Lower Level is a 1991 American erotic thriller film directed by Kristine Peterson , and written by Hillary Black, W.K. Border, Michael Leahy, and Joel Soisson .
111-413: The film features a female architect with an unfulfilling love life, who records her fantasies in journals. She has unwittingly attracted a stalker , who has already read her private journals. The stalker tries to both capture the architect and to kill the architect's yuppie boyfriend. Frustrated by Craig, her inattentive yuppie boyfriend, architect Hillary White dreams of being swept off of her feet by
222-569: A preamble that is in part taken from the earlier Canadian Statement on justice for victims of crime in 1988 and 2003. The preamble in the CVBR contains the sentence which says “Whereas victims of crime and their families deserve to be treated with courtesy, compassion and respect, including respect for their dignity ” which resembles the first principle of the Canadian Statement . The four main types of victims’ rights that are listed in
333-507: A white knight , fantasies which she writes about in the journals that she keeps hidden in her office at Figueroa Plaza. While leaving work one night, Hillary and a visiting Craig become stuck in the parking garage due to the machinations of Sam, a security guard who is obsessed with Hillary, to the extent that he murders a businesswoman who had obliviously threatened his plans for her. After covertly causing Craig to fall down an elevator shaft, something which goes unnoticed by Hillary, Sam restarts
444-557: A complaint for a hate crime, the current law requires the payment of a fee, dissuading victims from reporting offences. This deficiency is exacerbated by the lack of protection for undocumented migrants experiencing hate crime. Greece has also been condemned by the European Court of Human Rights 11 times for the misuse of weapons by police and the subsequent absence of effective investigations, with migrants or members of minority groups being victims in ten of these incidents. Greece
555-508: A high score of sexual abuse as children and narcissistic vulnerability. Men were more likely to become stalkers. Out of the women who participated in their study, 9% were cyberstalkers meanwhile only 4% were overt stalkers. In addition, the male participants revealed the opposite, 16% were overt stalkers while 11% were cyberstalkers. Alcohol and physical abuse both played a role in predicting women's cyberstalking and in men, " preoccupied attachment significantly predicted cyber stalking" while
666-575: A legislative level, the Criminal Procedure Act (2008) increased the rights of victims and recognised victims as a separate entity in court in addition to their role as a witness and injured party. These rights include the right to psychological support and to compensation. The Crime Victims Compensation Act (2008) allowed Croatian citizens to receive compensation if they experienced serious personal injury. In 2015, Croatia's parliament adopted laws awarding victims of rape committed during
777-408: A lifetime prevalence of 11% (women: 17%, men: 3%). Further results include: 86% of stalking victims were female, 81% of the stalkers were male. Women were mainly stalked by men (88%) while men were almost equally stalked by men and women (60% male stalkers). 19% of the stalking victims reported that they were still being stalked at the time of study participation ( point prevalence rate: 2%). To 70% of
888-555: A lifetime prevalence of 12% in England and Wales (16% female, 7% males). In 2010/11, 57% of stalking victims were found to be female, and 43% were male. According to a paper by staff from the Fixated Threat Assessment Centre , a unit established to deal with people with fixations on public figures, 86% of a sample group of 100 people assessed by them appeared to them to have a psychotic illness ; 57% of
999-628: A member of the Stalking Case Assessment Team (SCAT), special unit within the San Diego District Attorney's Office, hundreds of cases involving what he called and typed "terrestrial" and " cyberstalking " between 1995 and 2002. This research culminated in one of the most comprehensive books written to date on the subject. Published by CRC Press, Inc. in August 2001, it is considered the "gold standard" as
1110-529: A mistaken belief that another person loves them ( erotomania ), or that they need rescuing. Stalking can consist of an accumulation of a series of actions which, by themselves, can be legal, such as calling on the phone, sending gifts, or sending emails. Stalkers may use overt and covert intimidation, threats and violence to frighten their victims. They may engage in vandalism and property damage or make physical attacks that are meant to frighten. Less common are sexual assaults . Intimate-partner stalkers are
1221-466: A more traditional conjunctive dating relationship. Based on work with stalking victims for eight years in Australia, Mullen and Pathé identified different types of stalking victims, characterized by prior relationship with the stalker. These are: Although stalking is a gender-neutral behavior, studies confirm that the majority of victims are female and that the primary perpetrators are male. As for
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#17327918356191332-421: A personal relationship with their victims but rather force them to emit a certain response. While the vengeance stalker's motive is "to get even" with the other person whom he/she perceives has done some wrong to them (e.g., an employee who believes is fired without justification from a job by a superior), the political stalker intends to accomplish a political agenda, also using threats and intimidation to force
1443-399: A reference to stalking crimes, victim protection, safety planning, security and threat assessment. The 2002 National Victim Association Academy defines an additional form of stalking: The vengeance/terrorist stalker . Both the vengeance stalker and terrorist stalker (the latter sometimes called the political stalker) do not, in contrast with some of the aforementioned types of stalkers, seek
1554-544: A regional prosecutor, whose decision may be further appealed to the director of public prosecutions. In Estonia, only 43% of victims of serious crimes made a police report, with only 17% of complainants saying they were satisfied with the treatment by the police. In 2002, the NGO Estonian Crime Victim Support Society released a document that led a debate about legislation dealing with victim support issues. This ultimately cumulated in
