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122-501: The first issue covered topics including a moose hunt in Alaska and advice about Native Americans . Some of the original sections were titled, "Photography", "Trap and Target", and "In the Game and Field". Outdoor Life was an innovative publication. In 1903, the first photograph was printed on the cover in black and white. A short time later, in 1906, the first color cover appeared on

244-480: A browser , the moose's diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation, depending on the season, with branches, twigs and dead wood making up a large portion of their winter diet. Predators of moose include wolves , bears , humans , wolverines (rarely, though may take calves), and (rarely, if swimming in the ocean) orcas . Unlike most other deer species, moose do not form herds and are solitary animals , aside from calves who remain with their mother until

366-494: A cable-backed bow . Several Indigenous American tribes also used antler to make bows, gluing tendons to the bow instead of tying them as cables. An antler bow, made in the early 19th century, is on display at Brooklyn Museum . Its manufacture is attributed to the Yankton Sioux . Through history large deer antler from a suitable species (e.g. red deer ) were often cut down to its shaft and its lowest tine and used as

488-529: A dewlap or bell, which is a fold of skin under the chin. Its exact function is unknown, but some morphologic analyses suggest a cooling (thermoregulatory) function. Other theories include a fitness signal in mating, as a visual and olfactory signal, or as a dominance signal by males, as are the antlers. The moose is a browsing herbivore and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit. The average adult moose needs to consume 96 megajoules (23,000 kilocalories) per day to maintain its body weight. Much of

610-409: A 'velvet' texture." This requires intense grazing on a highly-nutritious diet. By September the velvet is removed by rubbing and thrashing which changes the colour of the antlers. Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring. Birds, carnivores and rodents eat dropped antlers as they are full of protein and moose themselves will eat antler velvet for

732-581: A bull that reportedly scaled 1,180 kg (2,601 lb), but none are authenticated and some may not be considered reliable. Bull moose have antlers like other members of the deer family. The size and growth rate of antlers is determined by diet and age. Size and symmetry in the number of antler points signals bull moose health and cows may select mates based on antler size and symmetry. Bull moose use their antlers to display dominance, to discourage competition, and to spar or fight rivals. The male's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of

854-514: A completely different species of deer, Cervus canadensis , also called the wapiti (from Algonquin ). A mature male moose is called a bull, a mature female a cow, and an immature moose of either sex a calf. In Classical Antiquity , the animal was known as ἄλκη álkē in Greek and alces in Latin , words probably borrowed from a Germanic language or another language of northern Europe. By

976-461: A distinctive appearance similar to coral. Like roe deer , moose are more likely to develop perukes, rather than cactus antlers, than the more developed cervine deer, but unlike roe deer, moose do not suffer fatal decalcification of the skull as a result of peruke growth, but rather can support their continued growth until they become too large to be fully supplied with blood. The distinctive-looking perukes (often referred to as "devil's antlers") are

1098-606: A heavy encumbrance and to give him more time to regrow a larger new pair. Yet antlers are commonly retained through the winter and into the spring, suggesting that they have another use. Wolves in Yellowstone National Park are 3.6 times more likely to attack individual male elk without antlers, or groups of elk in which at least one male is without antlers. Half of all male elk killed by wolves lack antlers, at times in which only one quarter of all males have shed antlers. These findings suggest that antlers have

1220-562: A moose being scavenged by a Greenland shark ( Somniosus microcephalus ). In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves. Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves. Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of 100 to 400 meters (300 to 1,300 ft), occasionally at a distance of two to three kilometers (1 to 2 mi). Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults. Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility

1342-472: A moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of forbs and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as willow and birch . As these terrestrial plants are rather low in sodium , as much as half of its diet usually consists of aquatic plants, including lilies and pondweed , which while lower in energy content, provide the moose with its sodium requirements. In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that

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1464-567: A natural defense, such as liver flukes , brain worms and winter tick infestations. Predation of moose calves by brown bear is also significant. Landscape change from salvage logging of forest damage caused by the mountain pine beetle has resulted in greater foraging in logged areas by female moose, and this is the lead hypothesis as to why the moose population is declining in eastern North American forests, as this likely leads to increased predation. An alternate hypotheses among biologists for generalized, nonhunting declines in moose populations at

1586-566: A one-pointed pickax . Antler headdresses were worn by shamans and other spiritual figures in various cultures, and for dances; 21 antler "frontlets" apparently for wearing on the head, and over 10,000 years old, have been excavated at the English Mesolithic site of Starr Carr . Antlers are still worn in traditional dances such as Yaqui deer dances and carried in the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance . In

1708-553: A pack of gray wolves ( Canis lupus ) can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves. Brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) are also known to prey on moose of various sizes and are the only predator besides the wolf to attack moose both in Eurasia and North America. In Western Russia, moose provide about 15% annual estimated dietary energy content for brown bears and are the most important food source for these predators during spring. However, Brown bears are more likely to scavenge

