and Western Sahara), and Italy ( Libya ). Italy

14420-496: The Algerian slave market , resulting in intermittent wars followed by longlasting peace treaties whose tribute payments terms ranged from money to weapons. Under Louis XIV , France built a strong navy to fend off the corsairs who raided Corsica and were everywhere in the waters off Marseilles in the late 1650s. The country launched multiple campaigns against the Regency, first in Jijel and Collo in 1664, then several bombings of Algiers were conducted between 1682 and 1688 in what

14626-410: The Algerian insurgency of Abd El-Kader . The latter fought for years against the French. Directing an army of 12,000 men, Abd El-Kader first organized the blockade of Oran. Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan recommended that the authorities of Tetuan assist them, by providing jobs in the administration or the military forces. The inhabitants of Tlemcen , near

14832-403: The Algerian population. Colonel Lucien de Montagnac stated that the purpose of the pacification was to "destroy everything that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs" The scorched earth policy, decided by Governor General Thomas Robert Bugeaud , had devastating effects on the socio-economic and food balances of the country: "we fire little gunshot, we burn all douars, all villages, all huts;

15038-536: The Arab migrations to the Maghreb increased genetic similarities between Maghrebis and Middle Easterners. Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of Maghrebis and has spread from the Arabian Peninsula, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of Maghrebis. A study from 2021 has shown that the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in

15244-460: The Arabization process, since the Berber population was gradually assimilated by the newcomers and had to share with them pastures and seasonal migration paths. By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized. As Arab nomads spread, the territories of the local Berber tribes were moved and shrank. The Zenata were pushed to the west and

15450-579: The Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia , who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%. According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians and 34.2% in Tunisians. The Maghreb Y chromosome pool (including both Arab and Berber populations) may be summarized for most of the populations as follows, where only two haplogroups E1b1b and J comprise generally more than 80% of

15656-538: The Atlantic Ocean. Historians and geographers disagreed, however, over the definition of the eastern boundary. Some authors place it at the sea of Kulzum (the Red Sea ) and thus include Egypt and Barqa ( Cyrenaica ) in the Maghreb. Ibn Khaldun does not accept this definition because, he says, the inhabitants of the Maghreb do not consider Egypt and Barqa as forming part of Maghrib. The latter commences only at

15862-703: The Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish merchants of Algiers, provided large quantities of grain for Napoleon's soldiers who participated in the Italian campaign of 1796. But Bonaparte refused to pay the bill, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directory's debts. The Dey , who had loaned the Bacri 250,000 francs , requested the rest of the money from France. French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Dey of Algiers

16068-593: The Barbary", wrote Diego de Haedo  [ fr ; es ; it ] , a Spanish Benedictine held captive in Algiers between 1577 and 1580. Aruj continued his conquests in western Algeria, reaching Tlemcen, but a Spanish–Zayyanid coalition cut his supply route from Algiers. Aruj was killed with his companions in 1518 when he attempted to break out during the Fall of Tlemcen . Hayreddin inherited his brother's position as sultan without opposition, although he faced threats from

16274-593: The Bastion de France and the rights of French merchants in Algiers, but the bastion was razed a second time by Ali Bitchin in 1637, as armed incidents between French and Algerian vessels were frequent. Nonetheless, a treaty in 1640 allowed France to regain its North African commercial establishments. After attacks by the English in 1621 and the Dutch in 1624, Algerian corsairs took thousands of English and Dutch sailors to

16480-672: The Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century of the common era, the area had become a center of Phoenician-speaking Christianity. Its bishops spoke and wrote in Punic , and Emperor Septimius Severus was noted by his local accent. Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. Carthage subsequently exercised informal primacy as an archdiocese , being

16686-581: The Dutch Republic were seen as allies by the Ottoman regencies until the end of the 16th century because of their common Spanish enemy, but when James I of England and Dutch States-General opted for peace with Spain in 1604 and 1609 , respectively, and increased their shipping in the Mediterranean, Algerian and Tunisian corsairs attacked their ships. They amassed wealth from capturing slaves and goods while taking advantage of their strong fleet, maritime European weakness and Ottoman incapacity to force

16892-537: The El Oufia tribe were killed in one night, while all 500 to 700 members of the Ouled Rhia tribe were killed by suffocation in a cave. The Siege of Laghouat is referred by Algerians as the year of the "Khalya ," Arabic for emptiness, which is commonly known to the inhabitants of Laghouat as the year that the city was emptied of its population. It is also commonly known as the year of Hessian sacks, referring to

17098-400: The French and their makhzen allies at Oran in 1832. In the same year, jihad was declared and to lead it tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old Abd al Qadir . Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as Amir al-Muminin (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and

17304-411: The French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs. Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. Bacri and Boushnak owed money to the dey and claimed they could not pay it until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with Pierre Deval , the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when

17510-452: The French army has set foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good soldiers whom I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber.... This is how, my dear friend, we must make war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, load them onto naval vessels, send them to

17716-548: The French captured Constantine under Sylvain Charles Valée the following year, on 13 October 1837. Historians generally set the indigenous population of Algeria at 3 million in 1830. Although the Algerian population decreased at some point under French rule, most certainly between 1866 and 1872, the French military was not fully responsible for the extent of this decrease, as some of these deaths could be explained by

17922-457: The French conquest of Algeria : By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking a French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and, if necessary, destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years later, "the system of extermination must give way to