1665-582: A report from the review was completed at the end of that year. The Government of Canada provided their response in 2023 where they acknowledged some of the recommendations that were made. The Office of the Federal Ombudsperson for Victims of Crime provided an official detailed response to the report from the review in 2024. Criminal law is decided at the federal level in Canada and is administered primarily provincially. The Criminal Code and
1776-472: A representative survey in Mannheim , a middle-sized German city, and reported a lifetime prevalence of having been stalked of almost 12%. In India, a stalking case is reported every 55 minutes. Most cases are not reported as they are not considered criminal enough. Tjaden and Thoennes reported a lifetime prevalence (being stalked) of 8% in females and 2% in males (depending on how strict the definition) in
1887-421: A text is not usually illegal, but is illegal when frequently repeated to an unwilling recipient). In fact, United Kingdom law states the incident only has to happen twice when the harasser should be aware their behavior is unacceptable (e.g., two phone calls to a stranger, two gifts, following the victim then phoning them, etc.). Cultural norms and meaning affect the way stalking is defined. Scholars note that
1998-629: A variety of personality disorders (such as antisocial , borderline , or narcissistic ). The nonpsychotic stalkers' pursuit of victims is primarily angry, vindictive, focused, often including projection of blame , obsession , dependency , minimization , denial , and jealousy . Conversely, only 10% of stalkers had an erotomanic delusional disorder. In "A Study of Stalkers" Mullen et al. (2000) identified five types of stalkers: In addition to Mullen et al., Joseph A. Davis, Ph.D., an American researcher, crime analyst, and university psychology professor at San Diego State University investigated, as
2109-452: A variety of behaviour such as domestic and inter-neighbour disputes. It is rarely used for stalking as portrayed by the media since only a small minority of cases in the survey involved such behaviour." Disruptions in daily life necessary to escape the stalker, including changes in employment , residence and phone numbers, take a toll on the victim's well-being and may lead to a sense of isolation. According to Lamber Royakkers: Stalking
2220-697: A victim is a minor, disabled, or deceased, some states permit family members to exercise rights on behalf of the victim. Common state law protections include the rights to: Many prosecuting attorneys' offices have a victim's rights officer or multiple employees who assist victims of crime during and after a prosecution. In 2008, Human Rights Watch published a report comparing United States victims' rights laws to international human rights standards, which found that "while U.S. Jurisdictions, both federal and state, have made significant progress in recent decades, much more can be done to ensure that victims' rights and legitimate interests are upheld." The report states that
2331-401: A victims' rights amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In the decades that followed, proponents of victims' rights experienced substantial legislative success . Today, the victims' rights movement continues to increase access to procedural mechanisms for victims to enforce their rights and promote legislation that guarantees those substantive rights. Modern victims' rights organizations include
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#17327918356192442-403: Is a series of actions that occur over a period of time. Although stalking is illegal in most areas of the world, some of the actions that contribute to stalking may be legal, such as gathering information, calling someone on the phone, texting, sending gifts, emailing, or instant messaging . They become illegal when they breach the legal definition of harassment (e.g., an action such as sending
2553-411: Is a form of mental assault, in which the perpetrator repeatedly, unwantedly, and disruptively breaks into the life-world of the victim, with whom they have no relationship (or no longer have). Moreover, the separated acts that make up the intrusion cannot by themselves cause the mental abuse, but do taken together (cumulative effect). Stalking has also been described as a form of close relationship between
2664-491: Is a spectrum of what might be called "obsessed following behavior." People who complain obsessively and for years, about a perceived wrong or wrong-doer, when no one else can perceive the injury—and people who cannot or will not "let go" of a person or a place or an idea—comprise a wider group of persons that may be problematic in ways that seem similar to stalking. Some of these people get extruded from their organizations—they may get hospitalized or fired or let go if their behavior
2775-500: Is also given to dependents of homicide victims. Compensation awarded for medical expenses and loss of income is additionally unlimited. Danish police are required by law to accept any criminal report irrespective of the language used. Other support services for victims of crime within Denmark include discretionary free legal aid for violent crimes and automatic free legal aid for victims of sexual assault. In addition, every victim has
2886-554: Is defined in terms of illegal stalking, but many others do good or even excellent work in their organizations and appear to have just one focus of tenacious obsession. Cyberstalking is the use of computers or other electronic technology to facilitate stalking. In Davis (2001), Lucks identified a separate category of stalkers who instead of a terrestrial means, prefer to perpetrate crimes against their targeted victims through electronic and online means. Amongst college students, Ménard and Pincus found that male stalkers were likely to have
2997-603: Is financed by offender fees. The Crime Victims' Rights Act , part of the Justice for All Act of 2004, enumerates the rights afforded to victims in federal criminal cases. The Act grants victims the following rights: All states have passed legislation that protects the rights of victims of crime, and most have passed constitutional amendments that afford protection to crime victims. Some state laws apply to only victims of felony offenses, while other states also extend rights to victims of less serious misdemeanor offenses. When
