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45-558: A lollipop is a type of sugar candy usually consisting of hard candy mounted on a stick and intended for sucking or licking . Different informal terms are used in different places, including lolly , sucker , sticky-pop , etc. Lollipops are available in many flavors and shapes. Lollipops are available in a number of colors and flavors, particularly fruit flavors. With numerous companies producing lollipops, they come in dozens of flavors and many different shapes. Lollipops can range from very small candies bought in bulk and given away as

90-535: A Tootsie Roll ) can be added to the final product but are not part of the main structure of a simple lollipop. The formation and physical state of the glassy amorphous structure used in the creation of the lollipop are involved in a chemical process . The first step in making lollipops after mixing the main ingredients is the heating process. During heating, the molecules increase in their translational mobility and therefore begin to resemble liquids. Although many hard candies are heated to about 310 °F (154 °C),

135-452: A 3D image. After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion. High quality analysis and processing using atomic electron tomography results in a 3D reconstruction of an amorphous material detailing the atomic positions of the different species that are present. Fluctuation electron microscopy is another transmission electron microscopy based technique that

180-425: A courtesy at banks , barbershops , and other locations, to very large treats made from candy canes twisted into a spiral shape. Most lollipops are eaten at room temperature, but " ice lollipops ", "ice lollies", or "popsicles" are frozen water-based lollipops. Some lollipops contain fillings, such as bubble gum or soft candy. Some novelty lollipops have more unusual items, such as mealworm larvae , embedded in

225-399: A few nanometres to tens of micrometres thickness that are deposited onto a substrate. So-called structure zone models were developed to describe the microstructure of thin films as a function of the homologous temperature ( T h ), which is the ratio of deposition temperature to melting temperature. According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases

270-440: A function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called anomalous being very different from properties of crystalline solids . On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunneling two-level systems. Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of

315-450: A large crystal of sugar candy (Kandiszucker or in the regional dialect Kluntje) is placed at the bottom of the cup and the hot tea added, which cracks and dissolves the crystal. Similarly in Iran, tea is consumed with sugar candy (called nabat ) placed either in the tea or in the mouth. In China , sugar candy is used to sweeten Chrysanthemum tea as well as Cantonese dessert soups and

360-399: A loss of shape, color, texture and flavor, rather than the growth of dangerous microbes. Impermeable packaging can reduce spoilage due to storage conditions. Candies spoil more quickly if they have different amounts of water in different parts of the candy (for example, a candy that combines marshmallow and nougat), or if they are stored in high-moisture environments. This process is due to

405-509: A stick is very simple, and it is probable that the lollipop has been invented and reinvented numerous times. The first confections that closely resemble lollipops date back to the Middle Ages , when the nobility would often eat boiled sugar with the aid of sticks or handles. The invention of the modern lollipop is still something of a mystery, but a number of American companies in the early 20th century have laid claim to it. According to

450-413: Is a favored reaction in this case. During the cooling process, the most important physicochemical characteristic of lollipops, the glass transition process, occurs. Sugar candy Sugar candy is any candy whose primary ingredient is sugar . The main types of sugar candies are hard candies , fondants, caramels , jellies, and nougats . In British English, this broad category of sugar candies

495-409: Is a water molecule attached to each carbon. Sugars come in two forms: straight-chain and ring form. When sugars are in straight-chain form, aldehyde and ketone groups are open, which leaves them very susceptible to reaction. In this state, sugars are unstable. In ring form, sugars are stable and therefore exist in this form in most foods, including lollipops. Sugar interacts differently depending on

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540-437: Is around 1–2%, whereas the final moisture content in crystalline candies is 8–12%. The non-crystalline nature of glassy amorphous solids is due to the presence of inhibitors in the solution. Without an inhibitor, crystallization would occur spontaneously and rapidly as sugar cools due to its high concentration. Some common inhibitors used in lollipop production are corn syrup, cream of tartar , honey , and butter . In lollipop,

585-428: Is called sweets , and the name candy or sugar-candy is used only for hard candies that are nearly solid sugar. Sugar candy is a sub-type of candy , which includes sugar candies as well as chocolates , chewing gum and other sweet foods. Candy, in turn, is a sub-type of confectionery , which also includes sweet pastries and sometimes ice cream . The oldest sugar candies are presumed to have been made where

630-467: Is carried out into thin amorphous films as a gas separating membrane layer. The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO 2 layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells . In

