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67-753: The Ovens River , a perennial river of the north-east Murray catchment, part of the Murray-Darling basin , is located in the Alpine and Hume regions of the Australian state of Victoria . Formed by the confluence of the East and West Branches of the river, the Ovens River rises in the Victorian Alps , at the settlement of Harrietville , sourced by runoff from high slopes located within

134-403: A bed armor layer, and other depositional features, plus well defined banks due to bank erosion, are good identifiers when assessing for perennial streams. Particle size will help identify a perennial stream. Perennial streams cut through the soil profile, which removes fine and small particles. By assessing areas for relatively coarse material left behind in the stream bed and finer sediments along

201-658: A continuous aquatic habitat until they reach maturity. Crayfish and other crustaceans , snails , bivalves (clams), and aquatic worms also indicate the stream is perennial. These require a persistent aquatic environment for survival. Fish and amphibians are secondary indicators in assessment of a perennial stream because some fish and amphibians can inhabit areas without persistent water regime. When assessing for fish, all available habitat should be assessed: pools, riffles, root clumps and other obstructions. Fish will seek cover if alerted to human presence, but should be easily observed in perennial streams. Amphibians also indicate

268-470: A continuous or intermittent stream. The same non-perennial channel might change characteristics from intermittent to ephemeral over its course. Washes can fill up quickly during rains, and there may be a sudden torrent of water after a thunderstorm begins upstream, such as during monsoonal conditions. In the United States, an intermittent or seasonal stream is one that only flows for part of

335-615: A creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep . It is usually small and easily forded . A brook is characterised by its shallowness. A creek ( / k r iː k / ) or crick ( / k r ɪ k / ): In hydrography, gut is a small creek; this is seen in proper names in eastern North America from the Mid-Atlantic states (for instance, The Gut in Pennsylvania, Ash Gut in Delaware, and other streams) down into

402-422: A drainage network. Although each tributary has its own source, international practice is to take the source farthest from the river mouth as the source of the entire river system, from which the most extended length of the river measured as the starting point is taken as the length of the whole river system, and that furthest starting point is conventionally taken as the source of the whole river system. For example,

469-530: A field such that field capacity of the soil is not exceeded, then negligible water percolates to groundwater . If instead water puddles in low-lying areas, the same water volume concentrated over a smaller area may exceed field capacity resulting in water that percolates down to recharge groundwater. The larger the relative contributing runoff area is, the more focused infiltration is. The recurring process of water that falls relatively uniformly over an area, flowing to groundwater selectively under surface depressions

536-540: A larger stream. Common terms for individual river distributaries in English-speaking countries are arm and channel . There are a number of regional names for a stream. A stream's source depends on the surrounding landscape and its function within larger river networks. While perennial and intermittent streams are typically supplied by smaller upstream waters and groundwater, headwater and ephemeral streams often derive most of their water from precipitation in

603-404: A path into mines or other underground chambers. According to official U.S. definitions, the channels of intermittent streams are well-defined, as opposed to ephemeral streams, which may or may not have a defined channel, and rely mainly on storm runoff, as their aquatic bed is above the water table . An ephemeral stream does not have the biological, hydrological, and physical characteristics of

670-412: A perennial stream and include tadpoles , frogs , salamanders , and newts . These amphibians can be found in stream channels, along stream banks, and even under rocks. Frogs and tadpoles usually inhabit shallow and slow moving waters near the sides of stream banks. Frogs will typically jump into water when alerted to human presence. Well defined river beds composed of riffles, pools, runs, gravel bars,

737-483: A perennial stream, fine sediment may cling to riparian plant stems and tree trunks. Organic debris drift lines or piles may be found within the active overbank area after recent high flow. Streams, headwaters, and streams flowing only part of the year provide many benefits upstream and downstream. They defend against floods, remove contaminants, recycle nutrients that are potentially dangerous as well as provide food and habitat for many forms of fish. Such streams also play

