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147-603: The Ottomány culture was located in eastern Hungary , eastern Slovakia , Crișana in western Romania , western Ukraine - Transcarpatia ( Zakarpattia Oblast - within a stretch of the Carpathian Mountains ) and southeast Poland (stretch of Carpathian Mountains and nearby areas). Thus, people of the Ottomány culture secured a middle stretch of what will be later known as the Amber Road , and indeed, amber

294-468: A large empire , just as the Huns had decades prior. This empire was destroyed around 800 by Frankish and Bulgar attacks, and above all by internal feuds, however Avar population remained in numbers until the arrival of Árpád's Magyars. From 800, the whole area of Pannonian Basin was under control between two powers ( East Francia and First Bulgarian Empire ). Around 800, northeastern Hungary became part of

441-724: A cascade of events. Attila rose to power as leader of the Huns and initiated a campaign of invasions and looting and went as far as Gaul (modern-day France). Attila's Huns were clashing with the Roman Empire, which had already been divided into two-halves for ease of administration: the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Roman Empire . Despite managing to stop Attila at the Battle of Chalons in 451 AD,

588-454: A causal connection between climate change and large-scale human crises in pre-industrial times. Short-term crises may be caused by social problems, but climate change was the ultimate cause of major crises, starting with economic depressions. Moreover, since agriculture is highly dependent on climate, any changes to the regional climate from the optimum can induce crop failures. After around 1130, North America had significant climatic change in

735-541: A child grave at Nizna Mysla cemetery ( Eastern Slovakia ), a ceramic model of a four-wheel wagon was found and has been interpreted either as child's toy or a cult object. The end of the Ottomány culture is connected with turbulent events at the end of Old Bronze Age in Central Europe, where there was a collapse of the whole "Old Bronze Age world" with its highly advanced culture of mighty hill-forts, rich burials, and trade over vast distances. The gradual decline in

882-483: A child's milk tooth were found. Tools of quartzite and silex pebbles collected at the nearby river were also found, as well as a fireplace with hearths made from crushed animal bones, with remains of wild horses, aurochs , bisons, red deer, deer, wolves, bears, and saber-toothed cats . There is a gap in the archaeological record, with no evidence of human presence between about 250,000 to 100,000 years ago. The earliest Middle Palaeolithic sites are dated to

1029-434: A civilization in its "winter" would see a disinclination for abstract thinking. The psychologists David Rand and Jonathan Cohen theorized that people switch between two broad modes of thinking. The first is fast and automatic but rigid, and the second is slow and analytical but more flexible. Rand and Cohen believe that explains why people continue with self-destructive behaviors when logical reasoning would have alerted them of

1176-493: A clear differentiation between total or partial decline and "possibilities of regeneration" is crucial for the preventive purpose of the study of societal collapse. This frame of reference often rejects the term collapse and critiques the notion that cultures simply vanish when the political structures that organize labor for large archaeologically prominent projects do. For example, while the Ancient Maya are often touted as

1323-523: A combination of overcrowding, poor hygiene, and unhealthy diets. They quickly became epicenters. Soon, the disease reached as far as Gaul and mauled Roman defenses along the Rhine. The ranks of the previously formidable Roman army had to be filled with freed slaves, German mercenaries, criminals, and gladiators. That ultimately failed to prevent the Germanic tribes from crossing the Rhine. On the civilian side,

1470-881: A continuous political structure," from 3000 BC to 600 AD and calculated that the average life span of a civilization is close to 340 years. Of them, the most durable were the Kushite Kingdom in Northeast Africa (1,150 years), the Aksumite Empire in East Africa (1,100 years), and the Vedic civilization in South Asia and the Olmecs in Mesoamerica (both 1,000 years), and the shortest-lived were

1617-459: A decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse. Evidence for earthquakes has also been discovered. Sea level changes are also found at two possible seaport sites along the Makran coast which are now inland. Earthquakes may have contributed to decline of several sites by direct shaking damage or by changes in sea level or in water supply. Volcanic eruptions can abruptly influence

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1764-787: A gold pin with the name BONOSA proving that some ethnic group of Romans remained there. There are examples of sporadic Romans who had stayed behind in the 5th century, Saint Anthony the Hermit was born in Pannonia Valeria and as an orphaned child he was sent to his uncle, Constantius, the Bishop of Lorsch in today Germany. Later, Saint Leonianus travelled to Gaul from Savaria (now Szombathely in Hungary), Saint Martin of Braga emigrated from Pannonia to Hispania . The Lombards also took Romans along with them to Italy. The last emigration

1911-584: A high level of bone and antler working (including elements of horse harness made of antler), sophisticated pottery, often considered one of the most exquisite ceramic cultures of prehistoric Europe, with beautifully adorned amphorae , jugs, broad bowls, small cups, pottery of milk processing, and piraunoi - transportable ceramic ovens, richly decorated, often interpreted as being used not only for profane, but also cult activities (burning incense). Some distinctive features of Ottomány ceramics are decoration with spiral or circular motifs, rich plastic ornamentation, use of

2058-585: A lack of medical knowledge, superstitions, and sometimes a combination of disasters exacerbated the problem. The journalist Michael Rosenwald wrote that "history shows that past pandemics have reshaped societies in profound ways. Hundreds of millions of people have died. Empires have fallen. Governments have cracked. Generations have been annihilated." From the description of symptoms by the Greek physician Galen , which included coughing, fever, (blackish) diarrhea, swollen throat, and thirst, modern experts identified

2205-736: A massive expansion throughout Eurasia, which is considered to be associated with the dispersal of the Indo-European languages by most contemporary linguists, archaeologists, and geneticists. The expansion of WSHs resulted in the virtual disappearance of the Y-DNA of Early European Farmers (EEFs) from the European gene pool, significantly altering the cultural and genetic landscape of Europe. EEF mtDNA however remained frequent, suggesting admixture between WSH males and EEF females. A mysterious loose confederation of fierce maritime marauders known as

2352-631: A more primitive state, be absorbed into a stronger society, or completely disappear. Virtually all civilizations have suffered such a fate, regardless of their size or complexity. Most never recovered, such as the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the Maya civilization , and the Easter Island civilization . However, some of them later revived and transformed, such as China, Greece, and Egypt. Anthropologists, historians, and sociologists have proposed

2499-399: A myriad of consumer goods rose. Society became wealthier and could afford to fund the arts and the sciences. Encounters between European explorers and Native Americans exposed the latter to a variety of diseases of extraordinary virulence. Having migrated from Northeastern Asia 15,000 years ago, Native Americans had not been introduced to the plethora of contagious diseases that emerged after

2646-565: A nomadic one. In China, for example, a combination of war, famine, and pestilence during the Mongol conquests halved the population, a decline of around 55 million people. The Mongols also displaced large numbers of people and created power vacuums. The Khmer Empire went into decline and was replaced by the Thais, who were pushed southward by the Mongols. The Vietnamese, who succeeded in defeating