1830-457: A predator. However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color, with the darkest coloring usually in areas facing the opponent, thus serving as a natural warning to other animals. Moose require habitat with adequate edible plants (e.g., pond grasses, young trees and shrubs), cover from predators, and protection from extremely hot or cold weather. Moose travel among different habitats with

1952-433: A problem. Moose prefer sub-alpine shrublands in early winter, while bison prefer wet sedge valley meadowlands in early winter. In late winter, moose prefer river valleys with deciduous forest cover or alpine terrain above the tree line, while bison preferred wet sedge meadowlands or sunny southern grassy slopes. After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since

2074-492: A secondary function in deterring predation. Reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) are the only cervid species that inhabit the Arctic and subarctic regions of the globe, yet their most striking distinction is the presence of pedicles after birth and antlers in both males and females. One possible reason that females of this species evolved antlers is to clear away snow so they can eat the vegetation underneath. Another possible reason

2196-465: A shed trap to collect the loose antlers in the late winter/early spring. In most US states, the possession of or trade in parts of game animals is subject to some degree of regulation, but the trade in antlers is widely permitted. In the national parks of Canada, the removal of shed antlers is an offense punishable by a maximum fine of C$ 25,000, as the Canadian government considers antlers to belong to

2318-469: A source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals and are often gnawed upon by small animals, including squirrels, porcupines, rabbits and mice. This is more common among animals inhabiting regions where the soil is deficient in these minerals. Antlers shed in oak forest inhabited by squirrels are rapidly chewed to pieces by them. Antlered heads are prized as trophies with larger sets being more highly prized. The first organization to keep records of sizes

2440-442: A study of trophy antlers using a microphone found that the palmate antler acts as a parabolic reflector, amplifying sound at the moose's ear. The antlers of mature Alaskan adult bull moose (5 to 12 years old) have a normal maximum spread greater than 200 centimeters (79 in). By the age of 13, moose antlers decline in size and symmetry. The widest spread recorded was 210 centimeters (83 in) across. An Alaskan moose also holds

2562-402: A study of trophy antlers with an artificial ear confirmed that the large flattened (palmate) antler behaves like a parabolic reflector. The diversification of antlers, body size and tusks has been strongly influenced by changes in habitat and behavior (fighting and mating). Antlers originated once in the cervid lineage. The earliest fossil remains of antlers that have been found are dated to

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2684-415: A suffix indicating an action or state of being) possibly from some form of an unattested Latin word *anteocularis , "before the eye" (and applied to the word for "branch" or " horn " ). Antlers are unique to cervids . The ancestors of deer had tusks (long upper canine teeth ). In most species, antlers appear to replace tusks. However, one modern species (the water deer ) has tusks and no antlers and

2806-455: A wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own. Black bears ( Ursus americanus ) and cougars ( Puma concolor ) can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, prey on adults (mainly cows rather than the larger bulls). Wolverines ( Gulo gulo ) are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when

2928-546: Is 2.4–3.1 m (7 ft 10 in – 10 ft 2 in), with the vestigial tail adding only a further 5–12 cm (2– 4 + 1 ⁄ 2  in). The largest of all the races is the Alaskan subspecies ( A. a. gigas ), which can stand over 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) at the shoulder, has a span across the antlers of 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) and averages 634.5 kg (1,399 lb) in males and 478 kg (1,054 lb) in females. Typically, however,

3050-501: Is about twice that of the caribou. Moose skin is typical of the deer family . Moose fur consists of four types of hair: eyelashes , whiskers , guard hairs and wool hairs. Hair length and hair density varies according to season, age, and body region. The coat has two layers—a top layer of long guard hairs and a soft wooly undercoat. The guard hairs are hollow and filled with air for better insulation, which also helps them stay afloat when swimming. Both male and female moose have

3172-476: Is an important cause of moose morbidity and mortality and also contributes to vulnerability to predators. Ectoparasites of moose include the moose nose bot fly , and winter ticks . Endoparasites of moose include dog tapeworm , meningeal worm , lungworm, and roundworm. Moose are mostly diurnal . They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf. Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during

3294-737: Is an organization for those who take part in this activity. In the United States in 2017 sheds fetch around US$ 10 per pound, with larger specimens in good condition attracting higher prices. The most desirable antlers have been found soon after being shed. The value is reduced if they have been damaged by weathering or being gnawed by small animals. A matched pair from the same animal is a very desirable find but often antlers are shed separately and may be separated by several miles. Some enthusiasts for shed hunting use trained dogs to assist them. Most hunters will follow 'game trails' (trails where deer frequently run) to find these sheds or they will build

3416-815: Is annual, and is controlled by the length of daylight. Although the antlers are regrown each year, their size varies with the age of the animal in many species, increasing annually over several years before reaching maximum size. In tropical species, antlers may be shed at any time of year, and in some species such as the sambar , antlers are shed at different times in the year depending on multiple factors. Some equatorial deer never shed their antlers. A 2019 study published in Science identified eight genes active in antler formation that are normally associated with bone cancer , particularly osteosarcoma . Additional tumor-suppressing and tumor-growth-inhibiting genes were determined to be responsible for regulating antler growth. This