18128-476: The French during the Algerian War during the 1950s against Algerians include deliberate bombing and killing of unarmed civilians, rape, torture , executions through " death flights " or burial alive , thefts and pillaging. Up to 2 million Algerian civilians were also deported in internment camps. During the Pacification of Algeria (1835-1903) French forces engaged in a scorched earth policy against

18334-469: The French general Jacques Louis César Randon was caught but managed to escape later. On 26 December 1854, Boubaghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to treason of some of his allies. The resistance was left without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from

18540-587: The French government made no provisions in 1820 to pay the merchants. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône , further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle , contrary to the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his fly whisk . Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from

18746-563: The French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of

18952-737: The Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains. The pressure put on the Western Roman Empire by the Barbarian invasions (notably by the Vandals and Visigoths in Iberia) in the 5th century AD reduced Roman control and led to

19158-529: The Levant. Due to the distribution of E-M81 (E1b1b1b1a), which has reached its highest documented levels in the world at 95–100% in some populations of the Maghreb, it has often been termed the "Berber marker" in the scientific literature. The second most common marker, Haplogroup J , especially J1 , which is typically Middle Eastern and originates in the Arabian peninsula, can reach frequencies of up to 35% in

19364-563: The Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs. Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In northern coastal towns, in particular, several waves of European immigrants influenced the population in the Medieval era. Most notable were the moriscos and muladies , that is, the indigenous Spaniards (Moors) who were forcibly converted to Catholicism and later expelled, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, during

19570-600: The Maghreb region, such as the Idrisids , Aghlabids , Sulaymanids and more. While restricted due to the cost and dangers, the trade was highly profitable. Commodities traded included such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and slaves . Various Islamic variations, such as the Ibadis and the Shia , were adopted by some Berbers, often leading to scorning of Caliphal control in favour of their own interpretation of Islam. The invasion of

19776-451: The Maghreb. Medieval Muslim historians and geographers divided the Maghreb region into three areas: al-Maghrib al-Adna (the near Maghrib; also known as Ifriqiya ), which included the lands extending from Alexandria to Tarabulus (modern-day Tripoli ) in the west; al-Maghrib al-Awsat (the middle Maghrib), which extended from Tripoli to Bijaya ( Béjaïa ); and al-Maghrib al-Aqsa (the far Maghrib), which extended from Tahart ( Tiaret ) to

19982-618: The Mediterranean Maghreb corresponds with the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet , or the southern range of the European Olive (Olea europea) and Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima) . The Sahara extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Its central part is hyper-arid and supports little plant or animal life, but the northern portion of the desert receives occasional winter rains, while

20188-602: The Mediterranean Sea to the inhabitants of the regions of Southern Europe and Western Asia . These trade relations date back at least to the Phoenicians in the 1st millennium BC. (According to tradition, the Phoenicians founded their colony of Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) c.  800 BC ). Phoenicians and Carthaginians arrived for trade. The main Berber and Phoenician settlements centered in

20394-488: The Mediterranean. The assault's disastrous failure dealt a humiliating blow to the reorganized Spanish military. This was followed by two bombardments by Antonio Barceló in 1783 and 1784 , also ending in defeat. Led by Mohammed Kebir Bey in 1791, Algiers launched a final assault on Oran, which was retaken after negotiations between Dey Hasan III Pasha with the Spanish Count of Floridablanca . The assault marked

20600-1052: The Mediterranean. The city became a bazaar for thousands of captured Christian slaves . Algiers was known in Christian Europe as "the scourge of Christendom" and a 16th-century " rogue state ". Hayreddin's son Hasan Pasha succeeded Hasan Agha. He led campaigns against Spanish ally Saadian Morocco, decisively defeating it in Tlemcen in 1551 . He was recalled by the sultan after the French ambassador in Constantinople supported his successor Salah Rais , who would expand his rule to Berber Beni Djallab's principalities in Touggourt and Ouargla , making them tributaries. Salah Rais then advanced as far as Fez in January 1554 , placing Wattasid pretender Abu Hassun as an Ottoman vassal there. Salah Rais captured Spanish-held Béjaïa in 1555, and his death ignited tensions between

20806-525: The Moroccan border, asked that they be placed under the Sultan's authority in order to escape the invaders. Abderrahmane named his nephew Prince Moulay Ali Caliph of Tlemcen, charged with the protection of the city. In retaliation France executed two Moroccans: Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, as spies, while their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, Pierre François Xavier Boyer . Hardly had

21012-600: The Moroccan throne was answered with several invasions by Sultan Moulay Ismail in 1678, 1692 , 1701 and 1707, all of which failed. Moulay Ismail was forced to accept the Moulouya River as his eastern border with Ottoman Algeria. By the early 18th century, Algiers established a more stable form of government. Janissary-elected deys obtained the right from the Ottoman sultan to be appointed as pashas, gaining more legitimacy. The decline in privateering, fewer janissary recruits and decreased population and slaves compelled

21218-487: The Muslim conquest. The second major influence was the large-scale conversions to Islam from the end of the 9th century. Many Christians of a much reduced community departed in the mid-11th century, and remnants were evacuated in the 12th by the Norman rulers of Sicily. The Latin-African language lingered a while longer. There was a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow

21424-568: The Ottoman Empire. Under Hasan Agha , Algiers repelled a naval attack from the Holy Roman Empire led by Emperor Charles V in October 1541. The victory over the Spaniards was seen as a divine mandate of the Ottoman rule. Hasan Agha subjugated Kuku in the east in 1542, extended his rule south to Biskra and gained Tlemcen's support in the west. The Spanish defeat made Algiers the center of piracy , attracting pirates from all over