2793-732: A period of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, when the Medieval Warm Period was giving way to the Little Ice Age, which caused ecological stress. In Europe, the cooling climate did not directly facilitate the Black Death , but it caused wars, mass migration, and famine, which helped diseases spread. A more recent example is the General Crisis of

2940-563: A prime example of collapse, in reality this reorganization was simply the result of the removal of the political system of Divine Kingship largely in the eastern lowlands as many cities in the western highlands of Mesoamerica maintained this system of divine kingship into the 16th century. The Maya continue to maintain cultural and linguistic continuity into the present day. The social scientist Luke Kemp analyzed dozens of civilizations, which he defined as "a society with agriculture, multiple cities, military dominance in its geographical region and

3087-590: A result of a built-up youth bulge. As those trends intensified, they jeopardized the social fabric, which facilitated the decline. Historical theories have evolved from being purely social and ethical, to ideological and ethnocentric, and finally to multidisciplinary studies. They have become much more sophisticated. The anthropologist Joseph Tainter theorized that collapsed societies essentially exhausted their own designs and were unable to adapt to natural diminishing returns for what they knew as their method of survival. The philosopher Oswald Spengler argued that

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3234-505: A seminal and founding work of the academic discipline on societal collapse. He elaborates that 'collapse' is a "broad term," but in the sense of societal collapse, he views it as "a political process." He further narrows societal collapse as a rapid process (within "few decades") of "substantial loss of sociopolitical structure," giving the fall of the Western Roman Empire as "the most widely known instance of collapse" in

3381-552: A significant part. Similar events took place in Oceania and Madagascar. Smallpox was externally brought to Australia. The first recorded outbreak, in 1789, devastated the Aboriginal population. The extent of the outbreak is disputed, but some sources claim that it killed about 50% of coastal Aboriginal populations on the east coast. There is an ongoing historical debate concerning two rival and irreconcilable theories about how

3528-433: A variety of explanations for the collapse of civilizations involving causative factors such as environmental degradation, depletion of resources, costs of rising complexity, invasion, disease, decay of social cohesion, growing inequality , extractive institutions , long-term decline of cognitive abilities , loss of creativity , and misfortune. However, complete extinction of a culture is not inevitable, and in some cases,

3675-658: A war of succession to the Bohemian throne. Animosity between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire (in modern-day Germany) added fuel to the fire. Soon, it escalated to a huge conflict that involved all major European powers and devastated much of Germany. When the war had ended, some regions of the empire had seen their populations drop by as much as 70%. However, not all societies faced crises during this period. Tropical countries with high carrying capacities and trading economies did not suffer much because

3822-497: A wave pattern or pattern of "running spirals", polishing of pottery to reach "metallic effect" and high firing temperatures. Metalworking is illustrated by gold jewelry, mainly earrings, small bronze objects ( pins , personal ornaments, small tools - needles , awls ), military items include battle axes , spear-heads , daggers , knives , and arrowheads . Although stone was still widely used for sickles and working axes . According to Anthony (2007), chariotry spread westwards to

3969-569: Is Pilismarót , in Komárom-Esztergom County, which also contained a few examples of goods possibly exported from the Stroke-ornamented ware culture (centred in what is now Poland). The Baden culture is claimed by some scholars to have been an early example of an Indo-European culture in Central Europe. Makó (a town in modern Csongrád County ) lends its name to a 3rd millennium BCE material culture (also known as

4116-404: Is actually more the sign of hidden weakness because of a society's dependence on it and its potential to undermine its own basis for success by not being self limiting , as demonstrated in Western culture's ideal of perpetual growth. As a population grows and technology makes it easier to exploit depleting resources, the environment's diminishing returns are hidden from view. Societal complexity

4263-498: Is an "explosion" in bronze working, and many bronze hoards found across all of Europe illustrate this change in quantity and quality of produced bronze objects. We see not only bronze ornaments and arms (including first examples of swords ), but also bronze tools ( sickles , axes , adzes ), which changed the everyday life of prehistoric man. Bronze Age culture in Transylvania, Central Romania History of Hungary before

4410-815: Is difficult to say for certain whether Egypt would have become a Roman province if Okmok volcano (in modern-day Alaska) had not erupted, the eruption likely hastened the process. More generally, recent research pointed to climate change as a key player in the decline and fall of historical societies in China, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. In fact, paleoclimatogical temperature reconstruction suggests that historical periods of social unrest, societal collapse, and population crash and significant climate change often occurred simultaneously. A team of researchers from Mainland China and Hong Kong were able to establish

4557-446: Is illustrated most by fortified settlements with highly advanced defensive architecture including ditches, stone walls, ramparts, towers and complicated gates protected by bastions, as well as by urbanistically organized houses (1, 2 or three rooms), tell disposition at lowland sites (consequent use of houses made of clay, creating an artificial hill with many stratigraphic levels), the high level of metal working (bronze, gold, silver),

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4704-598: Is often found at Ottomány sites and the people of this culture appear to have held a central part of the so-called " Amber Road ", which connected the powerful and rising ancient Mediterranean states to the south-eastern Baltic region. The Ottomány culture was succeeded by the Tumulus culture and Urnfield culture . In the Carpathian Basin, the Iron Age commenced around 800 BC, when a new population moved into

4851-934: Is often found in Ottomány sites. The expansion of the Ottomány culture is associated with the end of the Hatvan culture . People belonging to this vast culture settled along river banks and in valleys but also on strategic places like mountain passes and hills used for mighty fortified settlements. Some places like caves and natural springs were used for cult activities. This culture was contemporary with Wietenberg culture in Romania , Unetice-Madarovce-Veterov-Boheimkirchen cultural complex in Moravia , Germany , Austria and western Slovakia , Mierzanowice culture in Poland and Makó/Nagyrév culture in Hungary . The high cultural level

4998-416: Is then potentially threatened if it develops beyond what is actually sustainable, and a disorderly reorganization were to follow. The scissors model of Malthusian collapse, in which the population grows without limit but not resources, is the idea of great opposing environmental forces cutting into each other. The complete breakdown of economic, cultural, and social institutions with ecological relationships

5145-607: The Amber Road developed into commercial centers. The classic Scythian culture spread across the Great Hungarian Plain between the 7th–6th century BC. Between 550 and 500 BC, new people settled along the river Tisza and in Transylvania . Their immigration may have been connected either to the military campaigns of king Darius I of Persia (522 BC – 486 BC) on the Balkan Peninsula or to

5292-621: The Anarti ; in the process, he confronted the Celtic tribal alliance led by the Boii. Burebista's victory over the Celts led not only to the breakup of their tribal alliance, but also to the establishment of Dacian settlements in the southern parts of today's Slovakia. Burebista, however, fell victim to his political enemies, and his domain was divided into four parts. The period between 15 BC and 9 AD

5439-835: The Great Hungarian Plain and the eastern parts of Transdanubia . Around 750 BC, people of the Hallstatt culture gradually occupied the western parts of Transdanubia, but the earlier population of the territory also survived and thus the two archaeological cultures existed together for centuries. The people of the Hallstatt culture took over the former population's fortifications ( e.g. , in Velem , Celldömölk , Tihany ) but they also built new ones enclosed with earthworks ( e.g. , in Sopron ). The nobility were buried in chamber tombs covered by earth. Some of their settlements situated along

