99-686: The Loyd Carrier was one of a number of small tracked vehicles used by the British and Commonwealth forces in the Second World War to transport equipment and men about the battlefield. Alongside the Bren, Scout and Machine Gun Carriers , they also moved infantry support weapons. Development of the Loyd Carrier proceeded rapidly due the use of many parts from other vehicles. The chassis, engine, gearbox, torque tube and front axle were from
198-606: A "Commonwealth of Nations". Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887 , leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911. The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence" at
297-664: A Commonwealth country affords benefits in some member countries, particularly in the United Kingdom , and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another by high commissions rather than embassies. The Commonwealth Charter defines their shared values of democracy , human rights and the rule of law , as promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games . A majority of Commonwealth countries are small states , with small island developing states constituting almost half its membership. Queen Elizabeth II , in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that
396-666: A Director of Mechanisation. The Director of Mechanisation led the Mechanisation Board who represented the various user arms combined to lead the production of tanks and vehicles. Before the war, the Master General of the Ordnance post (and its holder -General Hugh Elles ) had been replaced by Leslie Hore-Belisha , the Secretary of State for War , and Director General of Munitions Production. In 1939 this post
495-585: A Tank Mission was established and sent to the US to exchange information on AFV design, comprising Lucas, Robotham, George Usher (Controller of Tank Production), Weeks and Richardson. The greater manufacturing capacity in the USA resulted in US-made tanks providing the bulk of forces, while US designers, newer to the business of tank design, benefited from British experience. The Tank Board stayed in similar configuration for
594-684: A better armoured vehicle the Churchill VII. This improved design was first known as A22F then renumbered as A42. Secondly by a descriptive name, as with other equipment in the British Army – e.g. "Tank, Infantry, Mark II". This reflected the type and model of tank, i.e. "Tank, Infantry, Mark II" is a different tank to "Tank, Infantry, Mark III". The scheme was introduced during the First World War but not always applied to earlier designs. The descriptive name could also be modified by
693-540: A combined gross domestic product of over $ 9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($ 3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($ 3.124 trillion), Canada ($ 1.652 trillion), and Australia ($ 1.379 trillion). In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had
792-752: A constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration ; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions. South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth. A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach". Israel and Palestine are both potential candidates for membership. British armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II This article lists British armoured fighting vehicle production during
891-638: A former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined. Consideration for Rwanda's admission
990-455: A fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised King George VI as " Head of the Commonwealth ". In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these
1089-609: A further upgrade to the High Velocity gun that previously couldn't be fitted to Cromwell, now made capable of firing 17pounder (nominally 77mm) projectiles. It replaced the need for Challenger. Specification and design of the A41 Centurion began in 1943, also initially mounting the 17-pounder. It entered service just as the war came to an end. At the start of the war, the Matilda I was the current infantry tank, while
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#17327763614921188-637: A number of faults, and the vehicle was expected to be replaced with the T14 assault tank ordered from (and designed in collaboration with) the US in 1942. Parallel development of the A33 Excelsior heavy assault tank was proposed following the Dieppe raid . Both were cancelled when faults with the Churchill were rectified, and the vehicle proved capable of meeting battlefield requirements. A43 Black Prince
1287-772: A paired ammunition carrier. Some vehicles were sold on into private ownership for farming use (a 1941 No1Mk1 TPC with a ploughing conversion still exists in Nottinghamshire, UK) and a number were placed as targets on Belgian ranges. Loyd carriers were available in three "numbers", which were available in two "marks"; all manufactured during wartime, and varied in the type/sourcing of the Ford V8 sidevalve engine they were powered by: The two marks were: There were not many differences between variants, mainly seating and armour plate location: Background: British armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II , Tanks in
1386-576: A personnel carrier. Initial deliveries were from Vivian Loyd 's own company, but production moved to the larger firms, including the Ford Motor Company and Wolseley Motors (13,000 between them) and Dennis Brothers Ltd , Aveling & Barford and Sentinel Waggon Works . Total production of the Loyd Carrier was approximately 26,000. Early in the war, the TT along with the TPC variants were part of
1485-456: A report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting . New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM . New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being