21630-403: The Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean. For most of the 16th century, the beylerbeys acted as independent sovereigns despite acknowledging the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who gave them a free hand but expected Algerian ships to help enforce Ottoman foreign policy if required. However, the interests of Algiers and Constantinople eventually diverged on the matter of privateering, over which

21836-518: The Protestant community of Berber or Arab descent has grown significantly as additional individuals convert to Christianity , especially to Evangelicalism . This has occurred in Algeria, especially in the Kabylie , Morocco, and in Tunisia. The Catholic population in Libya is estimated to number 100,000, The Catholics are the largest Christian denomination, followed by c. 60,000 Copts and

22042-425: The Regency and the responsibility for its payroll to an old Dutch rais named Hadj Mohammed Trik and gave him the titles of dey (maternal uncle), doulateli (head of state) and hakem (military ruler). After 1671 the deys led the country and were supported by members of the diwan, of which the president seconded the dey and managed most state affairs. This centralized government institutionalized relations between

22248-623: The Regency by 1584. Veneziano's privateers ravaged the Mediterranean and made the waters unsafe from Andalusia to Sicily . Their power reached as far as the Canary Islands . Fearful of the growing authority of the beylerbeylik , the Sublime Porte replaced it with pashas who served a three-year term starting in 1587. The Ottomans also divided the Maghreb into the three regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli . Earlier pashas such as Khider Pasha  [ fr ] and Kose Mustafa Pasha served for multiple terms and guaranteed stability in

22454-639: The Regency's government, allowing into office regents such as Mohammed ben-Osman , who maintained Algerian prestige thanks to his public and defensive works which increased revenue and fended off attacks on Algiers. British tribute payments no longer insured U.S. shipping traffic in the Mediterranean after the American Revolution , and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars provided an opportunity for frequent Algerian privateering. Increased demands for tribute from Algiers started

22660-400: The Regency. From the mid-17th century, pashas were isolated and deprived of local support, as they were constantly torn between the corsairs' and janissaries' demands. The corsair captains were effectively outside the pashas' control, and the janissaries' loyalty to them depended on their ability to collect taxes and meet payroll. Both groups sometimes refused orders from the sultan, or even sent

22866-488: The Sahara to the oases of Tuat in central Algeria to respond to pleas from its inhabitants for help against Saadi-allied tribes from Tafilalt . A campaign against Morocco led by Uluç Ali was aborted in 1581, as Saadian ruler Al-Mansur had at first vehemently refused to serve under Ottoman sultan Murad III , but agreed to pay annual tribute afterwards. Nonetheless, the Figuig oases in the south western Maghreb were part of

23072-495: The Spanish twice, but the citizens of Jijel offered to make Aruj king after his corsairs arrived with a shipload of wheat during a famine. Answering pleas for help from its inhabitants, the brothers captured Algiers in 1516 but failed to destroy the Peñón. Aruj executed the Algerian emir , Salim Al-Tumi, then proclaimed himself Sultan of Algiers. He also repelled an attack led by the Spanish commander Don Diego de Vera, which won him

23278-477: The Spanish, Zayyanids, Hafsids and neighboring tribes. After repelling another Spanish attack in August 1519, led by Hugo of Moncada , Hayreddin pledged allegiance to the Sublime Porte to obtain Ottoman support against his foes. In October 1519, a delegation of Algerian dignitaries and ulama went to Ottoman sultan Selim I , proposing that Algiers join the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople had doubts, but

23484-422: The Sublime Porte had no control. Beylerbeys often remained in power for several years and exercised authority over Tunis and Tripoli as well. In addition, the timar system that granted fertile land to Ottoman sipahis was not applied in Algiers; instead, the beylerbeys sent tribute to Constantinople every year after paying off the expenses of the Regency. The foreign policy of Algiers aligned completely with

23690-471: The Sublime Porte worked to multiply their wealth as quickly as possible before the end of their three-year term in office. As governance became a secondary issue, the pashas lost all influence and respect, and aversion to the Sublime Porte increased. In 1659, Ibrahim Pasha pocketed some of the money the Ottoman sultan had sent to the corsairs as compensation for their losses in the Cretan War , which ignited

23896-742: The ability to use social sanctions as a credible alternative to legal recourse, which was weak at the time anyway. This unique institutional alternative permitted the Maghribis to very successfully participate in the Mediterranean trade. This facilitated contacts between the Maghrebi and European Jewish communities, particularly in trade in the pre-colonial period. The most important points of contact were Livorno in Italy with its harbour frequented by Tunisian merchants and Marseille in France with its counterpart,

24102-484: The allegiance of people in the northern part of central Algeria. In the central Maghreb , Aruj built a powerful Muslim state officially named the Kingdom of Algiers at the expense of its quarreling principalities. He sought the support of the maraboutic and Sufi orders, while his absolute authority was backed by Turks and Christian renegade corsairs. "Aruj [Reis] effectively began the powerful greatness of Algiers and

24308-539: The annual tribute paid by several European states such as Britain, Sweden, the Italian states and Denmark, which sent a naval campaign against Algiers under Frederik Kaas in 1770; the campaign failed, and Denmark was forced to pay heavy war compensations and send gifts to Algiers. In 1775 Irish-born admiral of the Spanish Empire Alejandro O'Reilly led an expedition to subdue pirate activity in

24514-516: The beys of Constantine and Oran , and about 17,000 Kabyles . The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took the advantage on 19 June during the battle of Staouéli , and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey agreed to surrender in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, departing on