3538-421: Is browsing aquatic vegetation. The moose proboscis likely evolved as an adaptation to aquatic browsing, with loss of the rhinarium , and development of a superior olfactory column separate from an inferior respiratory column. This separation contributes to the moose's keen sense of smell, which they employ to detect water sources, to find food under snow, and to detect mates or predators. As with all members of

3660-409: Is characterized as being made up of primarily collagen and a mineral phase . In antlers, the mineral content is considerably lower than other examples of bone tissue, while having a high volume of collagen. This leads antlers to having lower yield strength and stiffness , but higher fracture toughness when compared to human cortical bone. Mineral content differs among species and also depends on

3782-494: Is for female competition during winter foraging. Espmark (1964) observed that the presence of antlers on females is related to the hierarchy rank and is a result of the harsh winter conditions and the female dominated parental investment. Males shed their antlers prior to winter, while female antlers are retained throughout winter. Also, female antler size plateaus at the onset of puberty, around age three, while males' antler size increases during their lifetime. This likely reflects

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3904-492: Is greatly impeded. Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves. Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and perineum , causing massive blood loss . Occasionally, a wolf may immobilize a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can paralyze a moose. Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose. Moose between

4026-531: Is more than 30 centimetres (1 ft) higher than the next-largest deer on average, the wapiti . The tail is short (6 cm to 8 cm in length) and vestigial in appearance; unlike other ungulates the moose tail is too short to swish away insects. Males (or "bulls") normally weigh from 380 to 700 kg (838 to 1,543 lb) and females (or "cows") typically weigh 200 to 490 kg (441 to 1,080 lb), depending on racial or clinal as well as individual age or nutritional variations. The head-and-body length

4148-475: Is sexual selection, which operates via two mechanisms: male-to-male competition (behaviorally, physiologically) and female mate choice . Male-male competition can take place in two forms. First, they can compete behaviorally where males use their antlers as weapons to compete for access to mates; second, they can compete physiologically where males present their antlers to display their strength and fertility competitiveness to compete for access to mates. Males with

4270-450: Is still growing or able to grow, since testosterone is needed to stop antler growth; they may take one of two forms. "Cactus antlers" or velericorn antlers usually retain the approximate shape of a normal moose's antlers but have numerous pearl-shaped exostoses on their surface; being made of living bone, they are easily broken but can grow back. Perukes ( US : / p ə ˈ r uː k s / ) are constantly growing, tumor-like antlers with

4392-405: Is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population. If antlers functioned only in male–male competition for mates, the best evolutionary strategy would be to shed them immediately after the rutting season, both to free the male from

4514-566: Is the world's tallest, largest and heaviest extant species of deer and the only species in the genus Alces . It is also the tallest, and the second-largest, land animal in North America , falling short only of the American bison in body mass. Most adult male moose have broad, palmate ("open-hand shaped") antlers ; other members of the deer family have pointed antlers with a dendritic ("twig-like") configuration. Moose inhabit

4636-448: Is used as a snow and ice melter. A typical moose, weighing 360 kg (794 lb), can eat up to 32 kg (71 lb) of food per day. Moose lack upper front teeth , but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw. They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation. Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food. A moose's upper lip

4758-422: Is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid-back ears or a lowered head is a sign of agitation. When the hairs on the back of the moose's neck and shoulders ( hackles ) stand up, a charge is usually imminent. The Anchorage Visitor Centers warn tourists that "...a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear." Moose cows are more likely to emit protest moans when courted by small males. This attracts

4880-431: Is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and is prehensile , for grasping their food. In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling forbs , like dandelions , or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all. A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer

5002-551: The Popular Science Publishing Company, which was purchased by Times Mirror in 1967. Time Inc. bought the Times Mirror magazines in 2001. In 2007, Time Warner sold Outdoor Life and several other publications to Bonnier Corporation . In 2020, Bonnier Corporation sold the publication and several other titles to North Equity. North Equity formed Recurrent Ventures as holding company for

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5124-623: The Canadian Maritimes and Quebec . South of the Canada–US border, Maine has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose. Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in Vermont and New Hampshire , notably near bodies of water and as high up as 910 m (3,000 ft) above sea level in the mountains. In Massachusetts , moose had gone extinct by 1870, but re-colonized

5246-961: The Caucasus . It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the Scottish Highlands in Alladale Wilderness Reserve . The moose disappeared as a breeding species from Denmark about 4,500 years ago (in the last century, a very small number have lived for periods in Zealand without establishing a population after swimming across the Øresund from Sweden), but in 2016-17 ten were introduced to Lille Vildmose from Sweden. In 2020, this population had increased to about 25 animals. Antler Antlers are extensions of an animal's skull found in members of