1584-735: A republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, King George VI told Menon : "So, I've become 'as such'". Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, whilst others, such as Guyana , Mauritius and Dominica , have remained members. India's inaugural prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared on 16 May 1949, shortly following
1683-720: A republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948 ; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth. Whilst Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London . Under the London Declaration , as drafted by V. K. Krishna Menon , India agreed, when it became
1782-399: A series of different turrets, some of which were improvements, while others were different methods of manufacturing. Valentine was fitted with both petrol and diesel engines determined by availability and manufacturer. Cromwell and Churchill tanks mounted the 75 mm gun and 95 mm howitzer for different purposes. All were given different numbers to identify the different variants. The Matilda I
1881-490: A single specification and hence more than one tank produced to the same specification. If the vehicle was privately developed it may not have a General Staff number at all. A significant redesign could lead to the issue of a new specification number without a new Mark, for instance the Infantry Tank Mark IV Churchill – originally built to specification A22 in 1940 – underwent a redesign leading to
1980-409: Is not represented. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply for British emergency passports . Australia issues Documents of Identity in exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently. The close association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected in the diplomatic protocols of
2079-520: Is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members, the majority of which (36) are republics , and five have monarchs of different royal houses ( Brunei , Eswatini , Lesotho , Malaysia and Tonga ). The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government , including (amongst others) prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM
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#17327763614922178-692: Is the supreme court of 14 Commonwealth countries, including the Cook Islands and Niue which are under the Realm of New Zealand (though New Zealand itself does not make appeals to the Privy Council). Commonwealth nationals are eligible for appointment to the High Court of Fiji , with the Court relying on judges from other Commonwealth nations. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in
2277-511: Is the successor to the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Meetings and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs. The head of government hosting
2376-464: The 1926 Imperial Conference , the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term ' Commonwealth ' was officially adopted to describe the community. These aspects to
2475-579: The British Armed Forces . According to the British Army , "Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part of the fabric of the British Army." Thousands of potential Commonwealth recruits have been turned away due to a lack of eligible vacancies. Gurkha soldiers from Nepal , though it is not a Commonwealth country, have long fought alongside British and Commonwealth troops. They continue to be recruited by
2574-617: The British Commonwealth . The Head of the Commonwealth is Charles III . He is king of 15 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms , whilst 36 other members are republics , and five others have different monarchs. Although he became head upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II , the position is not technically hereditary. Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though some have institutional links to other Commonwealth nations. Citizenship of
2673-668: The British Commonwealth Occupation Force in post-war Japan. After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British overseas territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following
2772-526: The Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within the British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations." As long ago as 18 January 1884 Lord Rosebery , while visiting Adelaide , South Australia , had described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent , as
2871-566: The Dunkirk evacuations . Work on the Churchill infantry tank had begun before the war began, with specification A20. This developed into the A22 specification when France was lost, and frontline requirements changed. A22 had rapid development, with design completed around one month after the specification was released. Tanks began rolling off the production line a year later. The rushed design left
2970-701: The Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War , and the end of apartheid in South Africa. The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme , which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has
3069-525: The High Court case of Sue v Hill , the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power". Similarly, in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs , the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens". Commonwealth citizens may receive consular assistance from other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country
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3168-507: The London Declaration , the word "British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature. Burma (Myanmar since 1989) and Aden (now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (part of which became
3267-685: The Matilda II was in production based on the A12 specification of 1936 and the A12E1 prototype of 1938. This entered service early in 1940. It was supplemented by the Valentine tank , based on Cruiser designs and the Matilda I. The Valentine was a private venture. It did not have a specification number. Design approval was granted just as war broke out in 1939. It was rushed into service to replace losses in