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804-406: A slow-moving wetted channel or stagnant area. This is evidence that iron-oxidizing bacteria are present, indicating persistent expression of oxygen-depleted ground water. In a forested area, leaf and needle litter in the stream channel is an additional indicator. Accumulation of leaf litter does not occur in perennial streams since such material is continuously flushed. In the adjacent overbank of

871-486: A stream as intermittent, "showing interruptions in time or space". Generally, streams that flow only during and immediately after precipitation are termed ephemeral . There is no clear demarcation between surface runoff and an ephemeral stream, and some ephemeral streams can be classed as intermittent—flow all but disappearing in the normal course of seasons but ample flow (backups) restoring stream presence — such circumstances are documented when stream beds have opened up

938-424: A stream is a critical factor in determining its character and is entirely determined by its base level of erosion. The base level of erosion is the point at which the stream either enters the ocean, a lake or pond, or enters a stretch in which it has a much lower gradient, and may be specifically applied to any particular stretch of a stream. In geological terms, the stream will erode down through its bed to achieve

1005-524: A thin layer called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, which together form the sheet runoff; when this water is focused in a channel, a stream is born. Some rivers and streams may begin from lakes or ponds. Freshwater's primary sources are precipitation and mountain snowmelt. However, rivers typically originate in the highlands, and are slowly created by the erosion of mountain snowmelt into lakes or rivers. Rivers usually flow from their source topographically, and erode as they pass until they reach

1072-627: A vital role in preserving our drinking water quality and supply, ensuring a steady flow of water to surface waters and helping to restore deep aquifers. The extent of land basin drained by a stream is termed its drainage basin (also known in North America as the watershed and, in British English, as a catchment). A basin may also be composed of smaller basins. For instance, the Continental Divide in North America divides

1139-587: A wide, shallow well, often lined with concrete) in 100 districts within seven states where water stored in hard-rock aquifers had been over-exploited. Another environmental issue is the disposal of waste through the water flux such as dairy farms, industrial, and urban runoff. Pollution in stormwater run-off collects in retention basins . Concentrating degradable contaminants can accelerate biodegradation . However, where and when water tables are high this affects appropriate design of detention ponds , retention ponds and rain gardens . If water falls uniformly over

1206-455: Is depression focused recharge . Water tables rise under such depressions. Depression focused groundwater recharge can be very important in arid regions . More rain events are capable of contributing to groundwater supply. Depression focused groundwater recharge also profoundly effects contaminant transport into groundwater. This is of great concern in regions with karst geological formations because water can eventually dissolve tunnels all

1273-435: Is a stream that branches off and flows away from a main stream channel, and the phenomenon is known as river bifurcation . Distributaries are common features of river deltas , and are often found where a valleyed stream enters wide flatlands or approaches the coastal plains around a lake or an ocean . They can also occur inland, on alluvial fans , or where a tributary stream bifurcates as it nears its confluence with

1340-478: Is available online. The codes generally use climate and soil data to arrive at a recharge estimate and use the Richards equation in some form to model groundwater flow in the vadose zone . The impacts of climate change on groundwater may be greatest through its indirect effects on irrigation water demand via increased evapotranspiration . There is an observed declined in groundwater storage in many parts of

1407-403: Is because scientific data derived from groundwater monitoring is still missing, such as changes in space and time, abstraction data and "numerical representations of groundwater recharge processes". Further implications of groundwater recharge are a consequence of urbanization . Research shows that the recharge rate can be up to ten times higher in urban areas compared to rural regions . This

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1474-603: Is becoming increasingly important in India, where over-pumping of groundwater by farmers has led to underground resources becoming depleted. In 2007, on the recommendations of the International Water Management Institute , the Indian government allocated ₹ 1,800 crore (equivalent to ₹ 54 billion or US$ 650 million in 2023) to fund dug-well recharge projects (a dug-well is