3108-486: Is in charge of providing information to victims. The Stockholm programme entitles all victims of gender-based violence, domestic violence, and terrorism to the same protections as victims of crime, as these kinds of victims are deemed to be particularly vulnerable and in need of special support and protection by the state, regardless of their nationality. The Victims of Crime Directive (Directive 2012/29/EU) recognised that there were concerns about freedom of movement in
3219-513: Is not a signatory to any of the European Union's directives on victims' rights, being the only member state which is not required to sign or implement Directive 2012/29/EU. Notwithstanding, Denmark still maintains a relatively high standard for victims' rights through its domestic legislation, providing compensation for victims of crimes with serious injuries to all of its citizens as well as foreign citizens living in Denmark. Compensation
3330-601: Is one of 16 countries facing infringement proceedings for non-communication of the EU Victims of Crime Directive. For victims of domestic violence and certain other crimes such as child abuse, if the offender lacks the means to provide compensation, or if the offender remains anonymous, the state of Greece, under the Compensation Directive 2004/80/EC is obliged to provide compensation to victims of intentional crimes of violence. The compensation provided by
3441-563: Is partly funded by funds from perpetrators. The French Department of Justice partially funds the National Victim Support and Mediation Institute, which provides assistance to victims and advocates for victims' rights. The organisation has pushed for the French government to implement the directive, providing recommendations based on their assessment of victims' needs. In 2012, France was found to have violated Article 4 of
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3552-555: Is unworthy of winning over Hillary. After removing his and Hillary's shackles, Sam jumps to his death. Joe Kane , author of The Phantom of the Movies' Videoscope : The Ultimate Guide to the Latest, Greatest, and Weirdest Genre Videos , called the film "a down-scale Die Hard " and gave it a grade of 2½. TV Guide awarded Lower Level a score 1/4, and found that while it was "glossy" and excelled in its use of sound to build suspense,
3663-541: The 1991–1995 Independence War compensation as well as free access to therapeutic, medical, and legal services. Cyprus awards compensation to victims of violence that cases serious bodily harm or death under European Convention on the Compensation of Victims of Violent Crimes . However, the majority of foreigners are not entitled to this compensation. Victims' rights in Denmark are largely implemented through domestic legislation and not international law. Denmark
3774-620: The Criminal Code , titled "criminal harassment", addresses acts which are termed "stalking" in many other jurisdictions. The provisions of the section came into force in August 1993 with the intent of further strengthening laws protecting women. It is a hybrid offence , which may be punishable upon summary conviction or as an indictable offence , the latter of which may carry a prison term of up to ten years. Section 264 has withstood Charter challenges. The Chief, Policing Services Program, for Statistics Canada has stated: ... of
3885-566: The EEA area as well as Austrian citizens and permanent residents. Victim services include free access to legal advice and representation, counselling and monetary compensation for victims of criminal acts that result in at least six months imprisonment. The compensation is funded by fines imposed on convicted offenders, among other sources. Although Austria is a signatory to the Victims of Crime Directive, it has not been wholly compliant. One breach of
3996-585: The United States Department of Justice also reports that "Males were as likely to report being stalked by a male as by a female offender. 43% of male stalking victims stated that the offender was female, while 41% of male victims stated that the offender was another male. Female victims of stalking were significantly more likely to be stalked by a male (67%) rather than a female (24%) offender." This report provides considerable data by gender and race about both stalking and harassment, obtained via
4107-678: The Victims of Crime Act was passed. A decade later, in 1994, the Violence Against Women Act became law. In 2004, the landmark Crime Victims' Rights Act was passed, granting crime victims eight specific rights , and providing standing for individual victims to assert those rights in court. VOCA established the Crime Victims Fund , which awards grants to crime victim compensation programs, victim notification systems , and victim assistance programs. The fund
4218-519: The abolishment of the death penalty and the introduction of the Peace and Security Package in 1976. They carried out studies on victimization as part of this package which were used to gain a greater understanding of the reality of crime. The first large scale victimization survey was administered by Statistics Canada in 1982 and similar surveys took place again in 1988 and 1993. The Canadian Federal-Provincial Task Force on Justice for Victims of Crime
4329-504: The law and order , civil rights , and feminist movement challenged conventional views of the criminal justice system on the role of the victim. By providing educational resources and legal assistance and establishing the country's first hotlines and shelters for victims of crime, much of the movements' work later became the grassroots foundation of the modern victims' rights movement. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan 's Task Force on Victims of Crime released its final report which detailed
4440-706: The 10,756 incidents of criminal harassment reported to police in 2006, 1,429 of these involved more than one accused. In China, simple stalking was treated as a kind of minor offence when it amounted to harassment, so stalkers were usually punished by a small fine or less than 10 days detention under the Public Security Administration Punishment Law. According to the Tort Liability Law, infringement of citizens' privacy shall be subject to tort liability. For stalkers to spy on, secretly photograph, eavesdrop on or spread
4551-493: The 16th century to refer to a prowler or a poacher ( Oxford English Dictionary ), the term stalker was initially used by media in the 20th century to describe people who pester and harass others, initially with specific reference to the harassment of celebrities by strangers who were described as being "obsessed". This use of the word appears to have been coined by the tabloid press in the United States . With time,