3366-743: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , attended by delegates from the Dominions as well as the United Kingdom. The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nations was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State . In the Balfour Declaration at
3465-500: The Second World War . The United Kingdom produced 27,528 tanks and self-propelled guns from July 1939 to May 1945, as well as 26,191 armoured cars and 69,071 armoured personnel carriers (mostly the Universal Carrier ). British tank design focused on pre-war requirements for light, cruiser, and infantry tanks created experimentally by J.F.C. Fuller , Percy Hobart and B.H. Liddell-Hart . Their experiments and doctrine led
3564-547: The United Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer . The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication amongst the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of
3663-461: The 15 cwt 4x2 Fordson 7V truck. The track, drive sprockets, and Horstmann suspension units were the same as the Universal Carrier . The brake drums and back plates were designed specifically for the Loyd. The bodywork was made from mild steel to which armour plate - 'BP Plate' (from "Bullet Proof") - was bolted, (to the front and upper sides) depending on application. The engine was at the rear with
3762-581: The 37mm gun had been underwhelming, and the M2 Medium was turned down. The next version, M3 Medium (later known as Lee/Grant in British service) was already part way through design and had a turret too small for the larger 75mm gun. To meet British requirements, the design was modified to add a larger gun in a side sponson . British needs were then added to the M4 Medium (Sherman) requirements. Both tanks were produced in greater numbers, and Sherman gained
3861-539: The A27M Cromwell used the more powerful Rolls-Royce Meteor . When US tanks entered British use, the Cromwell and Centaur design requirement was changed to move from the 6-pounder to 75mm for commonality of ammunition. This reduced the armour penetration. An uprated 75mm High Velocity gun was designed to overcome the issue, but proved too large for the new tanks, placing a renewed focus on the 17-pounder. Cromwell
3960-608: The British Army Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations , often simply referred to as the Commonwealth , is an international association of 56 member states , the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire from which it developed. They are connected through their use of the English language and historical-cultural ties. The chief institutions of
4059-605: The British Army ( Brigade of Gurkhas ), Indian Army ( Gorkha regiments ) and Royal Brunei Armed Forces ( Gurkha Reserve Unit ), as well the Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force . Most members of Brunei's Gurkha Reserve Unit are veterans from the British Army and Singaporean police. The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931 , as
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4158-451: The CHOGM is called the chair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position until the following CHOGM. The Commonwealth Secretariat , established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation amongst member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in
4257-678: The Carrier carrying spare equipment for the tractor. Both Belgium and the Netherlands bought Loyd TTs from the British Army; they were still in Belgian Army ownership up to at least 1963 as engine rebuild plates have been seen with this date in original Belgian vehicles. A Belgian variant was the CATI 90 ( Canon antitank d'infanterie automoteur 90mm ), a self-propelled gun in use from 1954 to 1962. The vehicle served in infantry units with
4356-611: The Chief Engineer of Rolls-Royce's Chassis Division who had been the main proponent of the Cromwell and Meteor works was seconded into the Ministry of Supply to become the Chief Engineer of Tank Design. Robotham started a fresh look at tank design, starting with welded hulls and final delivery of the 6-pounder anti-tank gun . The role was outside of the usual hierarchy, allowing Robotham to co-ordinate efforts between DTD and industry while adding some much needed technical advice to
4455-471: The Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors . Further institutional connections exist between Commonwealth countries. These include, between some, connections to other parts of the Commonwealth in their judicial and military institutions. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
4554-413: The Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion. The Commonwealth is the largest association of ' Third World ' or ' Global South ' countries. With a population of 1.4 billion, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people. The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status
4653-581: The Commonwealth's fundamental political values. The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary-general , who is elected by the Commonwealth heads of government for no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal , from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeeding Kamalesh Sharma of India (2008–2016). The first secretary-general
4752-596: The Cruiser and Infantry tanks. Neither entered production. Light tanks had mostly been discounted by the start of the war in all roles except airborne (generally replaced with the Carrier). As a result, the majority of British wartime tank production focused on the Cruiser and Infantry types. Prior to 1936, tank design and production came under the responsibility of the Master General of the Ordnance , who appointed