24720-499: The city in 1574, while his ships saved the Ottoman fleet from total defeat in the battle of Lepanto in 1571. Sultan Selim II rewarded him with the title of Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman navy. Uluç Ali's deputy Caïd Ramdan  [ fr ] captured Fez in 1576 after defeating Saadian ruler Mohammed II and put Abd al-Malik on the throne as an Ottoman vassal. In 1578 his successor Hassan Veneziano led his troops deep into

24926-590: The coast in the Gulf of Bougie, shelled Kherrata. Vigilantes lynched prisoners taken from local jails or randomly shot Muslims not wearing white arm bands (as instructed by the army) out of hand. It is certain that the great majority of the Muslim victims had not been implicated in the original outbreak. The dead bodies in Guelma were buried in mass graves, but they were later dug up and burned in Héliopolis . During

25132-616: The coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya — was expanded in modern times to include Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara. During the era of al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula (711–1492), the Maghreb's inhabitants — the Muslim Maghrebis — were known by Europeans as the " Moors ". The Greeks referred to the region as the "Land of the Atlas", referring to its Atlas Mountains. Before

25338-409: The colonial era. Some are foreign missionaries or immigrant workers. There are also Christian communities of Berber or Arab descent in Greater Maghreb, made up of persons who converted mostly during the modern era, or under and after French colonialism . Prior to independence, Algeria was home to 1.4 million pieds-noirs (ethnic French who were mostly Catholic), and Morocco was home to half

25544-540: The death of Jewish merchant Naphtali Busnash . Public unrest, a pogrom and successive coups followed, beginning a 20-year period of instability. The Alawi Sultanate incited a massive Sufi Darqawiyya revolt in the east and west of the regency, which was quelled with difficulty by the governor of Oran, Osman Bey. Meanwhile, payment delays caused frequent janissary revolts, leading to military setbacks as Morocco took possession of Figuig in 1805, Tuat and Oujda in 1808, and Tunisia freed itself from Algerian suzerainty after

25750-486: The dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. France demanded that the dey send an ambassador to France to resolve the incident. When the dey responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships, the French determined that more forceful action was required. Pierre Deval and other French residents of Algiers left for France, while the Minister of War , Clermont-Tonnerre , proposed

25956-550: The deys to expand and exploit the interior under their control, impose tributes and further trade with European states and Tunis. Determined to remove the Spanish from Oran, Algerian dey Mohammed Bektach took the opportunity afforded by the War of the Spanish Succession to send Mustapha Bouchelaghem Bey at the head of a contingent of janissaries and local volunteers to take the city. He succeeded in 1707, but in 1732

26162-528: The early centuries CE. During the early Muslim era, Jews flourished in major urban centers such as Kairouan, Fez, and Tunis, despite facing intermittent persecution, notably under the Almohads . The influx of Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, fleeing pogroms, forced conversions and expulsions in the 14th to 16th centuries, further augmented the Jewish presence in North Africa. Another significant group

26368-538: The early centuries CE. Under early Muslim rule, Jews flourished in major urban centers such as Kairouan, Fez, and Tunis, with the Jewish community in Kairouan particularly noted for its significant intellectual and cultural contributions. However, Jews also encountered periods of persecution, particularly under the Almohad Caliphate (12th–13th centuries), which imposed severe restrictions on non-Muslims. In

26574-455: The end of almost 300 years of holy war between Algeria and Spain. At the beginning of the 19th century, Algiers was plagued by political unrest and economic problems. A series of crises rocked Algiers in the early 19th century, beginning with famine from 1803 to 1805. Algerian reliance on Jewish merchants to trade with Europe was so great that a crisis caused by crop failure led to the assassination of Dey Mustapha Pasha  [ fr ] and

26780-629: The end of the 16th century, janissaries were allowed to join corsair ships. As the 17th century started, the corsairs adopted square-rigged sails and tapered hulls. Their ships became faster and less dependent on a steady supply of galley slaves . Many of the Moriscos expelled from Spain joined the corsairs, and they debilitated Spain, ravaging its mainland and its territories in Italy, where they captured people en masse . European converts to Islam, known in Europe as "renegades" and "turned Turks", made up

26986-463: The end of the Regency of Algiers. Historian John Douglas Ruedy believes that the early 18th-century "de turkification " could have led to a 19th-century nationalization of the Algerian regime, but the French conquest put an end to this evolution. French Algeria The French conquest of Algeria began in 1830 with the invasion of Algiers which toppled the Regency of Algiers , though Algeria

27192-405: The enemy flees across taking his flock." According to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison , the colonization of Algeria led to the extermination of a third of the population from multiple causes (massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics) that were all interrelated. Returning from an investigation trip to Algeria, Tocqueville wrote that "we make war much more barbaric than the Arabs themselves [...] it

27398-471: The entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains. Rome was greatly helped by the defection of Massinissa (later King of Numidia, r.  202 – 148 BC ) and of Carthage's eastern Numidian Massylii client-allies. Some of the most mountainous regions, such as the Moroccan Rif , remained outside Roman control. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals and Carthaginians

27604-618: The establishment of modern nation states in the region during the 20th century, the Maghreb most commonly referred to a smaller area, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the south. It often also included the territory of eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century, the term "Maghreb" was used to refer to the western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in particular. During

27810-666: The establishment of the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa in 430 A.D., with its capital at Carthage. A century later, the Byzantine emperor Justinian I sent (533) a force under General Belisarius that succeeded in destroying the Vandal Kingdom in 534. Byzantine rule lasted for 150 years. The Berbers contested the extent of Byzantine control. After the advent of Islam in Mediterranean Africa in

