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80-629: The Lonchodinae are a subfamily of stick insects in the family Lonchodidae found in: Australasia, Asia, Africa, Southern America and the Pacific. The subfamilies Necrosciinae and Lonchodinae, formerly part of Diapheromeridae , were determined to make up a separate family and were transferred to the re-established family Lonchodidae in 2018. The Phasmida Species File lists two established tribes: Authority: Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 Authority: Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 (synonym Menexenini) The tribe Neohiraseini Hennemann & Conle, 2008

160-479: A common ancestor) and hence invalid in the traditional circumscription (set of attributes that all members have). Phasmatodea, once considered a suborder of Orthoptera , is now treated as an order of its own. Anatomical features separate them as a monophyletic (descended from a common ancestor) group from the Orthoptera. One is the instance among all species of Phasmatodea of a pair of exocrine glands inside

240-431: A fatty, knoblike capitulum that caps the operculum. This structure attracts ants because of its resemblance to the elaiosome of some plant seeds that are sought-after food sources for ant larvae, and usually contribute to ensuring seed dispersal by ants, a form of ant-plant mutualism called myrmecochory . The ants take the egg into their nest underground and can remove the capitulum to feed to their larvae without harming

320-639: A few other species that live in Europe but are introduced, as for example with a couple of species of Acanthoxyla , which are native to New Zealand but are present in southern England. In the Iberian Peninsula there are currently described 13 species and several subspecies. Their life cycle is annual, living only during the hottest months (especially genera Leptynia and Pijnackeria ), which usually means late spring to early autumn. Stick insects, like praying mantises , show rocking behavior in which

400-416: A further behavioral adaptation to supplement crypsis , a number of species perform a rocking motion where the body is swayed from side to side; this is thought to mimic the movement of leaves or twigs swaying in the breeze. Another method by which stick insects avoid predation and resemble twigs is by entering a cataleptic state , where the insect adopts a rigid, motionless posture that can be maintained for

480-446: A genetic and structural level. The new term corneous beta protein (CBP) has been proposed to avoid confusion with α-keratins. Keratins (also described as cytokeratins ) are polymers of type I and type II intermediate filaments that have been found only in chordates ( vertebrates , amphioxi , urochordates ). Nematodes and many other non-chordate animals seem to have only type VI intermediate filaments , fibers that structure

560-507: A long established (and simple) name is reasonable, although the probability of persuading all colleagues to agree on the use of Phasmida is unlikely. The order Phasmatodea is sometimes considered to be related to other orders, including the Blattodea , Mantodea , Grylloblattodea , Mantophasmatodea and Dermaptera , but the affiliations are uncertain and the grouping (sometimes referred to as "Orthopteroidea") may be paraphyletic (not have

640-502: A long period. The nocturnal feeding habits of adults also help Phasmatodea to remain concealed from predators. In a seemingly different method of defense, many species of Phasmatodea seek to startle the encroaching predator by flashing bright colors that are normally hidden, and making a loud noise. When disturbed on a branch or foliage, some species, while dropping to the undergrowth to escape, will open their wings momentarily during free fall to display bright colors that disappear when

720-462: A role in the dispersal of parthenogenetic stick insect species, especially to islands. The Phasmatodea life cycle is hemimetabolous , proceeding through a series of several nymphal instars . Once emerged, a nymph will eat its cast skin. Adulthood is reached for most species after several months and many molts. The lifespan of Phasmatodea varies by species, but ranges from a few months to up to three years. Phasmids are herbivorous, feeding mostly on

800-424: A series of assembly steps beginning with dimerization; dimers assemble into tetramers and octamers and eventually, if the current hypothesis holds, into unit-length-filaments (ULF) capable of annealing end-to-end into long filaments. Cornification is the process of forming an epidermal barrier in stratified squamous epithelial tissue. At the cellular level, cornification is characterised by: Metabolism ceases, and

880-402: A shorter-range defensive secretion, where individuals bleed reflexively through the joints of their legs and the seams of the exoskeleton when bothered, allowing the blood ( hemolymph ), which contains distasteful compounds, to discourage predators. Another ploy is to regurgitate their stomach contents when harassed, repelling potential predators. The life cycle of the stick insect begins when

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960-841: A source of relative motion to help them discern objects in the foreground. Mating behavior in Phasmatodea is impressive because of the extraordinarily long duration of some pairings. A record among insects, the stick insect Necroscia sparaxes , found in India, is sometimes coupled for 79 days at a time. It is not uncommon for this species to assume the mating posture for days or weeks on end, and among some species ( Diapheromera veliei and D. covilleae ), pairing can last three to 136 hours in captivity. Overt displays of aggression between males over mates suggests that extended pairing may have evolved to guard females from sperm competition . Fighting between competing males has been observed in