1541-540: Is explained through the vast water supply and sewage networks supported in urban regions in which rural areas are not likely to obtain. Recharge in rural areas is heavily supported by precipitation, and this is the opposite for urban areas. Road networks and infrastructure within cities prevent surface water from percolating into the soil, resulting in most surface runoff entering storm drains for local water supply. As urban development continues to spread across various regions, groundwater recharge rates will increase relative to

1608-632: Is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone. Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle ) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and/or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface. The most common methods to estimate recharge rates are: chloride mass balance (CMB); soil physics methods; environmental and isotopic tracers; groundwater-level fluctuation methods; water balance (WB) methods (including groundwater models (GMs)); and

1675-414: Is recharged naturally by rain and snow melt and to a smaller extent by surface water (rivers and lakes). Recharge may be impeded somewhat by human activities including paving, development, or logging . These activities can result in loss of topsoil resulting in reduced water infiltration, enhanced surface runoff and reduction in recharge. Use of groundwater, especially for irrigation , may also lower

1742-425: Is sometimes termed a "young" or "immature" stream, and the later state a "mature" or "old" stream. Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream caused by the erosion and deposition of bank materials. These are typically serpentine in form. Typically, over time the meanders gradually migrate downstream. If some resistant material slows or stops the downstream movement of a meander, a stream may erode through

1809-456: Is usually called a creek and marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. There are five generic classifications: "Macroinvertebrate" refers to easily seen invertebrates , larger than 0.5 mm, found in stream and river bottoms. Macroinvertebrates are larval stages of most aquatic insects and their presence is a good indicator that the stream is perennial. Larvae of caddisflies , mayflies , stoneflies , and damselflies require

1876-749: The Alpine National Park and the Mount Buffalo National Park . The river flows generally north by west and is joined by eighteen tributaries including Morses Creek at Bright , the Buckland River at Porepunkah , the Buffalo River and then the King River at Wangaratta . The river descends 405 metres (1,329 ft) over its 191-kilometre (119 mi) course . The Great Alpine Road follows much of

1943-636: The Murray to the Mountains Rail Trail , a cycle trail which stretches from Wangaratta and Beechworth to Bright . There are several wineries in the area, and many hops farms. The wineries are a popular stop for cyclists on their touring rides. Tobacco was a major industry in the valley until 2006; that year saw the British American Tobacco and Philip Morris companies decide to no longer buy Australian tobacco, and

2010-691: The Tombigbee River basin. Continuing in this vein, a component of the Mississippi River basin is the Ohio River basin, which in turn includes the Kentucky River basin, and so forth. Stream crossings are where streams are crossed by roads , pipelines , railways , or any other thing which might restrict the flow of the stream in ordinary or flood conditions. Any structure over or in a stream which results in limitations on

2077-480: The velocity of the stream. A perennial stream is one which flows continuously all year. Some perennial streams may only have continuous flow in segments of its stream bed year round during years of normal rainfall. Blue-line streams are perennial streams and are marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. The word "perennial" from the 1640s, meaning "evergreen," is established in Latin perennis, keeping

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2144-422: The water cycle which in turn affect groundwater in several ways: There can be a decline in groundwater storage, and reduction in groundwater recharge and water quality deterioration due to extreme weather events. In the tropics intense precipitation and flooding events appear to lead to more groundwater recharge. However, the exact impacts of climate change on groundwater are still under investigation. This

2211-595: The Aboriginal Waywurru language , the river has two names: Burwang , with no clearly defined meaning; and Djerrang , meaning "leaf". [REDACTED] Media related to Ovens River at Wikimedia Commons Perennial river The flow of a stream is controlled by three inputs – surface runoff (from precipitation or meltwater ), daylighted subterranean water , and surfaced groundwater ( spring water ). The surface and subterranean water are highly variable between periods of rainfall. Groundwater, on