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4662-414: The 1980s. A combination of factors have been put forward to explain this change including international law , the women's movement , a fearful conception of crime in the public, advocacy for victim and witness services, as well as criminal justice officials bringing awareness to the situation of victims. Feminists in the women's movement had a particular impact on how law reform was shaped regarding
4773-417: The 2006 Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS), by the U.S. Census Bureau for the U.S. Department of Justice . In an article in the journal Sex Roles , Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling discusses how gender plays a role in the difference between stalkers and victims. She says, "gender is associated with the types of emotional reactions that are experienced by recipients of stalking related events, including
4884-775: The Bulgarian Government. The rights of victims of crimes in Croatia have been improving steadily since Croatia became a candidate for the European Union in 2004. Croatia, in order to fulfil prerequisites for joining the EU, initiated changes in their criminal justice system in relation to the rights of victims. One change instigated by the government was in the form of the Department for Support to Witnesses and Other Participants in War Crimes Trials (2005). At
4995-519: The CEDAW and CRC. Public discussions about victims’ rights in Canada began at the end of the 20th century . Before this, victims of crime were primarily considered witnesses in criminal proceedings although they did receive some recognition through provincial victim compensation programs which began in the late 1960s. There was a significant increase in the attention to victims’ rights beginning in
5106-553: The CVBR are: Importantly, the last part of the CVBR titled “ Remedies ” includes sections 25 through 29 which deal with complaints, status, no cause of action and no appeal respectively. This section additionally gives victims the right to complain if the complaint is about a federal agency. Sections 27 to 29 specifically “deny victims any standing to appeal to courts for review when their rights are not upheld” and thus these rights are not enforceable. Some provinces in Canada adopted victim related legislation and responded to
5217-766: The Correctional and Conditional Release Act are the two main pieces of criminal law that lay out the role of victims in the Canadian criminal justice system. In 2015 The Victims Bill of Rights Act (Bill C-32) created the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights and amended other legislation to align with these rights. Since the first provincial Victims Bill of Rights in Manitoba, every province and territory has instated some type of law that addresses victims of crime although they vary. The 1988 Canadian Statement
5328-568: The Directive. The European Commission has states that all victims will be individually assessed to identify vulnerability. In particular, young victims are always presumed vulnerable, with other categories of persons such as victims of terrorism, organized crime, human trafficking, gender-based violence, sexual violence and exploitation, as well as victims with disabilities, being noted as having an increased of vulnerability. Austria has established protections for victims of crime that reside in
5439-714: The ECJ held that the decision not to prosecute the rape of a 14-year-old rape victim, under a law that prescribed that rapes would only be prosecuted where there was evidence of physical force and active resistance, breached her rights provided under Articles 3 and 8. The court had held that rape laws must apply to all forms of non-consensual sexual acts. A recent committee of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings found that no adult victims of human trafficking received any form of assistance from
5550-422: The EU and its impact on victims of crimes, and recommended the strengthening of victim rights as a remedy. The Directive requires that victims are recognised and treated with respect and dignity, protected from further victimisation from the offender or within criminal proceedings, and receive appropriate support and have access to compensation. All member EU states, except Denmark, are required to sign and implement
5661-658: The European Convention of Human Rights due to its failure to provide an adequate framework to protect the rights of human trafficking victims. As of 2013, the French government was found to be in full compliance with the required minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking. The German Code of Criminal Procedure 1987 gives victims a number of rights, including rights of participation in trial, of appeal, and of compensation for loss. Unlike in many other jurisdictions, victims of crime in Germany may participate in
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#17327918356195772-627: The National Alliance of Victims' Rights Attorneys, National Organization for Victim Assistance, and the National Center for Victims of Crime . Since 1982, thirty-three states have amended their constitutions to address victims' rights, and all states have passed victims' rights legislation. That same year, Congress passed the first piece of federal crime victims' rights legislation, the Victim and Witness Protection Act. In 1984,
5883-502: The National Violence Against Women Survey. Every Australian state enacted laws prohibiting stalking during the 1990s, with Queensland being the first state to do so in 1994. The laws vary slightly from state to state, with Queensland's laws having the broadest scope, and South Australian laws the most restrictive. Punishments vary from a maximum of 10 years imprisonment in some states, to a fine for
5994-450: The U.S. should use the UN's Basic Principles as a guide to inform their laws and policies. In addition, it recommends that the U.S. adopt policies that define "victim" arbitrarily; expand access to victim services and compensation; and "maintain and enforce standards for the collection and preservation of evidence, particularly rape kit evidence." The report also recommends U.S. ratification of