5586-538: The Indus script has yet to be deciphered, the causes of its de-urbanization remain a mystery, but there is some evidence pointing to natural disasters. Signs of a gradual decline began to emerge in 1900 BC, and two centuries later, most of the cities had been abandoned. Archeological evidence suggests an increase in interpersonal violence and in infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis . Historians and archeologists believe that severe and long-lasting drought and

5733-798: The Lombards and Herulis . Around 530, the Germanic Lombards settled in Pannonia. They had to fight against the Gepidi and the Slavs. In 568, pushed out by the Avars , they moved into northern Italy. The nomadic Avars arrived from Asia in the 560s, utterly destroyed the Gepidi in the east, drove away the Lombards in the west, and subjugated the Slavs, partly assimilating them. The Avars established

5880-651: The Migration Period from 379 onwards, the settlement of the Goth-Alan-Hun ally caused repeated serious crises and devastations, the contemporaries described it as a state of siege, Pannonia became an invasion corridor both in the north and in the south. The flight and emigration of the Romans began after two hard decades in 401, this also caused a recession in secular and ecclesiastical life. The Hun control gradually expanded over Pannonia from 410, finally

6027-954: The Nanda Empire in India (24) and the Qin dynasty in China (14). A statistical analysis of empires by complex systems specialist Samuel Arbesman suggests that collapse is generally a random event and does not depend on age. That is analogous to what evolutionary biologists call the Red Queen hypothesis , which asserts that for a species in a harsh ecology, extinction is a persistent possibility. Contemporary discussions about societal collapse are seeking resilience by suggesting societal transformation. Because human societies are complex systems, common factors may contribute to their decline that are economical, environmental, demographic, social and cultural, and they may cascade into another and build up to

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6174-647: The Ottomány (to not be confused with Ottoman Turks) cultures. The major improvement was obviously metalworking, but the Baden culture also brought about cremation and even long-distance trade with remote areas such as the Baltic or Iran. Turbulent changes during the late Bronze Age gave an end to the native, relatively advanced civilization, and the beginning of the Iron Age saw mass immigration of Indo-European nomads believed to be of ancient Iranian ancestry. However, as

6321-529: The Roman Empire ratified the cession of Pannonia by treaty in 433. The flight and emigration of the Romans from Pannonia continued without interruption until the invasion of the Avars . András Mócsy assumes that the largest Roman emigration was the earliest and the 5th and 6th centuries were a phase of gradual emigration. After the Huns, namely the Hungarians experienced the bravery of the Romans and

6468-998: The Sea Peoples was identified as one of the main causes of the Late Bronze Age Collapse in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is possible that the Sea Peoples were themselves victims of the environmental changes that led to widespread famine and precipitated the Collapse. In the third century BC, a Eurasian nomadic people, the Xiongnu , began threatening China's frontiers, but by the first century BC, they had been completely expelled. They then turned their attention westward and displaced various other tribes in Eastern and Central Europe, which led to

6615-731: The Visigoths in 410 and was plundered by the Vandals in 455 . A combination of internal strife, economic weakness, and relentless invasions by the Germanic peoples pushed the Western Roman Empire into terminal decline . The last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus , was dethroned in 476 by the German Odoacer , who declared himself King of Italy . In the eleventh century AD, North Africa 's populous and flourishing civilization collapsed after it had exhausted its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from

6762-453: The White Carpathians to collect raw material for their tools. Ibex was the main prey of the Neanderthals of the Middle Palaeolothic sites in the Bükk Mountains. In addition to local stone, they used raw material from the White Carpathians and the region of the river Prut . Archaeological research suggest that the Neanderthals disappeared from the northern regions of the Carpathian Basin around 40,000 years ago. Latest research shows that

6909-418: The potter's wheel in the Carpathian Basin and they maintained close commercial contacts with the neighboring peoples. The Pannonians (an Illyrian tribe) may have moved to the southern territories of Transdanubia in the course of the 5th century BC. In the 4th century BC, Celtic tribes immigrated to the territories around the river Rába and defeated the Illyrian people who had been living there, but

7056-460: The 1340s, Black Death killed 200 million people. The widening trade routes in the Late Middle Ages helped the plague spread rapidly. It took the European population more than two centuries to return to its level before the pandemic. Consequently, it destabilized most of society and likely undermined feudalism and the authority of the Church. With labor in short supply, workers' bargaining power increased dramatically. Various inventions that reduced

7203-504: The 1520s and killed 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, which aided the European conquerors. A combination of Spanish military attacks and evolutionarily novel diseases finished off the Aztec Empire in the sixteenth century. It is commonly believed that the death of as much as 90% or 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases, though new research suggests tuberculosis from seals and sea lions played

7350-416: The 4th century, when it became the state religion. In the first years of the Age of Migration , the Carpathian Basin was settled by the Huns who by 430 had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe centered in the basin. Numerous Germanic tribes lived alongside them such as the Goths , Marcomanni , Quadi or Gepidi , the last of which stayed the longest and whose peoples incorporated into

7497-407: The Antonine Plague created drastic shortages of businessmen, which disrupted trade, and farmers, which led to a food crisis. An economic depression followed and government revenue fell. Some accused Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Co-Emperor Lucius Verus , both of whom victims of the disease, of affronting the gods , but others blamed Christians. However, the Antonine Plague strengthened the position of

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7644-475: The Bükk Mountains from the northern Carpathians and the region of the Prut. According to a scholarly view, a local archaeological culture —the " Szeleta culture "—can be distinguished, which represents a transition between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic and was featured by leaf-shaped spearheads from around 32,000 BC . However, the existence of a distinct archaeological culture is not unanimously accepted by specialists, because most prehistoric tools from

7791-445: The Cardial ware culture did along the Adriatic coastline. It forms part of the wider Starčevo–Körös–Criş culture which gave rise to the central European Linear Pottery culture c. 700 years after the initial spread of Neolithic farmers towards the northern Balkans. Neolithic settlement begins with the Criş- Körös culture , carbon-dated to around 6200 BC. In the Middle Neolithic, the Western Linear Pottery culture in Transdanubia and

7938-408: The Carpathian Basin before 30,000 BC and belonged to the Aurignacian group. The rest of the Stone Age is marked by minimal or not-yet-processed archeological evidence, with the exception of the Linear Pottery culture —the "garden type civilization" that introduced agriculture to the Carpathian Basin. During the Copper and Bronze Ages , three significant groups were the Baden , the Makó and

8085-431: The Desert Research Institute in Reno, Nevada deduced that a volcanic eruption occurred in 43 BC, a year after the assassination of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March (15 March) in 44 BC, which left a power vacuum and led to bloody civil wars. According to historical accounts, it was also a period of poor weather, crop failure, widespread famine, and disease. Analyses of tree rings and cave stalagmites from different parts of