1040-514: A storyline centered around a giant stick insect and cryptid called the insulindian phasmid. A clip of a stick insect swaying back and forth, in a manner akin to dancing, became an Internet meme in 2020 as a bait-and-switch . Keratin Spider silk is classified as keratin, although production of the protein may have evolved independently of the process in vertebrates. Alpha-keratins (α-keratins) are found in all vertebrates. They form

1120-553: A valuable prize, so for the lucky male, even the sacrifice of his own life to preserve his offspring with the female may be worthwhile. Sexual dimorphism in the species, where females are usually significantly larger than the males, may have evolved due to the fitness advantage accrued to males that can remain attached to the female, thereby blocking competitors, without severely impeding her movement. Certain Phasmatodea, such as Anisomorpha buprestoides , sometimes form aggregations. These insects have been observed to congregate during

1200-405: A variety of conditions including keratosis , hyperkeratosis and keratoderma . Mutations in keratin gene expression can lead to, among others: Several diseases, such as athlete's foot and ringworm , are caused by infectious fungi that feed on keratin. Keratin is highly resistant to digestive acids if ingested. Cats regularly ingest hair as part of their grooming behavior , leading to

1280-440: A β-keratin, can have these two as 75–80% of the total, with 10–15% serine , with the rest having bulky side groups. The chains are antiparallel, with an alternating C → N orientation. A preponderance of amino acids with small, nonreactive side groups is characteristic of structural proteins, for which H-bonded close packing is more important than chemical specificity . In addition to intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds ,

1360-431: Is delayed during the winter months. Diapause is initiated by the effect of short day lengths on the egg-laying adults or can be genetically determined. Diapause is broken by exposure to the cold of winter, causing the eggs to hatch during the following spring. Among species of economic importance such as Diapheromera femorata , diapause results in the development of two-year cycles of outbreaks. Many species' eggs bear

1440-645: Is long in the winged species, since it houses the flight muscles, and is typically much shorter in the wingless forms. Where present, the first pair of wings is narrow and cornified (hardened), while the hind wings are broad, with straight veins along their length and multiple cross-veins. Their wing venation is unique among insects. The body is often further modified to resemble vegetation, with ridges resembling leaf veins, bark-like tubercles , and other forms of camouflage . A few species, such as Carausius morosus , are even able to change their pigmentation to match their surroundings. The mouthparts project out from

1520-498: Is now considered a junior synonym in the family Diapheromeridae : subfamily Necrosciinae . Stick insect † Susumanioidea Timematodea Euphasmatodea (=Verophasmatodea) The Phasmatodea (also known as Phasmida or Phasmatoptera ) are an order of insects whose members are variously known as stick insects , stick bugs , walkingsticks , stick animals , or bug sticks . They are also occasionally referred to as Devil's darning needles , although this name

1600-647: Is shared by both dragonflies and crane flies. They can be generally referred to as phasmatodeans , phasmids , or ghost insects , with phasmids in the family Phylliidae called leaf insects , leaf-bugs , walking leaves , or bug leaves . The group's name is derived from the Ancient Greek φάσμα phasma , meaning an apparition or phantom , referring to their resemblance to vegetation while in fact being animals. Their natural camouflage makes them difficult for predators to detect; still, many species have one of several secondary lines of defense in

1680-450: Is widely accepted. However, Brock and Marshall argue: Phasmida is the oldest and simplest name, first used by Leach in 1815 in "Brewster’s Edinburgh Encyclopaedia" volume 9, p. 119, and widely used in major entomological textbooks, dictionaries and many scientific papers and books on phasmids. As there is no compulsion to select the "grammatically correct" name [which some argue is Phasmatodea Jacobson & Bianchi, 1902], selection of

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1760-436: The D'Entrecasteaux Islands have traditionally made fishhooks from the legs of certain phasmids. Research has been conducted to analyze the stick insect method of walking and apply this to the engineering of six-legged walking robots . Instead of one centralized control system , it seems each leg of a phasmid operates independently. In Australia and Hawaii many kinds of stick insects are kept as exotic pets including

1840-792: The Permian epoch represent stem-group phasmatodeans, the earliest unambiguous members of the group are the Susumanioidea , which first appeared during the Middle Jurassic , and usually have two large pairs of wings. Modern phasmatodeans first appeared during the Early Cretaceous , with the cuirrently oldest known being Araripephasma from the Early Cretaceous ( Aptian ) Crato Formation of Brazil, around 113 million years old, which can be confidently assigned to