675-439: Is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett . Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding . Furthermore, in very small crystals , short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms ; nevertheless, relaxation at

720-434: Is radial distribution function analysis, which measures the number of atoms found at varying radial distances away from an arbitrary reference atom. From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated. X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on

765-651: Is sensitive to the medium range order of amorphous materials. Structural fluctuations arising from different forms of medium range order can be detected with this method. Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode. Simulation and modeling techniques are often combined with experimental methods to characterize structures of amorphous materials. Commonly used computational techniques include density functional theory , molecular dynamics , and reverse Monte Carlo . Amorphous phases are important constituents of thin films . Thin films are solid layers of

810-509: Is that ( T h ) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature. Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch. The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon -mediated Cooper pairing . The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on

855-432: Is untested, and anecdotal cases of weight loss may be due to the power of suggestion . Flavored lollipops containing medicine are intended to give children medicine without fuss. Actiq is a powerful analgesic lollipop whose active ingredient is fentanyl . Often, patients use large amounts of opioid pain medication and take Actiq on a handle in order to control breakthrough cancer pain. The idea of an edible candy on

900-421: The fundamental physics level. Amorphous solids is an important area of condensed matter physics aiming to understand these substances at high temperatures of glass transition and at low temperatures towards absolute zero . From 1970s, low-temperature properties of amorphous solids were studied experimentally in great detail. For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as

945-417: The oxidation state , coordination number , and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found. The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question, and then used to reconstruct

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990-653: The pharmaceutical industry , some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form in vivo , and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together. Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density , aggregate stability , plasticity , and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted . Andisol soils contain

1035-519: The sugar cane plant was domesticated. Sugar cane probably originated in Papua New Guinea, and from there was taken to Southeast Asia and other Pacific Islands, and ultimately to India and China. From India, sugar spread to the Arab states and eventually to Europe. Sugar candy is often used to sweeten tea. Northern Germany, specifically East Frisia , has an established tea culture , where

1080-538: The Soviet Union with an animal farm ruthlessly dominated by a ruling class of pigs, a raven called Moses regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called "Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!" Orwell portrays established religion as "the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power." The pigs bring

1125-469: The book Food for Thought: Extraordinary Little Chronicles of the World , they were invented by George Smith of New Haven, Connecticut , who started making large hard candies mounted on sticks in 1908. He named them after a racehorse of the time, Lolly Pop—and trademarked the lollipop name in 1931. The term 'lollipop' was recorded by English lexicographer Francis Grose in 1796. The term may have derived from

1170-683: The candy. Other novelty lollipops have non-edible centers, such as a flashing light embedded within the candy; there is also a trend, principally in North America, of lollipops with sticks attached to a motorized device that makes the candy spin around in one's mouth. In the Nordic countries , Germany , and the Netherlands , some lollipops are flavored with salmiak . Lollipops can be used to carry medicines. Some lollipops have been marketed for use as diet aids , although their effectiveness

1215-450: The diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data. Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance. Another type of analysis that is done with diffraction data of amorphous materials

1260-523: The effects of water activity , which results in the transfer of unwanted water from a high-moisture environment into a low-moisture candy, rendering it rubbery, or the loss of desirable water from a high-moisture candy into a dry environment, rendering the candy dry and brittle. Another factor, affecting only non-crystalline amorphous sugar candies, is the glass transition process. This can cause amorphous candies to lose their intended texture. In George Orwell's satirical book Animal Farm which equates

1305-619: The exiled raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin brought back the Russian Orthodox Church . Amorphous solid The term comes from the Greek a ("without"), and morphé ("shape, form"). Amorphous materials have an internal structure of molecular-scale structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units in the crystalline phase of the same compound. Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range regularity exists: amorphous materials cannot be described by

1350-430: The fasting period of Lent , because "sugared spices" (such as comfits ) were, in his opinion, digestive aids on par with medicine rather than food. Shelf life is largely determined by the amount of water present in the candy and the storage conditions. High-sugar candies, such as hard candies, can have a shelf life of many years if kept covered in a dry environment. Spoilage for low-moisture candies tends to involve

1395-528: The highest amounts of amorphous materials. The occurrence of amorphous phases turned out to be a phenomenon of particular interest for the studying of thin-film growth. The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films. Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of