2278-704: The Caribbean (for instance, Guinea Gut , Fish Bay Gut , Cob Gut , Battery Gut and other rivers and streams in the United States Virgin Islands , in Jamaica (Sandy Gut, Bens Gut River, White Gut River), and in many streams and creeks of the Dutch Caribbean ). A river is a large natural stream that is much wider and deeper than a creek and not easily fordable, and may be a navigable waterway . The linear channel between

2345-613: The Federal Government began implementing a plan to transition growers out of this industry. Reminders of the valley's long and prosperous tobacco history continue to dot the valley, such as the many tobacco kilns. Hamilton Hume and William Hovell explored the area in 1824, naming the Ovens River in honour of Major John Ovens , the Secretary to Thomas Brisbane , the Colonial Governor of New South Wales . In

2412-533: The atmosphere either by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by plant evapotranspiration. By infiltration some of the water sinks into the earth and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Most precipitated water is partially bottled up by evaporation or freezing in snow fields and glaciers. The majority of the water flows as a runoff from the ground; the proportion of this varies depending on several factors, such as climate, temperature, vegetation, types of rock, and relief. This runoff begins as

2479-410: The balance. There are no widely applicable method available that can directly and accurately quantify the volume of rainwater that reaches the water table. The most common methods to estimate recharge rates are: chloride mass balance (CMB); soil physics methods; environmental and isotopic tracers; groundwater-level fluctuation methods; water balance (WB) methods (including groundwater models (GMs)); and

2546-525: The base level of erosion throughout its course. If this base level is low, then the stream will rapidly cut through underlying strata and have a steep gradient, and if the base level is relatively high, then the stream will form a flood plain and meander. Typically, streams are said to have a particular elevation profile , beginning with steep gradients, no flood plain, and little shifting of channels, eventually evolving into streams with low gradients, wide flood plains, and extensive meanders. The initial stage

2613-597: The base stage of erosion. The scientists have offered a way based on data to define the origin of the lake. A classified sample was the one measured by the Chinese researchers from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. As an essential symbol of the river formation environment, the river source needs an objective and straightforward and effective method of judging . A calculation model of river source catchment area based on critical support flow (CSD) proposed, and

2680-648: The course of the river in its upper reaches. The river flows through the Ovens Valley, which is a popular tourist destination servicing the ski fields of Mount Hotham , Mount Buffalo and Falls Creek , the Alpine National Park and the Mount Buffalo National Park. Air sports such as gliding and paragliding are also practised here, and there is a hedge maze at Wandiligong . A disused railway line has been converted to

2747-448: The estimation of baseflow (BF) to rivers. Groundwater recharge can occur through diffuse or focused mechanisms. Diffuse recharge occurs when precipitation infiltrates through the soil to the water table, and is by definition distributed over large areas. Focused recharge occurs where water leaks from surface water sources (rivers, lakes, wadis, wetlands) or land surface depressions, and generally becomes more dominant with aridity. Water

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2814-514: The estimation of baseflow (BF) to rivers. Regional, continental and global estimates of recharge commonly derive from global hydrological models . Physical methods use the principles of soil physics to estimate recharge. The direct physical methods are those that attempt to actually measure the volume of water passing below the root zone. Indirect physical methods rely on the measurement or estimation of soil physical parameters, which along with soil physical principles, can be used to estimate

2881-475: The existing rates of the previous rural region. A consequence of sudden influxes in groundwater recharge includes flash flooding . The ecosystem will have to adjust to the elevated groundwater surplus due to groundwater recharge rates. Additionally, road networks are less permeable compared to soil, resulting in higher amounts of surface runoff. Therefore, urbanization increases the rate of groundwater recharge and reduces infiltration, resulting in flash floods as

2948-707: The flow is reduced to a trickle or less. Typically torrents have Apennine rather than Alpine sources, and in the summer they are fed by little precipitation and no melting snow. In this case the maximum discharge will be during the spring and autumn. An intermittent stream can also be called a winterbourne in Britain, a wadi in the Arabic -speaking world or torrente or rambla (this last one from arabic origin) in Spain and Latin America. In Australia, an intermittent stream