4851-440: The Crusader was modified to take the 6-pounder gun. In parallel, Britain started to look at US made tanks to meet the Cruiser requirement, initially requesting the US to build Crusaders. This request was denied as the US tank programme was focussed on producing their own tanks of similar class, the M2 Medium . This fitted the same 37mm weapon as the M3 Light Tank (Stuart) which was already in British service. British experience of
4950-427: The Declaration, during the Constituent Assembly Debates that: We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At
5049-451: The Directorate of Tank Design returned to designing its own tanks, creating the Centurion tank ready for delivery in late 1945. At the start of the war, the Cruiser Mk IV was the current model of Cruiser tank based on a second version of the A13 specification. The Crusader and Covenanter were parallel designs for a cheaper cruiser tank than the A16 design proposed to replace the Cruiser Mark IV. Both designs were ordered in 1939 prior to
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#17327763614925148-474: The Loyd was in the TT (Tracked Towing) configuration, where it pulled the 6 pounder anti-tank gun from the Normandy landings of 1944 through to the end of the war. There are many wartime photographs of Loyds in action in Normandy, and a number were photographed destroyed in the well-known battle of Villers-Bocage in 1944. The Loyd Carrier was also paired with Caterpillar D8 tractors in service with Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers for tank recovery -
5247-446: The State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic ), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971). The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on
5346-436: The Statute of Westminster into the law of South Africa . Commonwealth countries and the Empire were involved in every major theatre of the Second World War . The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan was established for pilots from across the Empire and Dominions, created by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Troops from Australia, Britain, the British Raj and New Zealand made up
5445-414: The Tank Board and General Staff. In 1942, the Chairman of the AFV Division ( Viscount Weir ) was appointed as the Chief Executive for Tank Design, and became the chairman of the Tank Board. The Tank Board was reorganised to provide equal representation from Ministry of Supply and the War Office, consisting of: Following the fall of France, US contribution to the war effort became crucial. In early 1942
5544-403: The Tank Board to investigate and resolve tank design and production problems. The Director General of Tanks and Transport was replaced (now Geoffrey Burton) and now led a Director of Armoured Fighting Vehicles (representing the War Office), and separate Director of Design (A.A.M. Durant) and Director of Production. Under Durant's new Directorate of Tank Design a new Department of Tank Design (DTD)
5643-448: The Tank Board was further re-organized to include a Director of Artillery and representatives from the General Staff . As 1941 progressed, with development of greater horsepower tank engines, greater stresses were placed on many of the tank components. Rolls-Royce, aided by Leyland and Vauxhall, started to become more involved in improving the design of a greater array of tank components, increasing performance and reliability. This saw
5742-466: The UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, predominantly non- white and developing countries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries. The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the 'white Commonwealth', in reference to what had been known as the 'White Dominions'. On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became
5841-577: The United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore. Whilst British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan . Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also: Commonwealth diaspora ). The term New Commonwealth gained usage in
5940-423: The United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens. Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens were British subjects . Citizenship laws have evolved independently in each Commonwealth country. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in
6039-418: The beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs. Whilst some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm, even though
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#17327763614926138-462: The country sought closer ties with the Anglophone world . Under the formula of the London Declaration , Charles III is the Head of the Commonwealth . However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new head of the Commonwealth. Despite this, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his mother Elizabeth II as head after her death . The position
6237-419: The country to hold new elections before a full suspension of Commonwealth membership would be considered. Prior to Togo's admission at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , Togolese Foreign Minister Robert Dussey said that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English and access new educational and cultural resources. He also remarked that
6336-453: The end of the Suez Crisis. The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire was Mozambique in 1995 following its first democratic elections. Mozambique was a former Portuguese colony . Its entry preceded the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda became the second country to be admitted to the Commonwealth not to have any constitutional links to Britain. It
6435-408: The focus of the design team. At this stage the DTD began to take on a co-ordinating role. It produced specifications and commissioned pilot models for each tank to assess different companies. One competing company would then be appointed the design lead for further development of that tank. This followed a similar pattern to the RAF's Air Ministry Specifications . In November 1941, W A Robotham ,