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1440-703: The liquor baijiu . Sugar candy is a common ingredient in Chinese cooking, and many households have sugar candy available to marinate meats and add to stir fry. Sugar candy is also regarded as having medicinal properties and is used to prepare food such as yao shan . It is a common ingredient in Tamil cuisine , particularly in the Sri Lankan city of Jaffna . Chemically, sugar candies are broadly divided into two groups: crystalline candies and amorphous candies. Crystalline candies are not as hard as crystals of

1485-734: The mineral variety, but derive their name and their texture from their microscopically organized sugar structure, formed through a process of crystallization , which makes them easy to bite or cut into. Fudge , creams, and fondant are examples of crystalline candies. Amorphous candies have a disorganized crystalline structure. They usually have higher sugar concentrations, and the texture may be chewy, hard, or brittle. Hard candies , such as lollipops, caramels , nut brittles and toffees are all examples of amorphous sugar candies, even though some of them are as hard as rocks and resemble crystals in their overall appearance. Crystalline sugar candies are chemically described as having two phases, because

1530-439: The moisture content falls to less than 2% at the end of the lollipop making process, water is required at the start of the process. All other ingredients used in the process of lollipop production are optional. The use of inhibitors is dependent on the type of sugar used. The amount of inhibitor in the lollipop is usually small in comparison to the amount of sugar used. Additional flavors, colorings, and inclusions (like bubble gum or

1575-544: The presence of other ingredients and on various treatments. When heated enough to break the molecules apart, sugar generates a complex flavor, changes the color, and creates a pleasing aroma. Sugar can form two types of solids in foods: crystalline and glassy amorphous . Glassy amorphous solids can be found in products such as lollipops, marshmallows, and caramels. Glassy amorphous solids result when moderate sugar concentrations (50% solutions) are heated to high temperatures, eliminating nearly all moisture. The final moisture content

1620-461: The repetition of a finite unit cell. Statistical measures, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function , are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids. Although amorphous materials lack long range order, they exhibit localized order on small length scales. By convention, short range order extends only to the nearest neighbor shell, typically only 1-2 atomic spacings. Medium range order may extend beyond

1665-430: The research. Remarkably, a dimensionless quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials. This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path . Since the theory of tunneling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn

1710-461: The short range order by 1-2 nm. The freezing from liquid state to amorphous solid - glass transition - is considered one of the very important and unsolved problems of physics . At very low temperatures (below 1-10 K), large family of amorphous solids have various similar low-temperature properties. Although there are various theoretical models, neither glass transition nor low-temperature properties of glassy solids are well understood on

1755-529: The strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity. Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity. Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity. Today, optical coatings made from TiO 2 , SiO 2 , Ta 2 O 5 etc. (and combinations of these) in most cases consist of amorphous phases of these compounds. Much research

1800-502: The structure of amorphous solids. A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials. Unlike crystalline materials which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks. As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from

1845-444: The surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy , can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short size scales. Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining

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1890-406: The temperature that the solution is heated to is dependent on the specific volume and contents of the mixture. After heating is complete, the solution can then be cooled. The final cooled solution is supersaturated due to the moisture content dropping below 2%. Supersaturated or supercooled liquids are also formed due to inhibitors preventing crystallization. They are unstable because crystallization

1935-541: The terms "lolly" (tongue) and "pop" (slap). The first references to the lollipop in its modern context date to the 1920s. Alternatively, it may be a word of Romani origin, related to the Roma tradition of selling candy apples on a stick. Red apple in the Romani language is loli phaba . The main ingredients in a standard lollipop are sugar and corn syrup . Sugars are fully hydrated carbon chains , meaning that there

1980-547: The tiny, solid sugar crystals are suspended in a thick liquid solution. These are also called grained candies, because they can have a grainy texture. Amorphous sugar candies have only one phase, which is either solid or liquid, and do not have a grainy texture, so they may be called ungrained . Commercially, sugar candies are often divided into three groups, according to the amount of sugar they contain: Each of these three groups contains both crystalline (grained) and amorphous (ungrained) sugar candies. Historically, candy

2025-435: Was used not only as food but also as pharmaceutical preparations, to disguise the unpleasant taste of the drug ingredients. Cough drops and some other drugs show this heritage in the form of sugar tablets containing drugs, active drug ingredients being added to hard candies, and panned sugar coatings surrounding unpalatable pills. During the Middle Ages , Thomas Aquinas authorized the consumption of sugar candy during

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