8232-527: The Eastern Mediterranean disrupted established trade routes and caused widespread economic depression. Government workers became underpaid, which resulted in the first labor strike in recorded history and undermined royal authority. There was also political infighting between different factions of government. Bad harvest from the reduced flooding at the Nile led to a major famine. Food prices rose to eight times their normal values and occasionally even reached twenty-four times. Runaway inflation followed. Attacks by

8379-408: The Eurasian steppe . In later phases, these sites contain very large numbers of objects associated with the Sarmatians . The Ottomány culture (also known as the Otomani- Füzesabony culture) was a Bronze Age culture (circa 2100–1400 BC) stretching from eastern Hungary and western Romania to southeast Poland and western Ukraine . Amber exported on prehistoric trade routes from the Baltic

8526-531: The Great Age of Migrations . In 380, the Huns penetrated into present-day Hungary, and remained an important factor in the region well into the 5th century. Around the same time (379–395), the Roman Empire allowed the groups of Goths , Alans , Huns, Marcomanni and Quadi to settle Pannonia, which still was a Roman territory. The Visigoths, Alans, Vandals and most of the Quadi and Marcomanni, however, left this territory around 400, and moved on to western and southern Europe. The Pannonian provinces suffered from

8673-407: The Great to concentrate on recapturing territories belonging to the Western Empire. His generals, Belisarius and Narses , achieved a number of important victories against the Ostrogoths and the Vandals. However, their hope of keeping the Western Empire was dashed by the arrival of what became known as the Plague of Justinian (541-542). According to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea ,

8820-523: The Hun . The empire collapsed in 455, when the Huns were defeated by the neighbouring Germanic tribes (such as the Quadi, Gepidi and Sciri ). The Gepidi (having lived to the east of the upper Tisza river since 260 AD) then moved into the eastern Carpathian Basin in 455. They ceased to exist in 567 when they were defeated by the Lombards and Avars (see below). The Germanic Ostrogoths inhabited Pannonia, with Rome's consent, between 456 and 471. Roman influence in Pannonia had begun to decline as early as

8967-618: The Hungarian Conquest. Collapse of society Societal collapse (also known as civilizational collapse or systems collapse ) is the fall of a complex human society characterized by the loss of cultural identity and of social complexity as an adaptive system , the downfall of government , and the rise of violence . Possible causes of a societal collapse include natural catastrophe, war , pestilence , famine , economic collapse , population decline or overshoot , mass migration , incompetent leaders, and sabotage by rival civilizations. A collapsed society may revert to

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9114-462: The Hungarian conquest The history of Hungary before the Hungarian conquest spans the time period before the Hungarian conquest in the 9th century of the territories that would become the Principality of Hungary and the Kingdom of Hungary . The first known traces belong to the Homo heidelbergensis , with scarce or nonexistent evidence of human presence until the Neanderthals around 100,000 years ago. Anatomically modern humans arrived at

9261-412: The Hungarian conquest. The territory became divided between East Francia and First Bulgarian Empire with the northeastern part under Moravian Slavic Principality of Nitra . This state lasted until the arrival of the Magyar tribes in the late 9th century. The oldest archaeological site which yielded evidence of human presence—human bones, pebble tools and kitchen refuse—in the Carpathian Basin

9408-456: The Hunnic Empire. The next wave of migration during the 6th century saw other Germanic tribes, the Lombards and Heruli overpower the Gepidi, only to be ousted by another major nomadic tribe, the Avars . Like the Huns, the Avars established an empire there and posed a significant threat to their neighbours but were eventually defeated by both neighbouring states and internal strife (around 800). However, Avar population remained quite steady until

9555-402: The Huns wanted to die rather than retreat in the battle, according to Scythian custom they made a terrifying noise, they beat their drums and used every weapon against the enemy, but most of all their innumerable number of arrows. This caused the Roman troops to be confused, and so the Huns made a great slaughter among them. The morning began, and in a fierce battle which lasted until nine o'clock,

9702-455: The Iazyges to settle there as confederates. The remaining territory was in Thracian (Dacian) hands. In addition, the Vandals settled on the upper Tisza in the second half of the 2nd century AD. Like in the other provinces, in Pannonia , the material culture of the native population showed little sign of Romanization in the first 160 years of Roman rule. The four centuries of Roman rule created an advanced and flourishing civilization. Many of

9849-425: The Illyrians managed to assimilate the Celts, who adopted their language. In the 290s and 280s BC, the Celtic people who were migrating towards the Balkan Peninsula passed through Transdanubia but some of the tribes settled on the territory. Following 279 BC, the Scordisci (a Celtic tribe), who had been defeated at Delphi , settled at the confluence of the rivers Sava and Danube and they extended their rule over

9996-432: The Justinian Plague, the Mediterranean world had been commercially and culturally stable. After the Plague, it fractured into a trio of civilizations battling for power: the Islamic Civilization, the Byzantine Empire, and what later became known as Medieval Europe. With so many people dead, the supply of workers, many of whom were slaves, was critically short. Landowners had no choice but to lend pieces of land to serfs to work

10143-435: The Libyans and Nubians made things even worse. Throughout the Twentieth Dynasty (~1187–1064 BC), Egypt devolved from a major power in the Mediterranean to a deeply divided and weakened state, which later came to be ruled by the Libyans and the Nubians. Between 481 BC and 221 BC, the Period of the Warring States in China ended by King Zheng of the Qin dynasty succeeding in defeating six competing factions and thus becoming

10290-523: The Makó-Caka or Kosihy-Caka culture) and other archaeological finds from the Copper / Bronze Ages . There are more than 180 registered archaeological sites around Makó, the most important of which are at Kiszombor . The Makó culture is often regarded as a subset or offshoot of the broader Vučedol culture , centred on Vukovar ). While there is no consensus on the cultural affiliations of the Makó sites, kurgans , buckles, jewelry and equestrian equipment found near Makó may suggest links to nomads migrating from

10437-421: The Mongols, also turned their attention to the south and by 1471 began to subjugate the Chams . When Vietnam's Later Lê dynasty went into decline in the late 1700s, a bloody civil war erupted between the Trịnh family in the north and the Nguyễn family in the south. More Cham provinces were seized by the Nguyễn warlords. Finally, Nguyễn Ánh emerged victorious and declared himself Emperor of Vietnam (changing

10584-576: The Ottomány culture from the Multi-cordoned ware culture . Burials were typically inhumations with the body in a flexed position in large flat cemeteries in direct vicinity of settlements, with different sides for men and women, at the final stages shifting towards bi-ritual rites, with more cremations, using urns . Graves are equipped with rich grave goods, including personal adornments like beads (in male graves often made of animal teeth and boar tusks) and metal jewelry, tools, arms and ceramics. In

10731-691: The Roman Empire between 35 and 9 BC, and became a province of the Roman Empire under the name of Pannonia. The easternmost parts of present-day Hungary were later (106 AD) organized as the Roman province of Dacia (lasting until 271). The territory between the Danube and the Tisza was inhabited by the Sarmatian Iazyges between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, or even earlier (earliest remains have been dated to 80 BC). Roman Emperor Trajan officially allowed