6534-443: The former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles , be fully sovereign states , recognise King Charles III as head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership. These requirements had undergone review, and
6633-426: The highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace". However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition,
6732-492: The inclusion of "A" denoting an armament change or "*" denoting some other change. Thirdly by a name for this model of tank – e.g. Crusader. This could have a number associated for the version of this model of tank, e.g. Crusader II is the second variant or Mark to the Crusader I. Some tanks had already picked up names, either nicknames or from project names, but in June 1941 the Prime Minister Winston Churchill asked that all tanks be named. The number can be used for upgrades to
6831-430: The need for separate Cruiser and Infantry tanks, this marked the end of the Infantry tank line. British tank designs and the tanks produced were identified by General Staff specification, tank type, the mark (either of type, or of specific model), a service name, and version. For example, the A27M specification for a cruiser tank entered service as 'Tank, Cruiser, Mark VIII' (the eighth cruiser design to see service) with
6930-458: The organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat , which focuses on intergovernmental relations, and the Commonwealth Foundation , which focuses on non-governmental relations between member nations. Numerous organisations are associated with and operate within the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It
7029-466: The power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration. Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration , the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member. In addition to this new rule,
7128-412: The radiator behind rather than in front. The transmission then took the drive forward to the axle at the very front where it drove the tracks. Both the front drive sprockets and idlers (which were also sprocketed) at the rear of the tracks were fitted with brakes, actuated by a pair of levers by the driver. To turn the vehicle to the left, the brakes were applied on that side and the Carrier would slew round
7227-617: The relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and the need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its tenth province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified
7326-494: The reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air." In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents. 33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023,
7425-469: The rest of the war, although individuals filling the roles varied. As 1942 progressed, Viscount Weir was replaced by Commander Robert Micklem RN of Vickers as Chief Executive of Tank Design. Archie Boyd replaced George Usher as Controller of Tank Production. Claude Gibb was appointed Director-General of Armoured Fighting Vehicles, although Lucas continued to work under him. In August 1943, Robotham stepped down as CETD, returning to Rolls-Royce. In 1944
7524-526: The same person is monarch of each realm. At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became the European Union , and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth
7623-410: The same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it. The London Declaration is often seen as marking
7722-650: The service name 'Cromwell' and was produced in eight variants – Cromwell I to VIII. A related design but with a different engine – specification A27L – was the 'Tank, Cruiser, Mark VIII Centaur' This means that vehicles may be referenced in part or whole by combination of those elements. General Staff specification was a reference to the requirements developed by the Directorate of Tank Design e.g. A13. These were specifications for which new tanks were to be designed. Not all specifications led to vehicles being put into production. More than one design could be drawn up to
7821-491: The standard equipment of Royal Engineer Chemical Warfare Companies. Most of the Chemical Warfare Companies were disbanded or repurposed in 1943 in order to free up their 4.2 inch mortars for desperately needed conventional use by infantry divisions in-theatre; the mortars and supporting equipment were attached to each division's machine-gun battalion in company strength. By far the most notable use of
7920-636: The start of the war. The first tanks were delivered in 1940. Covenanter never achieved combat readiness, and was used for training in the UK. Crusader was used extensively in North Africa , but suffered from problems with reliability and insufficient numbers were able to be fielded, many returning to workshops for servicing. Works to replace the Crusader continued in Britain, but when its successors were delayed
8019-764: The statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively. Although the Union of South Africa was not amongst the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — the Status of the Union Act, 1934 , and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by the Parliament of South Africa to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate
8118-493: The stopped track. The upper hull covered the front and sides but was open to the rear and above; as the Carrier was not expected to function as a fighting vehicle, this was not an issue. To protect the occupants from the weather, a canvas tilt could be put up; this was standard fitment from the factory. The Army tested the Loyd Carrier in 1939 and placed an initial order for 200 as the Carrier, Tracked, Personnel Carrying i.e.