5368-617: The Cervidae (deer) family . Antlers are a single structure composed of bone , cartilage , fibrous tissue , skin , nerves , and blood vessels . They are generally found only on males, with the exception of reindeer/caribou . Antlers are shed and regrown each year and function primarily as objects of sexual attraction and as weapons . Antler comes from the Old French antoillier (see present French : "Andouiller", from ant-, meaning before, oeil, meaning eye and -ier ,

5490-520: The Eastern moose 's history is very well documented: moose meat was a staple in the diet of indigenous peoples for centuries. The common name "moose" was brought into English from the word used by those who lived in present day coastal Rhode Island . The indigenous people often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in pemmican , a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys. The historical range of

5612-468: The Narragansett moos and Eastern Abenaki mos ; according to early sources, these were likely derived from moosu , meaning "he strips off"), and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The Proto-Algonquian form was *mo·swa . On average, an adult moose stands 1.4–2.1 m (4 ft 7 in – 6 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder, which

5734-537: The circumpolar boreal forests or temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere , thriving in cooler, temperate areas as well as subarctic climates . Hunting shaped the relationship between moose and humans, both in Eurasia and North America. Prior to the colonial era (around 1600-1700 CE), moose were one of many valuable sources of sustenance for certain tribal groups and First Nations . Hunting and habitat loss have reduced

5856-593: The muntjacs have small antlers and tusks. The musk deer , which are not true cervids, also bear tusks in place of antlers. In contrast to antlers, horns —found on pronghorns and bovids , such as sheep, goats, bison and cattle—are two-part structures that usually do not shed. A horn's interior of bone is covered by an exterior sheath made of keratin (the same material as human fingernails and toenails). Antlers are usually found only on males. Only reindeer (known as caribou in North America) have antlers on

5978-892: The velvet antler stage, antlers of elk and deer have been used in Asia as a dietary supplement or alternative medicinal substance for more than 2,000 years. Recently, deer antler extract has become popular among Western athletes and body builders because the extract, with its trace amounts of IGF-1 , is believed to help build and repair muscle tissue ; however, one double-blind study did not find evidence of intended effects. Elk, deer, and moose antlers have also become popular forms of dog chews that owners purchase for their pet canines. Dogs are sometimes used to find shed antlers. The North American Shed Hunting Dog Association (NASHDA) has resources for people who want to train their dogs to find shed antlers and hold shed dog hunting events. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

6100-645: The 18th and 19th century, respectively. By the early 20th century, the last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Fennoscandian areas and patchy tracts of Russia, with a few migrants found in what is now Estonia and Lithuania . The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into Kampinos National Park and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus), but political complications limited

6222-513: The 1990s. Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but now the moose population is declining rapidly. This decline has been attributed to opening of roads and landscapes into the northern range of moose, allowing deer to become populous in areas where they were not previously common. This encroachment by deer on moose habitat brought moose into contact with previously unfamiliar pathogens, including brainworm and liver fluke, and these parasites are believed to have contributed to

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6344-797: The 8th century, during the Early Middle Ages , the species was known as Old English : elch, elh, eolh, derived from the Proto-Germanic : *elho- , *elhon- and possibly connected with the Old Norse : elgr . Later, the species became known in Middle English as elk , elcke , or elke , appearing in the Latinized form alke , with the spelling alce borrowed directly from Latin: alces . The word "elk" remained in usage because of English-speakers' familiarity with

6466-847: The Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal; worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more. When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a dog , moose may charge. Also, as with bears or most wild animals, moose accustomed to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food. During the fall mating season, bulls may be aggressive toward humans. Cows are protective of young calves and will attack humans who come close, especially if they come between mother and calf. Moose are not territorial, do not view humans as food, and usually will not pursue humans who run away. Moose are unpredictable. They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if approached too closely. A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in

6588-627: The Viking Age and medieval period, it formed an important raw material in the craft of comb-making. In later periods, antler—used as a cheap substitute for ivory —was a material especially associated with equipment for hunting , such as saddles and horse harness, guns and daggers, powder flasks , as well as buttons and the like. The decorative display of wall-mounted pairs of antlers has been popular since medieval times at least. The Netsilik , an Inuit group, made bows and arrows using antler, reinforced with strands of animal tendons braided to form

6710-808: The ability to reintroduce it to other portions of its range. Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful. At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the Biebrza river valley, Kampinos, and in Białowieża Forest . It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany. Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in Poland , Belarus , Ukraine , Czech Republic , and Slovakia , it appears to be having more success migrating south into

6832-660: The acquired publications. Outdoor Life was reduced from 9 issues a year to a quarterly publication in January 2018. On June 9, 2021, Outdoor Life announced ceasing print publication and moving to an entirely digital format. The magazine licensed their title to the Outdoor Life Network cable channel from its 1996 launch until 2006, when the network dramatically de-emphasized programs about fishing and hunting, and changed their name to Versus (which would eventually become NBCSN ). The Outdoor Life Network name