28016-401: The external prestige of the Regency. But European reactions, new treaties guaranteeing the safety of navigation and a slowdown in shipbuilding considerably reduced their activity. The raïs rebelled and killed Dey Mohamed Ben Hassan in 1724. The new dey, Baba Abdi Pasha, quickly restored order and severely punished the conspirators. He stabilised the Regency and fought corruption. The diwan

28222-515: The government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and hired local labor. Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-colonel Lucien de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend: All populations who do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where

28428-489: The great indigenous families. Although the revolt spread to neighboring towns, it ultimately failed. The Kouloughlis failed to start another coup against the janissaries, which won the janissaries sole power in Algiers. In the 16th century, France signed capitulation treaties with the Ottomans that established the Franco-Ottoman Alliance and gave the French trading privileges in Algiers. The French built

28634-530: The hands of the diwan council. The sultan, forced to accept the new government, stipulated that the diwan pay the janissaries stationed there. Khalil Agha began his rule by building the Djamaa el Djedid mosque. The era of the aghas began and the pashalik became a military republic. However, the aghas who ruled Algiers since 1659 were all assassinated, which resulted in weakened authority. In 1671 Sir Edward Spragge 's English squadron destroyed seven ships anchored in

28840-468: The harbor at Algiers, and the corsairs killed Agha Ali, an autocrat sovereign that alienated the diwan and whose conciliation policy with European states at the expense of privateering angered the corsairs. Janissary leaders wanted to appoint another agha of a sovereign Algiers, but given the lack of candidates, they and the corsairs resorted to a method Ali Bitchin Rais had used in 1644–45: they entrusted both

29046-419: The harbour for Algeria and Morocco. The Maghreb region produced spices and leather, from shoes to handbags. As many of the Maghrebi Jews were craftsmen and merchants, they had contact with their European customers. Today, among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000. The Maghreb is divided into a Mediterranean climate region in

29252-476: The heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot. A study from 2017 suggested that these Arab migrations were a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies. Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with the Middle East , and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe . The recent gene flow caused by

29458-414: The janissaries and the corsairs in 1556. The janissaries supported Hasan Corso , a Corsican renegade, who refused to submit to the pasha sent from Constantinople. Although the pasha murdered Hasan Corso with the corsairs' support, the janissaries killed the pasha in retribution. The subsequent instability prompted Suleiman the Magnificent to restore order by sending Hasan Pasha back to Algiers, who thwarted

29664-472: The janissaries revolted in 1606 and tortured him to death. Algiers and Constantinople had different views of relations with France. The janissaries organised into the diwan (military council), the effective government of Algiers by 1626 at the expense of the pashas, which began official acts with the phrase, "We, pasha and diwân of the invincible militia of Algiers". According to priest and historian Pierre Dan  [ fr ] (1580–1649), "The state has only

29870-468: The janissaries, effective holders of both military and political power, and the corsairs as the Regency's economic powerhouse that would remunerate the janissaries through the deys. This made Algiers de facto independent of the Ottoman Empire. However, the deys' power was checked by the diwan, and both janissaries and corsairs ousted deys they did not like. Privateering operations were regulated by treaties with European powers. Algiers used privateering as

30076-429: The majority of J1 (Eu10) chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE. The J-M267 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from early Neolithic dispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions of Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula , during which both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs added to

30282-436: The marchers and the local French gendarmerie, when the latter tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule. After five days, the French colonial military and police suppressed the rebellion, and then carried out a series of reprisals against Muslim civilians. The army carried out summary executions of Muslim rural communities. Less accessible villages were bombed by French aircraft, and cruiser Duguay-Trouin , standing off

30488-461: The minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned in France in the Château d'Amboise . According to Ben Kiernan , colonization and genocidal massacres proceeded in tandem. Within the first three decades (1830–1860) of French conquest, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, out of a total of 3 million, were killed due to war, massacres, disease and famine. Atrocities committed by

30694-407: The most important center of Christianity in the whole of Roman Africa , corresponding to most of today's Mediterranean coast and inland of Northern Africa . The region produced figures such as Christian church writer Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian martyrs or leading figures such as Perpetua, and Felicity (martyrs, c. 200 CE); St. Cyprian of Carthage (+ 258); St. Monica ; her son

30900-425: The name of a kingdom since, in effect, they have made it into a republic." After the battle of Lapento , the corsairs broke loose from the Sublime Porte and began to prey on ships from countries at peace with the Ottomans. Their tai'fa was the embodiment of state sponsored piracy, since the economical prosperity of Algiers depended on the corsairs' looting. Algiers started strengthening and modernizing its fleet; by

31106-563: The news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the Three Glorious Days of July 1830, and his cousin Louis-Philippe , the "citizen king ," was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy . The new government, composed of liberal opponents of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it. Alexis de Tocqueville 's views on Algeria were instrumental in its brutal and formal colonization. He advocated for

31312-608: The north, and the arid Sahara in the south. The Maghreb's variations in elevation, rainfall, temperature, and soils give rise to distinct communities of plants and animals. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) identifies several distinct ecoregions in the Maghreb. The portions of the Maghreb between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea , along with coastal Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya, are home to Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub . These ecoregions share many species of plants and animals with other portions of Mediterranean Basin . The southern extent of

31518-402: The overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the Bay of Tangier . An ambassador was sent to Sultan Moulay Abderrahmane in February 1832, headed by the Count Charles-Edgar de Mornay and including the painter Eugène Delacroix . However