6105-507: The UN Declaration before the federal government. Although all provinces and territories have now instated laws addressing victims, these rights have also been found to be unenforceable. Manitoba ’s Victim's Bill of Rights however does contain some provisions unlike other provinces where complaint mechanisms are specific and allow for a clearer process for victims to follow should they wish to file one. They also give direction as to who
6216-747: The United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, strangers are considered more dangerous when it comes to stalking than a former partner. Media also plays an important role due to portrayals of male stalking behavior as acceptable, influencing men into thinking it is normal. Since gender roles are socially constructed, sometimes men do not report stalking. She also mentions coercive control theory; "future research will be needed to determine if this theory can predict how changes in social structures and gender-specific norms will result in variations in rates of stalking for men versus women over time in
6327-447: The United States and across the world." Psychologists often group individuals who stalk into two categories: psychotic and nonpsychotic. Some stalkers may have pre-existing psychotic disorders such as delusional disorder , schizoaffective disorder , or schizophrenia . However, most stalkers are nonpsychotic and may exhibit disorders or neuroses such as major depression , adjustment disorder , or substance dependence , as well as
6438-694: The Victim Support Act of 2003, which marked a shift in the Estonian criminal justice system from retributive justice to restorative justice. Consequently, the Estonian government began to place more emphasis on providing practical and material help for victims of crime. Nonetheless, state victim support only deals with certain types of offences, with many victims uncomfortable participating. Victims of serious violent crimes, as well as their dependents, in Estonia are entitled to state compensation under
6549-455: The Victim Support Act. Such compensation has a cap and includes loss of income, damages due to death, funeral expenses, among other damages. France is a signatory to the EU's Victims of Crime Directive and had until November 2015 to implement it. As of February 2016, it had failed to notify the EU what policies it had implemented. Victims of crimes in France have the right to be involved in
6660-420: The bodies of the two workmen, realizing while doing so that Craig is still alive and is searching for Hillary. Sam incapacitates Craig with a trap, but is unable to kill him due being out of bullets, so he returns to Hillary. Hillary begins seducing Sam, distracting him and allowing her to stab him in the back with a piece of glass, giving her the chance to escape and reunite with Craig. The two try to escape from
6771-599: The cases they studied there was more than one stalker, and 40% of the victims said that friends or family of their stalker had also been involved. In 15% of cases, the victim was unaware of any reason for the harassment. Over a quarter of all stalking and harassment victims do not know their stalkers in any capacity. About a tenth responding to the SVS did not know the identities of their stalkers. 11% of victims said they had been stalked for five years or more. In 1999, Pathe, Mullen and Purcell wrote that popular interest in stalking
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#17327918356196882-415: The concerns of victims' rights advocates, stating that "innocent victims of crime have been overlooked, their pleas for justice have gone unheeded, and their wounds — personal, emotional, financial — have gone unattended". The report contained 68 recommendations for service providers and government officials, many of which are mandated through victims' rights legislation today, as well as a recommendation for
6993-432: The continual clinging to a relationship of an inadequate or dependent person couples with the entitlement of the narcissistic personality, and the persistent jealousy of the paranoid personality. In contrast, resentful stalkers demonstrate an almost "pure culture of persecution ", with delusional disorders of the paranoid type, paranoid personalities, and paranoid schizophrenia . One of the uncertainties in understanding
7104-409: The court ruled that the complainant did not have the legal standing to keep the prosecutors' office from discriminately applying a statute criminalizing non-payment of child support. In dicta , the court articulated the then-prevailing view that a private crime victims have no jurisdiction in deciding the process of a criminal prosecution. This ruling served as a high-water mark in the shift away from
7215-462: The criminal proceedings against the accused. For victims of certain personal offences, such as defamation, bodily injury, and property damage, victims are automatically entitled to engage a private prosecutor who will represent their interests at trial. Victims also have the right to engage a legal representative to uphold their interests when, for example, they are being questioned as a witness. Private prosecutors cannot appeal decisions on account of
7326-400: The current judicial system in mainland China, there is a lack of judicial protection for individuals facing illegal stalking, harassment, surveillance, and other stalking behaviors. Even celebrities may not be able to solve it for a long time when faced with stalking of illegitimate meals. Many cases across China have shown that ordinary people who have been stalked may still be unable to solve
7437-412: The degree of fear experienced by the victim." In addition, she hypothesizes that gender may also affect how police handle a case of stalking, how the victim copes with the situation, and how the stalker might view their behavior. She discusses how victims might view certain forms of stalking as normal because of gender socialization influences on the acceptability of certain behaviors. She emphasizes that in
7548-519: The directive is that the victims must largely communicate in English or German with officials, which may hinder the rights of victims without the help of a consulate. Another breach involves a number of benefits afforded only to Austrian citizens, including compensation if a citizen is a victim of crime even the injury is suffered in another country. Additionally, non-EEA nationals are not entitled to as much state support and must ordinarily instead rely on