6954-423: The ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves. Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully-grown moose. Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual. In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in

7076-555: The antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by osteoclasts and the antlers fall off at some point. As a result of their fast growth rate, antlers are considered a handicap since there is an immense nutritional demand on deer to re-grow antlers annually, and thus can be honest signals of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability. In most Arctic and temperate-zone species, antler growth and shedding

7198-568: The antlers of a mature bull are between 1.2 and 1.5 m (3 ft 11 in and 4 ft 11 in). The largest confirmed size for this species was a bull shot at the Yukon River in September 1897 that weighed 820 kg (1,808 lb) and measured 2.33 m (7 ft 8 in) high at the shoulder. There have been reported cases of even larger moose, including a bull killed in 2004 that weighed 1,043 kg (2,299 lb), and

7320-615: The attention of large males, promotes male-male competition and violence, reduces harassment of cows by small males, and increases mating opportunities with large males. This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with. Moose often show aggression to other animals as well, especially predators. Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults. Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from both black and brown bears. Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to

7442-614: The complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater. As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose. Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow. Moose are not grazing animals but browsers (concentrate selectors). Like giraffes , moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients. Thus,

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7564-723: The cow begins estrus again (typically 18 months after the birth of a calf). At this point, the cow chases their calf away. Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become defensively aggressive, and move very quickly if angered or startled. Their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female. Alces alces is called a "moose" in North American English , but an "elk" in British English . The word "elk" in North American English refers to

7686-661: The differing life history strategies of the two sexes, where females are resource limited in their reproduction and cannot afford costly antlers, while male reproductive success depends on the size of their antlers because they are under directional sexual selection. In other species of deer, the presence of antlers in females indicates some degree of intersex condition, the frequency of which has been seen to vary from 1.5% to 0.02%. In moose , antlers may act as large hearing aids. Equipped with large, highly adjustable external ears, moose have highly sensitive hearing. Moose with antlers have more sensitive hearing than moose without, and

7808-471: The early Miocene, about 17 million years ago. These early antlers were small and had just two forks. As antlers evolved, they lengthened and gained many branches, or tines, becoming more complex. The homology of tines has been discussed since the 1900s and has provided great insight into the evolutionary history of the Cervidae family. Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers

7930-407: The elastic modulus for dry samples was 17.1 GPa, 7.5 GPa for wet samples, and 17.7 GPa for bovine femur. This difference in elastic modulus is due to the difference in function of a bovine femur versus an antler. Bovine femurs must withstand greater stresses, holding up the body of the animal, whereas an antler is used for sexual selection and competition. The principal means of evolution of antlers

8052-450: The females, and these are normally smaller than those of the males. Nevertheless, fertile does from other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels. The "horns" of a pronghorn (which is not a cervid but a antilocaprid ) meet some of the criteria of antlers, but are not considered true antlers because they contain keratin . Each antler grows from an attachment point on

8174-555: The food availability. In recent studies, increase in mineral content has been linked to the increase in stiffness with a decrease in fracture toughness. Further, bones are highly anisotropic due to their hierarchical structure. Thus, mechanical properties are highly dependent on testing conditions and directions. Due to their cylindrical shape, antlers can be tested using bending along three different orientations . Bend testing in these orientations have resulted in different mechanical properties. In samples from antler bone taken in

8296-458: The ground. Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of black flies . Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in. Moose have been known to dive over 5.5 metres (18 ft) to reach plants on lake bottoms, and

8418-489: The head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines , with some flattening. Most moose have antlers that are broad and palmate (flat) with tines (points) along the outer edge. Within the ecologic range of the moose in Europe, northern populations display the palmate pattern of antlers, while the antlers of European moose residing

8540-413: The lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected. A third possibility

8662-577: The large antlers produced there. This is due to the high levels of chalk in Yorkshire. The chalk is high in calcium which is ingested by the deer and helps growth in the antlers. Gathering shed antlers or "sheds" attracts dedicated practitioners who refer to it colloquially as shed hunting , or bone picking . In the United States, the middle of December to the middle of February is considered shed hunting season, when deer, elk , and moose begin to shed. The North American Shed Hunting Club, founded in 1991,

8784-408: The large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions. Orcas ( Orcinus orca ) are the moose's only confirmed marine predator as they have been known to prey on moose and other deer swimming between islands out of North America's Northwest Coast. However, such kills are rare and a matter of opportunity, as moose are not a regular part of the orca diet. There is at least one recorded instance of

8906-427: The largest antlers are more likely to obtain mates and achieve the highest fertilization success due to their competitiveness, dominance and high phenotypic quality. Whether this is a result of male-male fighting or display, or of female choosiness differs depending on the species as the shape, size, and function of antlers vary between species. There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in