10878-411: The Roman army was defeated and put to flight with enormous loss. Bishop Amantius fled around 400 to Aquileia . The emigrating Romans tooks several Christian relics and remains of Pannonian martyrs with them to Rome and to several other towns of Italy. Around 400, the inhabitants of Scarbantia (now Sopron in Hungary) fled from the invasion of the barbarians " incursio barbarorum " to Italy, and took

11025-409: The Roman, medieval, and early modern eras, of Egypt during Greco-Roman and Ottoman rule, and of various dynasties in China all showed similar patterns of political instability and violence becoming considerably more common after times of relative peace, prosperity, and sustained population growth. Quantitatively, periods of unrest included many times more events of instability per decade and occurred when

11172-565: The Romans began to devalue the currency and produce more coinage. Eventually, this overwhelmed the Roman Empire and partially contributed to its collapse. Several key features of human societal collapse can be related to population dynamics. For example, the native population of Cusco, Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was stressed by an imbalanced sex ratio . There is strong evidence that humans also display population cycles . Societies as diverse as those of England and France during

11319-492: The Romans had subjugated the entire area and made it into the Pannonia subprovince of province Illyricum and eventually Pannonia province . Under Roman rule, many contemporary cities such as Buda , Győr and Sopron were founded and the population romanized, and culture as a whole flourished. Roman emperors sometimes tolerated other tribes settling in the territory, such as the Iazyges or Vandals . Christianity spread during

11466-505: The Romans were unable to prevent Attila from attacking Roman Italy the next year. Northern Italian cities like Milan were ravaged. The Huns never again posed a threat to the Romans after Attila's death, but the rise of the Huns also forced the Germanic peoples out of their territories and made those groups press their way into parts of France, Spain, Italy, and even as far south as North Africa. The city of Rome itself came under attack by

11613-601: The Satu-Mare (Szatmar) and Eastern Linear pottery (called "Alföld Linear Pottery" in Hungary) in the east, developed into Želiezovce (Slovakia) and Szakálhát and Bükk, respectively. Farming technology first introduced to the region during the First Temperate Neolithic was developed further by the Vinča culture . It was noted for dark-burnished pottery, and fuelling a population boom and producing some of

11760-626: The Scordisci whose rule was driven back to the eastern parts of Syrmia , while the Pannonians moved to the northern parts of Transdanubia. When King Mithridates VI of Pontus made plans to attack the Romans by way of the Balkan Peninsula , he referred to the Pannonic tribes, and not to the Scordisci, as masters of the region on his path; it appears, therefore, that around 70–60 BC, the Pannonic tribes were no longer subjugated. Around 50 BC,

11907-691: The Seventeenth Century in Europe, which was a period of inclement weather, crop failure, economic hardship, extreme intergroup violence, and high mortality because of the Little Ice Age . The Maunder Minimum involved sunspots being exceedingly rare. Episodes of social instability track the cooling with a time lap of up to 15 years, and many developed into armed conflicts, such as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which started as

12054-655: The Slavic Principality of Nitra , which then became part of Great Moravia in 833. Also, after 800, southeastern Hungary was conquered by Bulgaria . Western Hungary (Pannonia) was a tributary to the Franks. In 839 the Slavic Balaton Principality was founded in southwestern Hungary (under Frank suzerainty). During the reign of Svatopluk I northwestern Hungary was conquered by Great Moravia. Pannonia remained under Frankish control until

12201-467: The Western world. Others, particularly in response to the popular Collapse (2005) by Jared Diamond and more recently, have argued that societies discussed as cases of collapse are better understood through resilience and societal transformation , or "reorganization", especially if collapse is understood as a "complete end" of political systems, which according to Shmuel Eisenstadt has not taken place at any point. Eisenstadt also points out that

12348-504: The advent of antibiotics, starting with penicillin in 1928, has resulted in the saving of the lives of hundreds of millions of people suffering from bacterial infections. However, there is no guarantee that would continue because bacteria are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics , and doctors and public health experts such as former Chief Medical Officer for England Sally Davies have even warned of an incoming "antibiotic apocalypse." The World Health Organization warned in 2019 that

12495-659: The area was occupied by various Celtic or celticized people, such as the successor of the Halstatt culture, the Taurisci, the Boii , and the Pannonians. The Roman era began with several attacks between 156 and 70 BC, but their gradual conquest was interrupted by the Dacian king Burebista , whose kingdom stretched as far as today's Slovakia at its greatest extent. However, the period of Dacian dominance did not last long, and by 9 BC

12642-540: The arrival of the Huns in the 4th century. According to András Mócsy, it is not possible to prove whether the reconstruction of a church is to be attributed to barbarians or to remained Romans at the majority of places. The usage of Christian cult-buildings after the 4th century does not prove the survival of the Pannonian cult-communities because the Goths and other peoples were Arian Christians and they continued to use

12789-488: The broader cultural complex known as Old Europe or the Danube civilization . The Bodrogkeresztúr culture is best known for its seventy cemeteries. Which show clear genetic links with the preceding Tiszapolgár culture. Bodrogkeresztúr cemetieres make clear distinctions between males and females. The Sopot culture is a neolithic archaeological culture that was first identified in eastern Slavonia in modern-day Croatia, and

12936-418: The brutal pillaging that followed Mongol invasions during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the invaders decimated the populations of China, Russia, the Middle East, and Islamic Central Asia . Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur , destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people, and irreparably damaged the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia . The invasions transformed a settled society to

13083-669: The case of the Western Roman Empire, some argued that it did not collapse but merely transformed . Archeologists have identified signs of a megadrought which lasted for a millennium between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago in Africa and Asia. The drying of the Green Sahara not only turned it into a desert but also disrupted the monsoon seasons in South and Southeast Asia and caused flooding in East Asia, which prevented successful harvests and

13230-490: The changing climate did not induce an economic depression in those places. Between ca. 4000 and 3000 BCE, neolithic populations in western Eurasia declined , probably due to the plague and other viral hemorrhagic fevers. This decline was followed by the Indo-European migrations . Around 3,000 BC, people of the pastoralist Yamnaya culture from the Pontic–Caspian steppe , who had high levels of WSH ancestry, embarked on

13377-521: The climate. During a large eruption, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is expelled into the stratosphere , where it could stay for years and gradually get oxidized into sulfate aerosols. Being highly reflective, sulfate aerosols reduce the incident sunlight and cool the Earth's surface. By drilling into glaciers and ice sheets, scientists can access the archives of the history of atmospheric composition. A team of multidisciplinary researchers led by Joseph McConnell of

13524-508: The collapse alone. Significant inequity and exposed corruption may combine with lack of loyalty to established political institutions and result in an oppressed lower class rising up and seizing power from a smaller wealthy elite in a revolution . The diversity of forms that societies evolve corresponds to diversity in their failures. Jared Diamond suggests that societies have also collapsed through deforestation , loss of soil fertility, restrictions of trade and/or rising endemic violence. In