7659-614: The donation-sponsored Weissering, which additionally takes on cases at discretion and after means testing. Bulgaria's attempts to protect and support the rights of victims of crime are generally considered superficial. Victims are entitled to participate in criminal trials as witnesses, private accusers or complainants, with assistance from legal counsel. Additionally, legislation provides for protection of vulnerable witnesses (e.g. children, victims of sexual offences) during witness examination and police questioning. A recent International Crime Victims Survey revealed that only 40% of victims in
7770-586: The film was ultimately brought down by both its severely padded plot and "the cast behaving like idiots to prevent the tale from finishing early or logically". Empire gave the "enjoyably contrived" film a 2/5, praising the effective suspense sequences, yet criticizing the uncharismatic leads that prevented it "from achieving its potential". Stalker Stalking is unwanted and/or repeated surveillance or contact by an individual or group toward another person. Stalking behaviors are interrelated to harassment and intimidation and may include following
7881-529: The leniency of a sentence. Victims of crimes in Greece may be afforded additional rights, support and protection in specific situations, including sexual abuse instances and where the victim is a minor. There is no discrimination by support services against foreigners. Foreign victims are entitled to an interpreter when testifying to the police. Greece has been criticised for its lack of upholding minority victims rights in regards to hate crimes. In order to file
7992-405: The lifts, and awkwardly attempts to woo Hillary. When Hillary storms off, outraged over the discovery that Sam had been reading her diaries, a pair of servicemen arrive to look into a fire alarm that Hillary had earlier set off, and are shot to death in front of her by a distraught Sam. Sam captures Hillary and locks her in a secret lounge that contains a shrine dedicated to her, and then goes to hide
8103-418: The lowest severity of stalking in others. Australian anti-stalking laws have some notable features. Unlike many US jurisdictions they do not require the victim to have felt fear or distress as a result of the behaviour, only that a reasonable person would have felt this way. In some states, the anti-stalking laws operate extra-territorially, meaning that an individual can be charged with stalking if either they or
8214-450: The majority of men and women admit engaging in various stalking-like behaviors following a breakup, but stop such behaviors over time, suggesting that "engagement in low levels of unwanted pursuit behaviors for a relatively short amount of time, particularly in the context of a relationship break-up, may be normative for heterosexual dating relationships occurring within U.S. culture." People characterized as stalkers may be accused of having
8325-433: The meaning of stalking changed and incorporated individuals being harassed by their former partners. Pathé and Mullen describe stalking as "a constellation of behaviours in which an individual inflicts upon another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications". Stalking can be defined as the willful and repeated following, watching or harassing of another person. Unlike other crimes, which usually involve one act, stalking
8436-522: The most dangerous type. In the UK, for example, most stalkers are former partners, and evidence indicates that stalking facilitated by mental illness (often covered by the media) accounts for only a minority of cases of alleged stalking. A UK Home Office research study on the use of the Protection from Harassment Act stated: "The study found that the Protection from Harassment Act is being used to deal with
8547-686: The nation are satisfied with the way police handled their matters. A committee report on the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women highlighted a number of breaches of the Convention by the state, being critical of Bulgaria's failure to provide for adequate compensation for victims of sexual offences and reliance on gender stereotypes when drafting legislation. Bulgaria's rape laws have also been controversial in their treatment of victims. In M.C. v Bulgaria ,
8658-433: The opponent broke into the home with arms and was killed by victim's parents. In the social culture of mainland China, the "stalker" type of courtship is highly respected, that is, as the saying goes, "good women (martyrs) are afraid of stalkers". Literary works also publicly promote such behaviors, and stalking between opposite sexes is thus beautified as courtship. In real life, this type of behavior may even occur when
8769-443: The origins of stalking is that the concept is now widely understood in terms of specific behaviors which are found to be offensive or illegal. As discussed above, these specific (apparently stalking) behaviors may have multiple motivations. In addition, the personality characteristics that are often discussed as antecedent to stalking may also produce behavior that is not conventionally defined as stalking. Some research suggests there
8880-450: The parties, albeit a disjunctive one where the two participants have opposing goals rather than cooperative goals. One participant, often a woman, likely wishes to end the relationship entirely, but may find herself unable to easily do so. The other participant, often but not always a man, wishes to escalate the relationship. It has been described as a close relationship because the duration, frequency, and intensity of contact may rival that of
8991-401: The privacy of others, under Article 42 of the Public Security Administration Punishment Law clearly stipulates that they can be detained for not more than five days or fined not more than five hundred yuan, and if the circumstances are more serious, they can be detained for not less than five days and not more than ten days, and can be fined not more than five hundred yuan. Unfortunately, under
9102-565: The problem after they seek help from the judicial authorities. In the case of Wuhu, Anhui in March 2018, the entangled woman repeatedly rescued the police to no avail and was eventually killed. In the homicide case in Laiyuan, Hebei in July of the same year, women and their families who had been stalked and harassed for a long time also helped the police repeatedly to no avail. It did not end until