3015-447: The form of rain and snow. Most of this precipitated water re-enters the atmosphere by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by the evapotranspiration of plants. Some of the water proceeds to sink into the earth by infiltration and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Some precipitated water is temporarily locked up in snow fields and glaciers , to be released later by evaporation or melting. The rest of

3082-540: The ground faster. Faster flow dislodges contaminants otherwise adsorbed on soil and carries them along. This can carry pollution directly to the raised water table below and into the groundwater supply. Thus, the quality of water collecting in infiltration basins is of special concern. Rates of groundwater recharge are difficult to quantify. This is because other related processes, such as evaporation , transpiration (or evapotranspiration ) and infiltration processes must first be measured or estimated to determine

3149-407: The immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone . Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction , streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity . The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography . A brook is a stream smaller than

3216-532: The lake has significant feeder rivers. The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria near Bukoba's Tanzanian town , is the longest feeder, though sources do not agree on which is the Kagera's longest tributary and therefore the Nile's most remote source itself. To qualify as a stream, a body of water must be either recurring or perennial. Recurring (intermittent) streams have water in the channel for at least part of

3283-484: The level of the water table he hydraulic head. This provides force for groundwater recharge and discharge to other waters as well. The extent of groundwater recharge by a wetland is dependent upon soil , vegetation , site, perimeter to volume ratio, and water table gradient. Groundwater recharge occurs through mineral soils found primarily aro. The soil under most wetlands is relatively impermeable. A high perimeter to volume ratio, such as in small wetlands, means that

3350-683: The mainly easterly-draining Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean basins from the largely westerly-flowing Pacific Ocean basin. The Atlantic Ocean basin, however, may be further subdivided into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico drainages. (This delineation is termed the Eastern Continental Divide .) Similarly, the Gulf of Mexico basin may be divided into the Mississippi River basin and several smaller basins, such as

3417-412: The meaning as "everlasting all year round," per "over" plus annus "year." This has been proved since the 1670s by the "living years" in the sense of botany. The metaphorical sense of "enduring, eternal" originates from 1750. They are related to "perennial." See biennial for shifts in vowels. Perennial streams have one or more of these characteristics: Absence of such characteristics supports classifying

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3484-402: The movement of fish or other ecological elements may be an issue. Groundwater recharge Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater . Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer . This process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots and

3551-453: The neck between two legs of a meander to become temporarily straighter, leaving behind an arc-shaped body of water termed an oxbow lake or bayou . A flood may also cause a meander to be cut through in this way. The stream load is defined as the solid matter carried by a stream. Streams can carry sediment, or alluvium. The amount of load it can carry (capacity) as well as the largest object it can carry (competence) are both dependent on

3618-596: The origin of the Nile River is the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, but the source of the whole river system is in its upper reaches. If there is no specific designation, "length of the Nile" refers to the "river length of the Nile system", rather than to the length of the Nile river from the point where it is formed by a confluence of tributaries. The Nile's source is often cited as Lake Victoria, but

3685-430: The other hand, has a relatively constant input and is controlled more by long-term patterns of precipitation. The stream encompasses surface, subsurface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls. Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle , instruments in groundwater recharge , and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in

3752-415: The parallel ridges or bars on a shoreline beach or river floodplain, or between a bar and the shore. Also called a swale . A tributary is a contributory stream to a larger stream, or a stream which does not reach a static body of water such as a lake , bay or ocean but joins another river (a parent river). Sometimes also called a branch or fork. A distributary , or a distributary channel ,

3819-681: The potential or actual recharge. After months without rain the level of the rivers under humid climate is low and represents solely drained groundwater. Thus, the recharge can be calculated from this base flow if the catchment area is already known. Chemical methods use the presence of relatively inert water-soluble substances, such as an isotopic tracer or chloride , moving through the soil, as deep drainage occurs. Recharge can be estimated using numerical methods , using such codes as Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance , UNSAT-H, SHAW (short form of Simultaneous Heat and Water Transfer model), WEAP , and MIKE SHE . The 1D-program HYDRUS1D