31724-492: The pashas appointed by the sultan back to Constantinople. Algiers was the headquarters of probably the largest janissary force in the empire outside Constantinople. After Veneziano, the janissary corps grew stronger and more influential, challenging the corsairs for power. In 1596, Khider Pasha led a revolt in Algiers in an effort to subdue the janissaries with help from Kabyles and coulouglis —offspring of mixed marriage between Ottoman men and local women and having blood ties to

31930-402: The period from 639 to 700 AD, Arabs took control of the entire Maghreb region. The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early Umayyad times in the 7th century, and from then the Arab migration to the Maghreb began. Islamic Berber kingdoms such as the Almohads expansion and the spread of Islam contributed to the development of trans-Saharan trade . In addition, several Arab dynasties formed in

32136-404: The philosopher St. Augustine , Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); and St. Julia of Carthage (5th century). Donatist Christianity mainly spread among the indigenous Berber population, and from the late fifth and early sixth century, the region included several Christian Berber kingdoms. Islam arrived in 647 and challenged the domination of Christianity. The first permanent foothold of Islam

32342-415: The political disintegration of the Maghrebi Muslim states and fearing an alliance between the Moriscos (exiled Spanish Muslims) and the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate , the Spanish Empire captured several cities and established walled and garrisoned strongpoints called presidios in North Africa. The Spanish conquered the city of Oran in 1509 and took it from the Zayyanids , as well as Béjaïa from

32548-399: The pretext of assisting and rescuing enslaved Christians, usually Europeans taken as captives in raids. Again, Jean II d'Estrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century. During the Directory regime of the First French Republic (1795–99),

32754-408: The prince and founder of Kuku, Ahmad ibn al-Kadi, and then destroyed the Peñón of Algiers in 1529. Hayreddin used its rubble to build Algiers's harbour, making it the headquarters of the Algerian corsair fleet. Hayreddin established the military structure of the Regency, formalising an institution known as the Corsairs of Algiers . It would become the model for Barbary corsairs in Tunis, Tripoli and

32960-439: The province of Tripoli and includes the districts of which the country of the Berbers was composed in former times. Later Maghribi writers repeated the definition of Ibn Khaldun, with a few variations in details. The term Maghrib is used in opposition to Mashriq in a sense near to that which it had in medieval times, but it also denotes simply Morocco when the full al-Maghrib al-Aqsa is abbreviated. Certain politicians seek

33166-423: The regencies to respect the Ottoman capitulations . Algiers's refusal to follow Ottoman foreign policy led European powers to negotiate treaties with it directly on trade, tribute and slave ransoms , recognizing Algerian autonomy despite its formal subordination to the Ottomans. France first established relations with Algiers in 1617, with a treaty signed in 1619 and another in 1628; the treaties mostly concerned

33372-420: The region had a population of over 100 million people. The Maghreb is usually defined as encompassing much of the northern part of Africa, including a large portion of the Sahara Desert , but excluding Egypt and the Sudan , which are considered to be located in the Mashriq — the eastern part of the Arab world. The traditional definition of the Maghreb — which restricted its scope to the Atlas Mountains and

33578-488: The region. Its highest density is found in the Arabian Peninsula . Haplogroup R1 , a Eurasian marker, has also been observed in the Maghreb, though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arabic speakers and Berber-speakers. Haplogroup E is thought to have emerged in prehistoric North Africa or East Africa, and would have later dispersed into West Asia. The major subclades of haplogroup E found amongst Berbers belong to E-Z827 , which

33784-472: The reign of Pope Benedict VII (974–983), a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. From the 10th century, Christianity declined in the region. By the end of the 11th century, only two bishops were left in Carthage and Hippo Regius . Pope Gregory VII (1073–85) consecrated a new bishop for Hippo. Christianity seems to have suffered several shocks that led to its demise. First, many upper-class, urban-dwelling, Latin-speaking Christians left for Europe after

33990-522: The restored Kingdom of France pay off a 31-year-old debt dating from 1799 for providing supplies to the soldiers of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt . The response of French consul Pierre Deval displeased Hussein Dey, who hit him with a fly whisk and called him an "infidel". King Charles X took this incident as an opportunity to break off diplomatic relations and launch a full-scale invasion of Algeria on June 14, 1830. Algiers surrendered on July 5, and Hussein Dey went into exile in Naples , which marked

34196-425: The rule of the Berber kingdom of Numidia , the region was somewhat unified as an independent political entity. This period was followed by one of the Roman Empire 's rule or influence. The Germanic Vandals invaded after that, followed by the equally brief re-establishment of a weak Roman rule by the Byzantine Empire . The Islamic caliphates came to power under the Umayyad Caliphate , the Abbasid Caliphate and

34402-718: The sea with concrete on their feet. Claude Bourdet had denounced these acts on 6 December 1951, in the magazine L'Observateur , rhetorically asking, "Is there a Gestapo in Algeria? ." D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war. Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with Nazi Germany . The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General Paul Aussaresses admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during

34608-547: The seat of power and the treasury of the regency from the Djenina Palace to the Casbah citadel in 1817. The last deys of Algiers tried to nullify the consequences of the previous Algerian defeats by reviving buccaneering and resisting a British attack on Algiers in 1824, creating the illusion that Algiers could still defend itself against a divided Europe. In Napoleon 's time, Algiers benefited greatly from Mediterranean trade and France's massive food imports, much of which were bought on credit. In 1827, Hussein Dey demanded that