8217-475: The tank (synonymous with a second Mark designation), but can also be used for different capability packages, for instance the fitting of a different gun or engine. This isn't necessarily a refinement or improvement, it's simply adapted to a different need or manufacturing technique. They are all based on the same design of tank however, whereas the mark of tank is applied to evolutions of the tank design/specification. For example, Valentine and Churchill both mounted
8316-535: The time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime minister Guy Mollet proposed to British prime minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a "union" . When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis ". These ideas faded away with
8415-651: The transition from work on an improved Crusader tank , the Cavalier tank , to development of the new Cromwell tank . Rolls-Royce created the Rolls-Royce Meteor , and set its pre-war car design team to work in improving tank design to enable its use. Later in 1941, the DTD was transferred to the Controller General of Research and Development within the Ministry of Supply. This marked a major change in
8514-465: The unofficial moniker "heavy cruiser". The tanks that received the names Cavalier , Centaur and Cromwell were all designs to meet the same requirement for a cruiser tank to replace the Crusader tank. Design work took place in 1941 and 1942, focussed primarily on developments in engine and transmission technologies. The A24 Cavalier and A27L Centaur used the Nuffield Liberty engine while
8613-461: The way in the development of armoured warfare after the first world war, and also had a major influence on Axis development under Heinz Guderian until the outbreak of hostilities. Requirements were raised by Lieutenant General Sir Giffard Le Quesne Martel . These types were joined later in the war by requirement for a heavier Assault tank, and eventually the Universal tank expected to replace
8712-474: Was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–1975), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–1990), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–1999), and Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008). Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in the Caribbean , grant the right to vote to resident Commonwealth citizens. Some countries, including
8811-586: Was a Belgian trust territory that had been a district of German East Africa until World War I . In 2022, Togo , a former French mandate territory, and Gabon , a former French colony, joined the Commonwealth, despite never having been under British rule. Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023 following a military coup , with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for
8910-504: Was a machine gun armed infantry support tank. It had been built down to a price and for quick delivery. Those not lost during the fighting of the battle of France were abandoned at Dunkirk. The few left in the UK were retained for training only. Total production 1937–40: 140. The Matilda II was produced by Vulcan Foundry , John Fowler & Co. , Ruston & Hornsby , the London, Midland and Scottish Railway , Harland and Wolff , and
9009-687: Was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat . Rwanda was permitted to join despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission". CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish
9108-597: Was first used in action with the Normandy landings in June 1944. The A30 Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger was created as a derivative of Cromwell to meet the needs for a 17-pounder armed cruiser tank, but production was curtailed when a modification to the Sherman, Sherman Firefly , proved easier to produce. This allowed tank production to re-focus on Cromwell and the new Comet design. A34 Comet improved on Cromwell. It mounted
9207-480: Was formed to design the tanks. The DTD was formed rapidly from available technicians, in many cases lacking experience and lacking in production facilities, while a large number of projects based on General Staff requirements were underway. As such, tank design was increasingly reliant on industry experience and capabilities within Vickers , Vauxhall , Leyland Motors , Nuffield , and later Rolls-Royce. In 1941
9306-427: Was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden , considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone whilst also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth. The United Kingdom also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth, so that it would become a major economic common market. At
9405-551: Was later developed from the Churchill, design commencing in 1943, to be armed with the 17-pounder. By the time it was ready for production (early 1945) the Sherman Firefly and Comet had overcome the immediate need for 17-pounder armed tanks, while the new Centurion offered similar protection in a more agile cruiser tank configuration. Production was cancelled, and with Centurion (and the Universal tank concept) now replacing
9504-467: Was now part of the new Ministry of Supply . As works within the Ministry of Supply scaled up, a new Director General of Tanks and Transport, Peter Bennett, took on the capability of design leadership, and in 1940 added a Controller of Mechanisation (Major-General A.E. Davidson) to supervise the Mechanisation Board, working as before. In May 1940 the War Cabinet had been established, and formed
9603-442: Was originally created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which modernised the community and established the member states as "free and equal". It continues to be known colloquially as
9702-424: Was originally known as " special membership ", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership 's recommendation. There are currently no members in arrears. The most recent member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011. Nauru had alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation. In 2019, the Commonwealth members had
9801-592: Was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace , liberty , human rights , equality , and free trade . These criteria were unenforceable for two decades, until, in 1991,
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