13671-407: The cost of labor, saved time, and raised productivity, such as the three-field crop rotation system, the iron plow, the use of manure to fertilize the soil, and the water pumps, were widely adopted. Many former serfs, now free from feudal obligations, relocated to the cities and changed profession to crafts and trades. The more successful ones became the new middle class. Trade flourished as demands for

13818-450: The dangers ahead. People switch from the second to the first mode of thinking after the introduction of an invention that dramatically increases the standards of living. Rand and Cohen pointed to the recent examples of the antibiotic overuse leading to resistant bacteria and failure to save for retirement. Tainter noted that according to behavioral economics, the human decision-making process tends to be more irrational than rational and that as

13965-665: The decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. It was followed by the Plague of Cyprian (249–262 AD) and the Plague of Justinian (541-542). Together, they cracked the foundations of the Roman Empire. In the sixth century AD, while the Western Roman Empire had already succumbed to attacks by the Germanic tribes, the Eastern Roman Empire stood its ground. In fact, a peace treaty with the Persians allowed Emperor Justinian

14112-604: The development of complex culture. It coincided with and may have caused the decline and the fall of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization. The dramatic shift in climate is known as the 4.2-kiloyear event . The highly advanced Indus Valley Civilization took root around 3000 BC in what is now northwestern India and Pakistan and collapsed around 1700 BC. Since

14259-411: The dilapidated churches, however so far (1974) this usage can be proved only at the "Basilica II" in the large fortified center at Fenékpuszta (part of Keszthely in Hungary). The Keszthely culture is a special archaeological composition of the early Avar period which cannot be traced back to the local culture of the Roman period. However, based on the excavations of Fenékpuszta, a group of finds such as

14406-547: The disease first entered the continent (see History of smallpox ). Smallpox continued to be a deadly disease and killed an estimated 300 million people in the twentieth century alone, but a vaccine, the first of any kind, had been available since 1796. As humans spread around the globe, human societies flourish and become more dependent on trade, and because urbanization means that people leave sparsely-populated rural areas for densely-populated neighborhoods, infectious diseases spread much more easily. Outbreaks are frequent, even in

14553-841: The early fourteenth century AD, Britain suffered repeated rounds of crop failures from unusually heavy rainfall and flooding. Much livestock either starved or drowned. Food prices skyrocketed, and King Edward II attempted to rectify the situation by imposing price controls, but vendors simply refused to sell at such low prices. In any case, the act was abolished by the Lincoln Parliament in 1316. Soon, people from commoners to nobles were finding themselves short of food. Many resorted to begging, crime, and eating animals they otherwise would not eat. People in northern England had to deal with raids from Scotland. There were even reports of cannibalism . In Continental Europe, things were at least just as bad. The Great Famine of 1315–1317 coincided with

14700-668: The elite than the society could realistically support ( elite overproduction ), which led to social strife, and chronic inflation, which caused incomes to fall and threatened the fiscal health of the state. In particular, an excess in especially young adult male population predictably led to social unrest and violence, as the third and higher-order parity sons had trouble realizing their economic desires and became more open to extreme ideas and actions. Adults in their 20s are especially prone to radicalization. Most historical periods of social unrest lacking in external triggers, such as natural calamities, and most genocides can be readily explained as

14847-705: The end of the Medieval Warm Period and the start of the Little Ice Age. Some historians suspect that the change in climate was due to Mount Tarawera in New Zealand erupting in 1314. The Great Famine was, however, only one of the calamities striking Europe that century, as the Hundred Years' War and Black Death would soon follow. (Also see the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages .) Recent analysis of tree rings complement historical records and show that

14994-541: The epidemic originated in China and Northeastern India and reached the Eastern Roman Empire via trade routes terminating in the Mediterranean. Modern scholarship has deduced that the epidemic was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis , the same one that would later bring the Black Death, the single deadliest pandemic in human history, but how many actually died from it remains uncertain. Current estimates put

15141-612: The eponymous Szeleta Cave (in the eastern side of the Bükk) are similar to those found in the Upper Palaeolithic sites of Central Europe . Attracted by the rich fauna of the lowlands in the centre of the Carpathian Basin, groups of " Gravettian " hunters penetrated into the territory from the west about 27,000 years ago. The central grasslands were not covered by ice even at the maximum of the last glaciation (around 20,000 years ago). The new arrivals settled on hilltops along

15288-781: The figure between thirty and fifty million people, a significant portion of the human population at that time. The Plague arguably cemented the fate of Rome. The epidemic also devastated the Sasanian Empire in Persia. Caliph Abu Bakr seized the opportunity to launch military campaigns that overran the Sassanians and captured Roman-held territories in the Caucasus, the Levant, Egypt, and elsewhere in North Africa. Before

15435-655: The first Chinese emperor, titled Qin Shi Huang . A ruthless but efficient ruler, he raised a disciplined and professional army and introduced a significant number of reforms, such as unifying the language and creating a single currency and system of measurement. In addition, he funded dam constructions and began building the first segment of what was to become the Great Wall of China to defend his realm against northern nomads. Nevertheless, internal feuds and rebellions made his empire fall apart after his death in 210 B.C. In

15582-661: The first and only war between Vietnam and the jihadists, until it was crushed. Around 1210 BC, the New Kingdom of Egypt shipped large amounts of grain to the disintegrating Hittite Empire. Thus, there had been a food shortage in Anatolia but not the Nile Valley. However, that soon changed. Although Egypt managed to deliver a decisive and final defeat to the Sea Peoples at the Battle of Xois , Egypt itself went into steep decline. The collapse of all other societies in

15729-669: The first communities of anatomically modern humans came to the Carpathian Basin between 33,000 and 28,000 BC . Consequently, the cohabitation of the Neanderthals and modern humans in the territory, which was assumed by earlier scholarship, cannot be proved. The Aurignacian group of modern humans who settled in the Istállóskő Cave primarily used tools made of bones and used the cave as a seasonal camping site during their hunts for chamois , red deer, reindeer and other local animals. Their tools made of stone suggest that they came to

15876-590: The form of a 300-year period of aridity called the Great Drought . The Mississippian culture collapsed during this period. The Ancestral Puebloans left their established homes in the 12th and 13th centuries. Current scholarly consensus is that Ancestral Puebloans responded to pressure from Numic -speaking peoples moving onto the Colorado Plateau, as well as climate change that resulted in agricultural failures. The Mongol conquests corresponded to

16023-595: The globe provided complementary data. The Northern Hemisphere got drier, but the Southern Hemisphere became wetter. Indeed, the Greek historian Appian recorded that there was a lack of flooding in Egypt, which also faced famine and pestilence. Rome's interest in Egypt as a source of food intensified, and the aforementioned problems and civil unrest weakened Egypt's ability to resist. Egypt came under Roman rule after Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC. While it