9213-536: The proportion of false reports that were due to delusions as 64%. A 2020 study by Sheridan et al. gave figures for lifetime prevalence of perceived gang-stalking at 0.66% for adult women and 0.17% for adult men. According to a study conducted by Purcell, Pathé and Mullen (2002), 23% of the Australian population reported having been stalked. Stieger, Burger and Schild conducted a survey in Austria, revealing
9324-569: The provincial level, Manitoba became the first province to legislate victims’ rights in their 1986 Justice for Victims of Crimes Act . Other provinces followed suit and similarly enacted victim focused legislation. In 1988, the Canadian Government followed numerous recommendations made in the 1983 Task Force Report and amended the Criminal Code . In this amendment, there were major changes such as new provisions on victim impact statements and victim surcharges . Together in
9435-484: The right to an interpreter and free translation of legal documents. Victim support services are accessible to residents even where no crime has been reported and no criminal proceedings undertaken. Where mediation has occurred between an offender and the victim, with the offender apologising to and reconciling with the victim, the court may apply a lesser sentence for the sake of providing the victim empowerment and closure. Victims may also police decisions not to prosecute to
9546-507: The right to certain information about the offender. Legal reforms continued to occur in the 1990s and early 2000s which further recognized victims and incrementally changed their role in the justice system. In 2000 a federal Victims of Crime Initiative was set eventually creating a Victims Fund and other financial supports contributing “to provincial and territorial governments and non-governmental organizations to develop, promote and enhance services and assistance for victims”. In 2007 this
9657-426: The right to restitution, the right to a victims' advocate , the right not to be excluded from criminal justice proceedings, and the right to speak at criminal justice proceedings. During the colonial and revolutionary periods, the United States criminal justice system was victim-centric, in that crimes were often investigated and prosecuted by individual victims. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however,
9768-433: The role of the victim in criminal proceedings was reduced, owing to shifts in attitudes in the way crimes were perceived; the criminal justice system became seen as a tool to remedy social harms rather than an avenue to redress personal harm. The modern crime victims' rights movement began in the 1970s, in part as a response to the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision Linda R.S. v. Richard D. (410 U.S. 614). In Linda R.S. ,
9879-489: The roof by announcing over the PA system that he will find and murder the wounded Craig if she leaves the building. At the rendezvous point, a melancholic Sam handcuffs himself to Hillary and threatens to kill them both by leaping off of the roof. Craig appears, grabs Hillary, and professes both his love and willingness to die for her, which finally causes Sam to realize that Craig genuinely does care about Hillary, and that he himself
9990-470: The same year, the Canadian Statement of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime was released and supported by federal, provincial and territorial governments. This statement was revised in 2003 and in the time between these two statements, in 1992, victims gained rights at the federal level for the first time as they were legislated into the Corrections and Conditional Release Act allowing victims
10101-560: The sample group were subsequently admitted to hospital, and 26% treated in the community. A similar retrospective study published in 2009 in Psychological Medicine , based on a sample of threats to the royal family kept by the Metropolitan Police Service over a period of 15 years, suggested that 83.6% of these letter-writers had a serious mental illness. Dressing, Kuehner and Gass conducted
10212-400: The sealed building through a tunnel in a storage area, but they find it blocked off, and so are forced to try and fight Sam off, which they do by luring him into a trap that leaves him hanging upside-down from an elevator. While Hillary breaks through the office tower's front door with a piece of construction equipment that she had unearthed, Sam frees himself, and forces Hillary to meet him on
10323-454: The stalking was related to co-workers, members of a gang, fraternities, sororities, etc., did not have its responses indicated in the survey results as released by the DOJ. The data for this report was obtained via the 2006 Supplemental Victimization Survey (SVS), conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Department of Justice. According to a United Kingdom study by Sheridan and Boon, in 5% of
10434-449: The target to refrain or become involved in some particular activity regardless of the victim's consent. For example, most prosecutions in this stalking category have been against anti-abortionists who stalk doctors in an attempt to discourage the performance of abortions. Stalkers may fit categories with paranoia disorders . Intimacy-seeking stalkers often have delusional disorders involving erotomanic delusions. With rejected stalkers,
10545-404: The terms "female harassment", "obsessive following" or "psychological rape". The difficulties associated with defining this term exactly (or defining it at all) are well documented. This is due in part to overlapping between accepted courtship behaviors and stalking behaviors. Context must be relied on to determine if a specific action is a stalking behavior. Having been used since at least
10656-437: The treatment of victims and survivors of sexual violence in the criminal justice system. However, many feminists within this movement were critical of politics that fixated on punishment . They maintained a focus on the systemic nature of sexual violence which differentiated them from those focused on victimization as an individualized issue. The Canadian Government began to discuss victims of crime more seriously with
10767-460: The treatment of victims, particularly during the criminal justice process.” It provides ten enumerated principles focused on fair treatment and includes for example the consideration of the victim's views and privacy as well as what information should be given to victims. The Canadian Statement is in principle only and did not give victims’ new legal rights because there was no explicit enforcement mechanism listed within it. The CVBR begins with