9028-489: The last Ice Age, as Europe had a mix of temperate boreal and deciduous forest. Up through Classical times, the species was certainly thriving in both Gaul and Magna Germania , as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age. However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: soon after the reign of Charlemagne , the moose disappeared from France , where its range extended from Normandy in

9150-620: The letters page of every issue of the magazine. The pledge reads: “ I pledge to protect and conserve the natural resources of America. I promise to educate future generations so they may become caretakers of our water, air, land and wildlife. ” In 2004, the magazine released a computer game. The editorial content of the magazine has been critical of PETA and other animal rights groups, and anti-hunting groups. Moose The moose ( pl. : 'moose'; used in North America) or elk ( pl. : 'elk' or 'elks'; used in Eurasia ) ( Alces alces )

9272-569: The longitudinal and radial directions' values of 46.91-48.55 and 41.75-43.67 MPa. Tensile testing of antler bones has also been conducted to compare to bovine femur results. The antler samples were tested in dry and wet conditions as done in other studies. The wetness of a sample resulted in a difference in mean maximum strain : 1.46% and 2.2%, dry and wet respectively. Further, the ultimate tensile strength of wet, dry and bovine difference showed differences as well: 188 MPa, 108 MPa, and 99.2 MPa for dry, wet and bovine samples respectively. Similarly,

9394-428: The magazine. Outdoor Life' s editorial coverage followed its audience's interests in new developments, such as aviation , boating , and motor vehicles . However, it stayed true to its original focus: the outdoorsman . Over the years, many notable people have contributed to the magazine: former President Teddy Roosevelt contributed from 1901 to 1904; Zane Grey , a well-known adventure writer and big game fisherman,

9516-442: The males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers. Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful, in May or June. Twinning can run as high as 30% to 40% with good nutrition Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult. The young will stay with

9638-644: The mating season. Rutting and mating occurs in September and October. During the rut , mature bulls will cease feeding completely for a period of approximately two weeks; this fasting behavior has been attributed to neurophysiological changes related to redeployment of olfaction for detection of moose urine and moose cows. The males are polygynous and will seek several females to breed with . During this time both sexes will call to each other. Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) away, while females produce wail-like sounds. Males will fight for access to females. Initially,

9760-472: The mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within 160 kilometers (100 mi) of present-day Manhattan. However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained. Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources, abandonment of farmland, better land management, clean-up of pollution, and natural dispersal from

9882-435: The moose foot into soft ground or snow, and which increases efficiency when swimming. The body weight per footprint surface area of the moose foot is intermediate between that of the pronghorn foot, (which have stiff feet lacking dewclaws—optimized for high-speed running) and the caribou foot (which are more rounded with large dewclaws, optimized for walking in deep snow). The moose's body weight per surface area of footprint

10004-848: The moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest. Moose were successfully introduced on Newfoundland in 1878 and 1904, where they are now the dominant ungulate , and somewhat less successfully on Anticosti Island in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of temperate North America, although they remain stable in Arctic and subarctic regions. The exact causes of specific die-offs are not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and parasites from white-tailed deer to which moose have not developed

10126-587: The moose's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low-fiber diet. Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals ( ruminants ), moose cannot digest hay , and feeding it to a moose can be fatal. The moose's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free-range moose require a lot of forested hectarage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated. A full-grown moose has few enemies except Siberian tigers ( Panthera tigris tigris ) which regularly prey on adult moose, but

10248-455: The moose's range; this fragmentation has led to sightings of "urban moose" in some areas. The moose has been reintroduced to some of its former habitats. Currently, the greatest populations occur in Canada , where they can be found in all provinces (excepting Nunavut and Prince Edward Island ); additionally, substantial numbers of moose are found in Alaska , New England (with Maine having

10370-715: The most of the contiguous United States ), the State of New York , Fennoscandia , the Baltic states , the Caucasus region, Belarus , Poland , Eastern Europe , Mongolia , Kazakhstan , and Russia . In the United States (outside of Alaska and New England), most moose are found further to the north, west and northeast (including Colorado , Idaho , Michigan , Minnesota , Montana , North Dakota , Utah , Vermont , Wisconsin and Wyoming ), and individuals have been documented wandering as far south as western Oklahoma , northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico . Predominantly

10492-528: The mother until just before the next young are born. The life span of an average moose is about 15–25 years. Moose populations are stable at 25 calves for every 100 cows at 1 year of age. With availability of adequate nutrition, mild weather, and low predation, moose have a huge potential for population expansion. Moose are not typically aggressive towards humans, but will be aggressive when provoked or frightened. Moose attack more people than bears and wolves combined, but usually with only minor consequences. In

10614-411: The new growths from deciduous trees with a high sugar content, such as white birch, trembling aspen and striped maple , among many others. To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body. For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach branches up to 4.26 meters (14 ft 0 in) or higher above