16170-411: The high levels of poverty, the Roman government implemented a form of welfare called the dole , providing citizens free money and free grain. Paying for the dole required high levels of government spending, exacerbating the Roman debt and also producing inflation. With slavery replacing most labor, tax revenues also plummeted, further exacerbating the government's debt. To pay off the enormous debt,

16317-593: The hot-water springs at Tata around 50,000 BC. They hunted mammoth calves, brown bear , wild horses and reed deer. A flat oval object made from mammoth tooth lamella , similar to the Indigenous Australians ' ritual tjurunga , was found at the site. A third group of Neanderthals settled in the caves of the Pilis , Vértes and Gerecse Hills. They regularly visited the Bükk Mountains and

16464-406: The important cities of today's Hungary were founded during this period, such as Aquincum ( Budapest ), Sopianae ( Pécs ), Arrabona ( Győr ), Solva ( Esztergom ), Savaria ( Szombathely ) and Scarbantia ( Sopron ). Christianity spread in Pannonia in the 4th century, when it became the empire's official religion. In 375 AD, the nomadic Huns began invading Europe from the eastern steppes, instigating

16611-482: The invasion of the Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal . Ibn Khaldun noted that all of the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become arid desert. In 1206, a warlord achieved dominance over all Mongols with the title Genghis Khan and began his campaign of territorial expansion. The Mongols' highly flexible and mobile cavalry enabled them to conquer their enemies with efficiency and swiftness. In

16758-409: The jobs of skilled craftsman. Since slaves do not pay taxes and were replacing most jobs from citizens, this reduced the revenue the state could accrue from their citizens. This high level of unemployment also led to high levels of poverty, which reduced demand for businesses relying on slave labor. As taxes fell, so did government revenue. To compensate for this economic slowdown and mitigate

16905-403: The land in exchange for military protection and other privileges. That sowed the seeds of feudalism . There is evidence that the Mongol expeditions may have spread the bubonic plague across much of Eurasia, which helped to spark the Black Death of the early fourteenth century. The Italian historian Gabriele de’ Mussi wrote that the Mongols catapulted the corpses of those who contracted

17052-570: The largest settlements in prehistoric Europe. The Tisza culture is a Neolithic archaeological culture of the Alföld plain in modern-day Hungary, Western Romania, Eastern Slovakia, and Ukrainian Zakarpattia Oblast in Central Europe. The culture is dated to between 5400 BCE and 4500/4400 BCE. The Late Neolithic Tisza culture was followed by the Eneolithic Tiszapolgár and Bodrogkeresztúr cultures. These cultures were part of

17199-509: The mainly Celtic tribes living on the territory were confronted by Burebista , king of the Dacians (82–44 BC), who began suddenly to expand his domain centered in Transylvania . The sources do not indicate clearly whether Burebista was the original unifier of the Dacian tribes, or whether his efforts at unification built upon the work of his predecessors. Burebista subjugated the Taurisci and

17346-404: The modern era, but medical advances have been able to alleviate their impacts. In fact, the human population grew tremendously in the twentieth century, as did the population of farm animals, from which diseases could jump to humans , but in the developed world and increasingly also in the developing world, people are less likely to fall victim to infectious diseases than ever before. For instance,

17493-426: The monotheistic religion of Christianity in the formerly-polytheistic society, as Christians won public admiration for their good works. Ultimately the Roman army, the Roman cities, the size of the empire and its trade routes, which were required for Roman power and influence to exist, facilitated the spread of the disease. The Antonine Plague is considered by some historians as a useful starting point for understanding

17640-489: The name from Annam) with the title Gia Long and established the Nguyễn dynasty. The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga (modern-day Phan Rang , Vietnam), survived until 1832, when Emperor Minh Mạng (Nguyễn Phúc Đảm) conquered it after centuries of Cham–Vietnamese wars . Vietnam's policy of assimilation involved the forcefeeding of pork to Muslims and beef to Hindus, which fueled resentment. An uprising followed ,

17787-646: The new societies that arise from the ashes of the old one are evidently its offspring, despite a dramatic reduction in sophistication. Moreover, the influence of a collapsed society, such as the Western Roman Empire, may linger on long after its death. The study of societal collapse, collapsology , is a topic for specialists of history , anthropology , sociology , and political science . More recently, they are joined by experts in cliodynamics and study of complex systems . Joseph Tainter frames societal collapse in The Collapse of Complex Societies (1988),

17934-470: The nowadays North-Western Hungary. The Starčevo culture is an archaeological culture of Southeastern Europe, dating to the Neolithic period between c. 6200 and 4500 BCE. It originates in the spread of the Neolithic package of peoples and technological innovations including farming and ceramics from Anatolia to the area of Sesklo. The Starčevo culture marks its spread to the inland Balkan peninsula as

18081-468: The number of fortified settlements, change of burial rites, and the decision of people to desert fortified settlements could have had several reasons, including the collapse of trade and exchange networks, the attacks of enemies, the internal collapse of society or environmental causes. The following Middle Bronze Age/Late Bronze Age cultures are very different in their burial rites (cremation, erecting of barrows) as well as in their handling of bronze - there

18228-452: The past on this topic is further complicated by politics and the passage of time. It is difficult to distinguish between natural epidemics and biological warfare, both of which are common throughout human history. Biological weapons are economical because they turn an enemy casualty into a delivery system and so were favored in armed conflicts of the past. Furthermore, more soldiers died of disease than in combat until recently. In any case, by

18375-448: The plague into Caffa (now Feodossia , Crimea) during the siege of that city and that soldiers who were transported from there brought the plague to Mediterranean ports. However, that account of the origin of the Black Death in Europe remains controversial, though plausible, because of the complex epidemiology of the plague. Modern epidemiologists do not believe that the Black Death had a single source of spreading into Europe. Research into

18522-538: The point that could overwhelm any mechanisms that would otherwise maintain stability. Unexpected and abrupt changes, which experts call nonlinearities , are some of the warning signs. In some cases, a natural disaster (such as a tsunami, earthquake, pandemic , massive fire or climate change) may precipitate a collapse. Other factors such as a Malthusian catastrophe , overpopulation , or resource depletion might be contributory factors of collapse, but studies of past societies seem to suggest that those factors did not cause

18669-401: The population was declining, rather than increasing. Pre-industrial agrarian societies typically faced instability after one or two centuries of stability. However, a population approaching its carrying capacity alone is not enough to trigger general decline if the people remained united and the ruling class strong. Other factors had to be involved, such as having more aspirants for positions of

18816-734: The probable culprits of the Antonine Plague (165–180 AD) to have been smallpox or measles . The disease likely started in China and spread to the West via the Silk Road . Roman troops first contracted the disease in the East before they returned home. Striking a virgin population, the Antonine Plague had dreadful mortality rates; between one third to half of the population, 60 to 70 million people, perished. Roman cities suffered from

18963-418: The rate of innovation declines, as measured by the number of inventions relative to the amount of money spent on research and development , it becomes progressively harder for there to be a technological solution to the problem of societal collapse. What produces modern sedentary life, unlike nomadic hunter-gatherers , is extraordinary modern economic productivity. Tainter argues that exceptional productivity