34814-419: The staple foods, as opposed to Eastern Arab, where bread, crushed wheat or white rice are the staple foods. In terms of food, some similarities beyond the starches are found throughout the Arab world. Among other cultural and artistic traditions, jewellery of the Berber cultures worn by Amazigh women and made of silver, beads and other applications was a common trait of Berber identities in large areas of

35020-470: The strip along the Atlantic coast receives moisture from marine fog, which nourishes a greater variety of plants and animals. The northern edge of the Sahara corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet, which is also the northern range of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) . The countries of the Maghreb share many cultural similarities and traditions. Among these is a culinary tradition that Habib Bourguiba defined as Western Arab, where bread or couscous are

35226-402: The success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General Thomas Bugeaud in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated

35432-458: The sultan recognized Hayreddin as pasha —a regent with the title of beylerbey ( lit.   ' Prince of princes ' )—and sent him 2,000 janissaries . Algiers officially became an eyalet (called a "regency" in European sources; some historians refer to it as an Ottoman vassal state , state-province or "Imperial state") under Selim's successor Suleiman I in the spring of 1521. Historian Lamnouar Merouche stresses that although Algiers

35638-426: The sultan refused French demands that he evacuate Tlemcen . In 1834, France annexed as a colony the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million. Colonial administration in the occupied areas — the so-called régime du sabre (government of the sword) — was placed under a governor-general , a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who

35844-413: The term Arab regions ( Arabic : أَقَالِيمُ ٱلْعَرَبِ ) to refer to the lands of Arabia , Iraq , Upper Mesopotamia , Egypt and the Maghreb. This constituted the earliest documented differentiation between the terms Maghreb and Gharb (Muslim lands west of the Abbasid capital, Baghdad ). The former referred to the present-day Maghreb whereas the latter incorporated the Levant and Egypt in addition to

36050-491: The throne. A vengeful Murad III Bey of Tunis allied with Morocco and started the Maghrebi war in 1700. He lost, and the Muradid dynasty was replaced by the Husainid dynasty , which failed to free Tunis from Algerian suzerainty in 1735 and 1756 . Tunis remained an Algerian tributary until the early 19th century. The Alawi Sultanate opposed the Ottomans. It also had ancient ambitions to expand in western Algeria—especially in Tlemcen. Algerian support for pretenders to

36256-446: The total chromosomes: The original religions of the peoples of the Maghreb seem to have been based in and related to fertility cults of a strong matriarchal pantheon . This theory is based on the social and linguistic structures of the Amazigh cultures that antedated all Egyptian and eastern Asian, northern Mediterranean, and European influences. Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in

36462-416: The traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Boubaghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as tamnafeqt ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family ," a Kabylia institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband

36668-414: The use of torture during the war. In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in Sidi Ferruch , a torture center where Algerians were murdered. Bigeard qualified Louisette Ighilahriz 's revelations, published in the Le Monde newspaper on June 20, 2000, as "lies." An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu. However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has admitted

36874-546: The use of torture, although he denies having personally used it, and has declared, "You are striking the heart of an 84-year-old man." Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M'Hidi was assassinated and that his death was disguised as a suicide. In 2018 France officially admitted that torture was systematic and routine. Maghreb The Maghreb ( / ˈ m ɑː ɡ r ə b / ; Arabic : ْاَلْمَغْرِب , romanized :  al-Maghrib , lit.   'the west' [ælˈmaɣrɪb] ), also known as

37080-442: The value of the spoils total about 4,752,000 pounds . Pierre Dan estimated the value of seized cargo at around 20,000,000 francs. Algiers became a thriving market in the 17th century for captives and plundered goods from all over the Mediterranean as a wealthy city with over 100,000 inhabitants. The reliance on piracy and captivity served to keep Algiers financially and politically independent from Constantinople. The pashas sent by

37286-433: The vast majority of the genetic markers of the populations of the Maghreb. Haplogroup E1b1b is the most frequent among Maghrebi groups, especially the downstream lineage of E1b1b1b1a , which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa. Haplogroup J1 is the second most frequent among Maghrebi groups and is more indicative of Middle East origins, and has its highest distribution among populations in Arabia and

37492-414: The village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat. The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, Muhyi ad Din , who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against

37698-419: The war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as imseblen (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces. Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Boubaghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than

37904-446: The war and justified it. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer Ali Boumendjel and the head of the FLN in Algiers, Larbi Ben M'Hidi , which had been disguised as suicides. Bigeard , who called FLN activists "savages ," claimed torture was a "necessary evil ." To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of

38110-399: The war for independence. In comparison to the population of France, the Maghrebi population was one-eighth of France's population in 1800, one-quarter in 1900, and equal in 2000. The Maghreb is home to 1% of the global population as of 2010. The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be modulated chiefly by geography. The Y-DNA Haplogroups E1b1b and J make up

38316-474: The wars of 1807 and 1813 . Internal financial problems led Algiers to re-engage in widespread piracy against American and European shipping in the early 19th century, taking full advantage of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . Algerian vessels attacked American merchant ships in 1785, claiming they were no longer under British protection and asserting an Algerian right to search and seizure . American president George Washington agreed to pay

38522-464: The way the captured surviving men and boys were put alive in the hessian sacks and thrown into dug-up trenches. From 8 May to June 26, 1945, the French carried out the Sétif and Guelma massacre , in which between 6,000 and 80,000 Algerian Muslims were killed. Its initial outbreak occurred during a parade of about 5,000 people of the Muslim Algerian population of Sétif to celebrate the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II; it ended in clashes between