3886-469: The relationship between CSA and CSD with a minimum catchment area established. Using the model for comparison in two basins in Tibet (Helongqu and Niyang River White Water), the results show that the critical support flow (Qc) of the housing dragon song is 0.0028 m /s. At the same time, the white water curvature is 0.0085 m /s. Besides, the critical support flow can vary with hydrologic climate conditions, and

3953-425: The side of the stream or within the floodplain will be a good indicator of persistent water regime. A perennial stream can be identified 48 hours after a storm. Direct storm runoff usually has ceased at this point. If a stream is still flowing and contributing inflow is not observed above the channel, the observed water is likely baseflow. Another perennial stream indication is an abundance of red rust material in

4020-629: The surface area through which water can infiltrate into the groundwater typical in small wetlands such as prairie potholes , which can contribute significantly to recharge of regional groundwater resources. Researchers have discovered groundwater recharge of up to 20% of wetland volume per season. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) strategies to augment freshwater availability include streambed channel. A facility in Orange County, California cleans and injects 100 million gallons per day; or 90 billion gallons per year. Artificial groundwater recharge

4087-655: The vital support flow Qc in wet areas (white water) is larger than in semi-arid regions (heap slot). The proposed critical support flow (CSD) concept and model method can be used to determine the hydrographic indicators of river sources in complex geographical areas, and it can also reflect the impact of hydrologic climate change on river recharge in different regions. The source of a river or stream (its point of origin) can consist of lakes, swamps, springs, or glaciers. A typical river has several tributaries; each of these may be made up of several other smaller tributaries, so that together this stream and all its tributaries are called

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4154-512: The water flows off the land as runoff, the proportion of which varies according to many factors, such as wind, humidity, vegetation, rock types, and relief. This runoff starts as a thin film called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, together constituting sheet runoff; when this water is concentrated in a channel, a stream has its birth. Some creeks may start from ponds or lakes. The streams typically derive most of their water from rain and snow precipitation. Most of this water re-enters

4221-630: The water tables. Groundwater recharge is an important process for sustainable groundwater management, since the volume-rate abstracted from an aquifer in the long term should be less than or equal to the volume-rate that is recharged. Recharge can help move excess salts that accumulate in the root zone to deeper soil layers, or into the groundwater system. Tree roots increase water saturation into groundwater reducing water runoff . Flooding temporarily increases river bed Permeability (earth scieeability) by moving clay soils downstream, and this increases aquifer recharge. Wetlands help maintain

4288-452: The way to aquifers , or otherwise disconnected streams. This extreme form of preferential flow, accelerates the transport of contaminants and the erosion of such tunnels . In this way depressions intended to trap runoff water—before it flows to vulnerable water resources—can connect underground over time. Cavitation of surfaces above into the tunnels, results in potholes or caves. Deeper ponding exerts pressure that forces water into

4355-446: The world. This is due to more groundwater being used for irrigation activities in agriculture, particularly in drylands . Some of this increase in irrigation can be due to water scarcity issues made worse by effects of climate change on the water cycle . Direct redistribution of water by human activities amounting to ~24,000 km per year is about double the global groundwater recharge each year. Climate change causes changes to

4422-521: The year and is marked on topographic maps with a line of blue dashes and dots. A wash , desert wash, or arroyo is normally a dry streambed in the deserts of the American Southwest , which flows after sufficient rainfall. In Italy, an intermittent stream is termed a torrent ( Italian : torrente ). In full flood the stream may or may not be "torrential" in the dramatic sense of the word, but there will be one or more seasons in which

4489-402: The year. A stream of the first order is a stream which does not have any other recurring or perennial stream feeding into it. When two first-order streams come together, they form a second-order stream. When two second-order streams come together, they form a third-order stream. Streams of lower order joining a higher order stream do not change the order of the higher stream. The gradient of

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