10736-683: The north to the Pyrenees in the south. Farther east, it survived in Alsace and the Netherlands until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were cleared away for feudal lands in the former. It was gone from Switzerland by the year 1000, from the western Czech Republic by 1300, from Mecklenburg in Germany by c. 1600, and from Hungary and the Caucasus since

10858-464: The nutrients. If a bull moose is castrated , either by accidental or chemical means , he will shed his current set of antlers within two weeks and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again; similarly deformed antlers can result from a deficiency of testosterone caused by cryptorchidism or old age. These deformed antlers are composed of living bone which

10980-533: The order Artiodactyla ( even-toed ungulates ), moose feet have two large keratinized hooves corresponding to the third and fourth toe, with two small posterolateral dewclaws (vestigial digits), corresponding to the second and fifth toe. The hoof of the fourth digit is broader than that of the third digit, while the inner hoof of the third digit is longer than that of the fourth digit. This foot configuration may favor striding on soft ground. The moose hoof splays under load, increasing surface area, which limits sinking of

11102-450: The past but are now rebounding. These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens. Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism. In northern Europe, the moose botfly is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading. Moose typically carry a heavy burden of parasites, both externally and internally. Parasitosis

11224-640: The people of Canada and part of the ecosystems in which they are discarded. Antler has been used through history as a material to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and toys. It was an especially important material in the European Late Paleolithic , used by the Magdalenian culture to make carvings and engraved designs on objects such as the so-called Bâton de commandements and the Bison Licking Insect Bite . In

11346-777: The periodic casting and regrowth of antlers might have evolved as a way to ensure the availability of complete antler sets to display each year. Antler regeneration in male deer ensures that every mating season begins on a clean slate, as an increase in branching size and complexity happens each regeneration cycle in an individual. Bones typically serve a structural purpose, with load bearing abilities that are greater than any other part of an animals body. Bones typically differ in shape and properties to better fit their overall function. Antlers are not structural and typically have different properties when compared to structural bones like femurs. While antlers are classified as bone, they differ in some ways from human bones and bovine bones. Bone

11468-659: The population decline of moose. In North America , the moose range includes almost all of Canada (excluding the arctic and Vancouver Island ), most of Alaska , northern and eastern North Dakota , northern New England , the Adirondack Mountain region and Taconic highlands of northeast New York State, the upper Rocky Mountains , northern Minnesota , northern Wisconsin , Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , and Isle Royale in Lake Superior . This massive range, containing diverse habitats, contains four of

11590-605: The posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the common moose ( A. a. alces ) this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border. There is, however, a Scandinavian breed of the common moose in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals. The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose than in

11712-474: The record for the heaviest weight at 36 kilograms (79 lb). Antler beam diameter, not the number of tines, indicates age. In North America, moose ( A. a. americanus ) antlers are usually larger than those of Eurasian moose and have two lobes on each side, like a butterfly. Eurasian moose antlers resemble a seashell, with a single lobe on each side. In the North Siberian moose ( A. a. bedfordiae ),

11834-430: The red deer, and has a heritable component. Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance, meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no genetic correlation of antler growth. Alternatively,

11956-422: The risk of predation by wolves and avoid areas with deep snow, as this impairs mobility. Thus, moose select habitat on the basis of trade-offs between risk of predation, food availability, and snow depth. With reintroduction of bison into boreal forest, there was some concern that bison would compete with moose for winter habitat, and thereby worsen the population decline of moose. However, this does not appear to be

12078-501: The seasons to address these requirements. Moose are cold-adapted mammals with thickened skin, dense, heat-retaining coat, and a low surface:volume ratio, which provides excellent cold tolerance but poor heat tolerance. Moose survive hot weather by accessing shade or cooling wind, or by immersion in cool water. In hot weather, moose are often found wading or swimming in lakes or ponds. When heat-stressed, moose may fail to adequately forage in summer and may not gain adequate body fat to survive

12200-643: The six North American subspecies. In the West, moose populations extend across Canada ( British Columbia and Alberta ). Isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of Utah and Colorado and as far west as the Lake Wenatchee area of the Washington Cascades . In the northwestern US, the range includes Wyoming , Montana , Idaho , and smaller areas of Washington , and Oregon . Moose have extended their range southwards in

12322-472: The size of the antlers. Hunters have developed terms for antler parts: beam, palm, brow, bez or bay, trez or tray, royal, and surroyal. These are the main shaft, flattened center, first tine , second tine, third tine, fourth tine, and fifth or higher tines, respectively. The second branch is also called an advancer. In Yorkshire in the United Kingdom roe deer hunting is especially popular due to

12444-419: The skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off. Locals call them ghost moose. Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter. In Europe , moose are currently found in large numbers throughout Norway , Sweden , Finland , Latvia , Estonia , Poland , with more modest numbers in

12566-431: The skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing, it is covered with highly vascular skin called velvet , which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom, and grow faster than any other mammal bone. Growth occurs at the tip, and is initially cartilage , which is later replaced by bone tissue. Once