19110-598: The relics of Quirinus , the martyr bishop of Sescia (now Sisak in Croatia), from Savaria (now Szombathely in Hungary) with them. These events signified the decay of the Christian communities in Pannonia. The Huns, taking advantage of the departure of the Goths, Quadi, et al. , created a significant empire in 423 based in Hungary. In 453 they reached the height of their expansion under the well-known conqueror, Attila

19257-737: The rise of agriculture in the Old World. As such, they had immune systems that were ill-equipped to handle the diseases to which their counterparts in Eurasia had become resistant. When the Europeans arrived in the Americas, in short order, the indigenous populations of the Americas found themselves facing smallpox, measles , whooping cough , and the bubonic plague, among others. In tropical areas, malaria, yellow fever , dengue fever , river blindness , and others appeared. Most of these tropical diseases were traced to Africa. Smallpox ravaged Mexico in

19404-485: The rivers Hornád and Bodrog . They primarily hunted mammoth and elk and used stone blades to work skin, bone, antler and wood. Artistic finds are rare; for instance, a disc with serrated edges, which was made of polished limestone, was found at Bodrogkeresztúr . A second wave of "Gravettians" arrived during the warmer period that began about 20,000 years ago. They primarily made their tools from pebbles, similar to Lower Palaeolithic communities, but no continuity between

19551-605: The southern parts of Transdanubia. Around that time, the northern parts of Transdanubia were ruled by the Taurisci (also a Celtic tribe) and by 230 BC, Celtic people (the people of the La Tène culture ) had occupied gradually the whole territory of the Great Hungarian Plain. Between 150 and 100 BC, a new Celtic tribe, the Boii moved to the Carpathian Basin and they occupied the northern and northeastern parts of

19698-502: The spread of vaccine scepticism has been accompanied by the resurrection of long-conquered diseases like measles. This lead the WHO to name the antivaccination movement one of the world's top 10 public-health threats. During the Roman Empire, citizen employment was vastly being replaced by slave labor. Slaves were replacing many of the jobs citizens were doing. Slaves were receiving apprenticeships and education and were even learning to replace

19845-686: The struggles between the Cimmerians and the Scythians . Those people, who settled down in Transylvania and in the Banat , may be identified with the Agathyrsi (probably an ancient Thracian tribe whose presence on the territory was recorded by Herodotus ); while those who lived in what is now the Great Hungarian Plain may be identified with the Sigynnae . The new population introduced the use of

19992-441: The summers of 1314–1316 were some of the wettest on record over a period of 700 years. Historically, the dawn of agriculture led to the rise of contagious diseases. Compared to their hunting-gathering counterparts, agrarian societies tended to be sedentary, have higher population densities, be in frequent contact with livestock, and be more exposed to contaminated water supplies and higher concentrations of garbage. Poor sanitation,

20139-525: The territory (mainly the territory of present Slovakia ). The Romans commenced their military raids in the Carpathian Basin in 156 BC when they attacked the Scordisci living in the Transdanubian region. In 119 BC, they marched against Siscia (today Sisak in Croatia ) and strengthened their rule over the future Illyricum province south of the Carpathian Basin. In 88 BC, the Romans defeated

20286-425: The territory and took possession of the former population's centers fortified by earthworks. The new population may have consisted of ancient Iranian tribes that had seceded from the federation of the tribes living under the suzerainty of the Cimmerians . They were equestrian nomads and formed the people of the Mezőcsát culture who used tools and weapons made of iron. They extended their rule over what are now

20433-576: The territory; their best-known settlements were situated in northeastern Transdanubia. A pendant made of wolf tooth, a pair of red deer teeth and similar finds suggest that these hunters wore ornaments. Mesolithic sites are rare but start to appear after systematic surveys , especially in the Jászság area. The Tardenoisian (or Beuronian) is an archaeological culture of the Mesolithic/Epipaleolithic period from northern France and Belgium. Similar cultures are known further east in Central Europe, parts of Britain and west across Spain, extending possibly to

20580-404: The time went on, the Carpathian Basin attracted immigration from all directions: the Hallstatt Celts from the west were the first and most influential at around 750 BC, the mysterious Sigynnae around 500 BC, the Pannonians —an Illyrian tribe gave the future Roman province its name, while the very east became occupied by other Thracian , Iranian, and later Celtic tribes. Before 100 BC, most of

20727-501: The transitory period between the Riss and Würm glacial periods around 100,000 years ago. Remains of skulls show that Neanderthals inhabited northeastern Transdanubia and the Bükk Mountains during this period. The Neanderthals who lived in the region of Érd between around 100,000 and 40,000 BC used quartzite pebbles. They led hunting expeditions as far as the Gerecse Hills for cave bears , wild horses, woolly rhinoceros and other animals. A Neanderthal community settled near

20874-418: The two groups can be detected. The remains of semi-sunken huts were excavated at a site on a hilltop near Sárvár where reindeer bones were also found. The site also yielded a perforated (but not decorated) reindeer antler. In addition to permanent settlements, the Gravettian hunters' temporary camps were unearthed in the plains of the Jászság and around Szeged . About 15,000 years ago, new hunters came to

21021-437: The way of their warefare, they reorganized their army, rushed the Transdanubian regions of Pannonia, took possession of them and they moved the people of their house here, then they moved towards the city of Tulln, where their opponents were assembled. Detre, Macrinus, and all the available forces of the Roman army marched against them on the field of Zeiselmauer. Both opponents attacked the opposing teams with equal fierceness. And

21168-403: Was characterized by the continuous uprisings of the Pannonians against the emerging power of the Roman Empire . The Romans, however, could strengthen their supremacy over the rebellious tribes and they organised the occupied territory into a new province. The Roman Empire subdued the Pannonians, Dacians, Celts and other peoples in this territory. The territory west of the Danube was conquered by

21315-421: Was excavated at Vértesszőlős in Transdanubia in the 1960s. The Middle Pleistocene site was situated in calcareous tuff basins with a diameter of 3–6 meters (9.8–19.7 ft) that the nearby warm springs had formed. The site at Vértesszőlős was occupied five times between about 500,000 and 250,000 years ago. The occipital bone of an adult male Homo heidelbergensis , who is now known as " Samu ", and

21462-422: Was since also found in several sites in Hungary. The Baden culture was a Copper Age (Chalcolithic) archaeological culture found in Central Europe . In Hungarian and Slovakian sites, cremated human remains were often placed in anthropomorphic urns, whereas in Nitriansky Hrádok , a mass grave has been found. The only known cemetery with individual graves was found in an early Baden ("Boleráz phase") site

21609-405: Was the Syrmians to Salona to the today Croatian cost in the beginning of the 7th century. Later, Christian barbarians who migrated to the northern part of Lake Balaton established the Keszthely Culture , which disappeared by the middle of the 7th century. The first Slavs came to the region, almost certainly from the north, soon after the departure of the Ostrogoths (471 AD), together with

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