10878-488: The trial and access legal counsel. They are also entitled to compensation, with police being obligated to inform victims of their right to compensation under the Framework Justice Act (2002). Police can also register compensation claims on behalf of victims so there is no need to go to court. A state fund for compensation for victims of violent crimes exists called The State Fund for the Victims of Crime. This
10989-439: The two parties do not know each other and the stalked person does not know in advance. Through online platforms and other social media, with the help of the convenience of online communication, individuals and institutions directly participate in, promote, and support various "courtship-style" tracing and stalking cases. Victims%27 rights Victims' rights are legal rights afforded to victims of crime . These may include
11100-417: The victim are in the relevant state. Most Australian states provide the option of a restraining order in cases of stalking, breach of which is punishable as a criminal offence. There has been relatively little research into Australian court outcomes in stalking cases, although Freckelton (2001) found that in the state of Victoria , most stalkers received fines or community based dispositions. Section 264 of
11211-437: The victim in fear can be considered stalking", although the rights afforded to victims may vary depending on jurisdiction. A 1995 research paper titled "Stalking Strangers and Lovers" was among the first places to use the term "stalking" to describe the common occurrence of males after a breakup who aggressively pursue their female former partner. Prior to that paper instead of the term "stalking", people more commonly used
11322-405: The victim in person or monitoring them. The term stalking is used with some differing definitions in psychiatry and psychology , as well as in some legal jurisdictions as a term for a criminal offense . According to a 2002 report by the U.S. National Center for Victims of Crime , "virtually any unwanted contact between two people that directly or indirectly communicates a threat or places
11433-420: The victim-centric approach to criminal justice, relegating the role of victims in the criminal trial to being evidence for the prosecution. The Linda R.S. ruling, notwithstanding, stated that Congress could create legislation that safeguards victims' rights and provides standing to victims where they would otherwise not have any. At the same time, social consciousness about victims' rights surged. Supporters of
11544-621: The victims were likely to have an "avoidant attachment". According to a U.S. Department of Justice special report a significant number of people reporting stalking incidents claim that they had been stalked by more than one person, with 18.2% reporting that they were stalked by two people, 13.1% reporting that they had been stalked by three or more. The report did not break down these cases into numbers of victims who claimed to have been stalked by several people individually, and by people acting in concert. A question asked of respondents reporting three or more stalkers by polling personnel about whether
11655-428: The victims, a January 2009 report from the United States Department of Justice reported the rate of stalking victimization for female was approximately 2% and for male was approximately 0.7%. As for the perpetrators, many studies have shown that approximately 80-90% of stalking perpetrators are male. According to one study, women often target other women, whereas men primarily stalk women. A January 2009 report from
11766-484: The victims, the stalker was known, being a prior intimate partner in 40%, a friend or acquaintance in 23% and a colleague at work in 13% of cases. As a consequence, 72% of the victims reported having changed their lifestyle. 52% of former and ongoing stalking victims reported having a currently impaired ( pathological ) psychological well-being . There was no significant difference between the incidence of stalking in rural and urban areas. In 1998, Budd and Mattinson found
11877-582: Was a mandated five-year review which was not conducted in 2020. The Office of the Federal Ombudsperson for Victims of Crime on the other hand released a progress report in 2020 that raised multiple concerns including that these rights are legally unenforceable. The Federal Ombudsperson and the Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime urged the Government of Canada to complete this review. The review process started in early 2022 and
11988-666: Was established in 1981, to further look at the needs of victims, to address a variety of victim related issues such as funding and legislation and finally to make recommendations. They delivered their final report in 1983 which also took into consideration the results of the first victimization survey from 1982. At the international level, Canada signed on to the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crimes and Abuse of Power (UN Declaration) in 1985 but they did not enact legislation giving victims formal rights at that time. However, at
12099-677: Was later renamed the Federal Victims Strategy. The year 2007 was also when the Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims of Crime opened (later changed to Ombudsperson), which was made in part to work outside of the Government overseeing complaints about federally run victim related services. More recently, in 2015 the Government of Canada enacted the Canadian Victims Bill of Rights. Part of this legislation
12210-459: Was made to acknowledge the UN Declaration. The Canadian Statement was recognized by federal, provincial and territorial government officials responsible for criminal justice matters and many of the principles used in it were based on those in the UN Declaration. The Canadian Statement was updated in 2003 and existed to provide principles to “guide the development of policies , programs and legislation related to victims of crime" as well as "guide
12321-469: Was promoting false claims. In 2004, Sheridan and Blaauw said that they estimated that 11.5% of claims in a sample of 357 reported claims of stalking were false. According to Sheridan and Blaauw, 70% of false stalking reports were made by people experiencing delusions , stating that "after eight uncertain cases were excluded, the false reporting rate was judged to be 11.5%, with the majority of false victims suffering delusions (70%)." Another study estimated
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