38728-404: The west, passing through Béjaïa, Algiers, Oran and Tlemcen ; the gold and slave trades funded the Spanish treasury. After operating as Hafsid-sponsored privateers from their base in the island of Djerba , Mytilenean -born brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Reis , nicknamed the Barbarossa brothers, came to North Africa at the request of Béjaïa citizens in 1512. They failed to take the city from

38934-407: The western Mediterranean, making it the capital of what would become the early modern Algerian state. The sultan called Hayreddin to the Porte to appoint him as Kapudan Pasha (admiral) in 1533. Before departing, Hayreddin named Hasan Agha his deputy in Algiers. From 1519 onwards Algerian affairs were in the hands of beylerbeys—corsair captains appointed by the Ottoman sultan to rule. Assisted by

39140-478: The western region of Oran , Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco , the Commander of the Faithful , could not remain indifferent to the massacres committed by the French Christian troops and to belligerent calls for jihad from the marabouts . Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the Two Sicilies in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the Austrian Empire as well as with Spain , then headed by Ferdinand VII , Sultan Abderrahmane lent his support to

39346-565: Was a "golden age" for the North African corsairs. Algerian autonomy and rivalry between Christian states made the prestige and wealth of the corsairs reach its zenith as their intensified privateering significantly filled Algerian coffers. In their search for booty and slaves, corsairs traveled as far as Iceland in 1627 and Ireland in 1631. Historian Yahya Boaziz indicates that more than a thousand European ships were captured from 1608 to 1634, with more than 25,000 people enslaved, many of whom were Dutch, German, French, Spanish and English, making

39552-452: Was a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community . Since the capture of Algiers in 1516 by the Ottoman admirals, brothers Ours and Hayreddin Barbarossa , Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean basin. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates . He also ordered a large-scale attack on Algiers between 1682 and 1683 on

39758-418: Was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell of his thaumaturgic skills. Boubaghla went often to Soumer to talk with high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to

39964-437: Was an increasingly autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire, it had at the same time all the attributes of a state. Hayreddin had to return to Jijel after a coalition of the Hafsids with the Kabyle kingdom of Kuku blockaded Algiers. He and his men used their reputation as "holy warriors" to gather support from the Kabyle tribes of Beni Abbas , who were rivals of the Kuku. Hayreddin retook Algiers in 1525 after defeating

40170-404: Was exercised in a framework defined by a state strong enough to enact its rules and control their application. Peace between the Ottoman Empire and Spanish Habsburgs in 1580 did not concern their vassals, as both the Sovereign Order of Malta and the North African Regencies pursued their holy war. Their privateers were motivated by desires of vengeance, wealth and salvation . England, France and

40376-492: Was expelled from North Africa by the Allies in World War II . Decolonization of the region continued in the decades thereafter, with violent conflicts such as the Algerian War , the Ifni War and the Western Sahara War . Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia established the Arab Maghreb Union in 1989 to promote cooperation and economic integration in a common market . The union implicitly included Western Sahara under Morocco's membership. However, this progress

40582-442: Was gradually weakened in favor of the dey's cabinet, known as " powers " , resulting in more stability through the implementation of a quasi- bureaucracy . Relations with Constantinople became formalised; the sultan was assured of Algerian "obedience" in return for recruiting troops from Ottoman lands, yet the dey was not bound to Ottoman foreign policy. On 3 February 1748 Dey Mohamed Ibn Bekir issued The Fundamental Pact of 1748 ,

40788-546: Was led by Ahmad ibn Muhammad , bey of Constantine . He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his beylik by replacing Turkish officials with local leaders, making Arabic the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of Islam . After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the bey 's territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force, led by Bertrand Clauzel , had to retreat from Constantine in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. However,

40994-447: Was not fully conquered and pacified until 1903. It is estimated that by 1875, approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians were killed. Various scholars describe the French conquest as genocide . Algeria was ruled as a colony from 1830 to 1848, and then as multiple departments, an integral part of France , with the implementing of the Constitution of French Second Republic on 4 November 1848, until Algerian independence in 1962. For

41200-654: Was occasionally briefly unified, as under the Almohad Caliphate , Fatimids and briefly under the Zirids . The Hammadids also managed to conquer land in all countries in the Maghreb region. After the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized by France , Spain , and later Italy . Today, more than two and a half million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, many from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, as of 1999 there were 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (defined as having at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco, or Tunisia). A 2003 estimate suggests six million French residents were ethnic Maghrebi. The Maghreb

41406-415: Was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French withdrawal. The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by Ottoman provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state-building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance. The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers

41612-412: Was responsible to the minister of war. Marshal Bugeaud , who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest. Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a land rush . Clauzel recognized the farming potential of

41818-424: Was short-lived, and the union is now largely dormant. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco over Western Sahara re-emerged, reinforced by the unresolved border dispute between the two countries. These two conflicts have hindered progress on the union's joint goals. The toponym maghrib ( Arabic : مغرب ) is an Arabic term that the first Muslim Arab settlers gave to the recently conquered area situated west of

42024-414: Was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to this, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two. Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Boubaghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Boubaghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where

42230-429: Was the founding in 667 of the city of Kairouan , in present-day Tunisia . Carthage fell to Muslims in 698 and the remainder of the region fell by 709. Islamization proceeded slowly. From the end of the 7th century, over a period of more than 400 years, the region's peoples converted to Islam. Many left during this time for Italy, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until

42436-446: Was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States , along with today's Tunisia; these depended on the Ottoman Empire , then led by Mahmud II but enjoyed relative independence. The Barbary Coast was the stronghold of Berber pirates, who carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in

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