12688-400: The source of several myths and legends among many groups of Inuit as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America. In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers. This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance. The moose proboscis is distinctive among living cervids due to its large size; it also features nares that can be sealed shut when the moose

12810-409: The southerly portion of its range are typically of the cervina dendritic pattern and comparatively small, perhaps due to evolutionary pressures of hunting by humans, who prize the large palmate antlers. European moose with antlers intermediate between the palmate and the dendritic form are found in the middle of the north-south range. Moose with antlers have more acute hearing than those without antlers;

12932-521: The southern Czech Republic , Belarus , and northern Ukraine . They are also widespread through Russia on up through the borders with Finland south towards the border with Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine and stretching far away eastwards to the Yenisei River in Siberia . The European moose was native to most temperate areas with suitable habitat on the continent and even Scotland from the end of

13054-543: The southern extent of their range is increasing heat stress brought on by the rapid seasonal temperature upswings as a result of human-induced climate change . Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between 14 and 24 °C (57 and 75 °F). However, the minor average temperature increase of 0.83–1.11 °C (1.5–2 °F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within

13176-657: The southern range of moose habitat in North America. The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200 from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005. Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont. Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to

13298-543: The species in Continental Europe ; however, without any living animals around to serve as a reference, the meaning became rather vague, and by the 17th century "elk" had a meaning similar to "large deer". Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described "elk" as a deer that was "as large as a horse". The word "moose" had first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages (compare

13420-553: The state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850–950. Moose reestablished populations in eastern New York and Connecticut and appeared headed south towards the Catskill Mountains , a former habitat. In the Midwest U.S., moose are primarily limited to the upper Great Lakes region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa. For unknown reasons,

13542-601: The subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of Pennsylvania in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the Hudson River in the south. The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in

13664-429: The transverse direction, an elastic modulus of 8.92-10.02 GPa was reported. For the longitudinal and radial orientations, the elastic modulus was 7.19-8.23 and 4.01-4.27 GPa respectively. The transverse direction was overall found to be the stronger orientation with higher mechanical properties. The ultimate tensile strength of 262.96-274.38 MPa in the transverse direction was statistically significant when compared to

13786-418: The typical Scandinavian moose. After the mating season males drop their antlers to conserve energy for the winter. A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring. Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs. Antler growth is "nourished by an extensive system of blood vessels in the skin covering, which contains numerous hair follicles that give it

13908-527: The vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passersby. Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs. Unlike other large, hoofed mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions, including sideways. Thus, there is no safe side from which to approach. Moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying aggression by means of body language. Maintained eye contact

14030-562: The western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in Yellowstone National Park in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the Uinta Mountains in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century. This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States. In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 2,400. In northeastern North America,

14152-410: The winter. Also, moose cows may not calve without adequate summer weight gain. Moose require access to both young forest for browsing and mature forest for shelter and cover. Forest disturbed by fire and logging promotes the growth of fodder for moose. Moose also require access to mineral licks, safe places for calving and aquatic feeding sites. Moose avoid areas with little or no snow as this increases

14274-460: The wolves. Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves. In one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves. A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal. European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of

14396-566: Was Rowland Ward Ltd., a London taxidermy firm, in the early 20th century. For a time only total length or spread was recorded. In the middle of the century, the Boone and Crockett Club and the Safari Club International developed complex scoring systems based on various dimensions and the number of tines or points, and they keep extensive records of high-scoring antlers. Deer bred for hunting on farms are selected based on

14518-454: Was a frequent contributor between 1918 and 1932; and Ernest Hemingway was accompanied by an Outdoor Life writer on a marlin fishing trip to Cuba in 1935. Other famous contributors include Amelia Earhart , Clark Gable , and Babe Ruth . In 1934, Outdoor Life moved from its original location in Denver to New York City , where it remains today. For many years, Outdoor Life was owned by

14640-462: Was developed. It is by using antler grooves, which are formed on the surface of antlers by growth, projecting the branching structure on the burr circumference, and making diagrams. Comparing the positional order among species on the diagram, the tine on the same position is homologous. The study revealed that three-pointed structures of Capreolinae and Cervini are homoplasious, and their subclades gained synapomorphous tines. Discarded antlers represent

14762-534: Was retained on the Canadian version of the channel. The Outdoor Life Conservation Award was first given in 1923 to those who “ accomplish the greatest good for the sportsmen’s cause in the United States, ” said founder J.A. McGuire; Jimmy Carter is the most famous recipient. There is also an Outdoor Life Conservation Pledge . Established in 1946 and then revised in 1993, it has been taken by thousands of people including Harry Truman and Al Gore , and it runs on

14884-414: Was taken to indicate that antler formation is more similar to a highly controlled form of cancer growth than to normal bone development. Antlers function as both weapons in male-male competition and as displays of sexual ornaments for females. Because mature antlers are no longer living during combat, antler fractures are incapable of being repaired following competition. A study in 2019 hypothesized that

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