1920-679: The South Pacific all occur in outbreaks of economic importance. Indeed, in the American South , as well as in Michigan and Wisconsin , the walking stick is a significant problem in parks and recreation sites, where it consumes the foliage of oaks and other hardwoods . Severe outbreaks of the walking stick, Diapheromera femorata , have occurred in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma . The insects eat

2000-665: The hair (including wool ), the outer layer of skin , horns , nails , claws and hooves of mammals, and the slime threads of hagfish . The baleen plates of filter-feeding whales are also made of keratin. Keratin filaments are abundant in keratinocytes in the hornified layer of the epidermis ; these are proteins which have undergone keratinization . They are also present in epithelial cells in general. For example, mouse thymic epithelial cells react with antibodies for keratin 5, keratin 8, and keratin 14. These antibodies are used as fluorescent markers to distinguish subsets of mouse thymic epithelial cells in genetic studies of

2080-508: The spinnerets on spiders' tails, and the contributions of their interior glands , provide remarkable control of fast extrusion . Spider silk is typically about 1 to 2 micrometers (μm) thick, compared with about 60 μm for human hair, and more for some mammals. The biologically and commercially useful properties of silk fibers depend on the organization of multiple adjacent protein chains into hard, crystalline regions of varying size, alternating with flexible, amorphous regions where

2160-544: The thymus . The harder beta-keratins (β-keratins) are found only in the sauropsids , that is all living reptiles and birds . They are found in the nails, scales , and claws of reptiles , in some reptile shells ( Testudines , such as tortoise , turtle , terrapin ), and in the feathers , beaks , and claws of birds . These keratins are formed primarily in beta sheets . However, beta sheets are also found in α-keratins. Recent scholarship has shown that sauropsid β-keratins are fundamentally different from α-keratins at

2240-486: The Euphasmatodea. The earliest leaf insect (Phylliinae) fossil is Eophyllium messelensis from the 47-million-year-old Eocene of Messel, Germany. In size and cryptic (leaflike) body form, it closely resembles extant species, suggesting that the behavior of the group has changed little since that time. Over 3,500 species have been described, with many more yet to be described both in museum collections and in

2320-527: The ability to mate and their sexual behavior depends on the presence and abundance of males. Phasmatodea eggs resemble seeds in shape and size and have hard shells. They have a lid-like structure called an operculum at the anterior pole , from which the nymph emerges during hatching. The eggs vary in the length of time before they hatch which varies from 13 to more than 70 days, with the average around 20 to 30 days. Some species, particularly those from temperate regions, undergo diapause , where development

2400-407: The blood of the opponent when they are flexed against the body to puncture the integument . Usually, a strong hold on the female's abdomen and blows to the intruder are enough to deter the unwanted competition, but occasionally the competitor has been observed to employ a sneaky tactic to inseminate the female. While the first mate is engaged in feeding and is forced to vacate the dorsal position,

2480-409: The body and head to resemble ants or scorpions in an act of mimicry , another defense mechanism by which the insects avoid becoming prey. The eggs of some species such as Diapheromera femorata have fleshy projections resembling elaiosomes (fleshy structures sometimes attached to seeds) that attract ants. When the egg has been carried to the colony, the adult ant feeds the elaiosome to a larva while

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2560-480: The cells are almost completely filled by keratin. During the process of epithelial differentiation, cells become cornified as keratin protein is incorporated into longer keratin intermediate filaments. Eventually the nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles disappear, metabolism ceases and cells undergo a programmed death as they become fully keratinized. In many other cell types, such as cells of the dermis, keratin filaments and other intermediate filaments function as part of

2640-505: The chains are randomly coiled . A somewhat analogous situation occurs with synthetic polymers such as nylon , developed as a silk substitute. Silk from the hornet cocoon contains doublets about 10 μm across, with cores and coating, and may be arranged in up to 10 layers, also in plaques of variable shape. Adult hornets also use silk as a glue , as do spiders. Glues made from partially-hydrolysed keratin include hoof glue and horn glue . Abnormal growth of keratin can occur in

2720-444: The coiled-coil structure is hydrophobic interactions between apolar residues along the keratins helical segments. Limited interior space is the reason why the triple helix of the (unrelated) structural protein collagen , found in skin , cartilage and bone , likewise has a high percentage of glycine . The connective tissue protein elastin also has a high percentage of both glycine and alanine . Silk fibroin , considered

2800-470: The crystal structure of a helical domain of keratins. The human genome has 54 functional annotated Keratin genes, 28 are in the Keratin type 1 family, and 26 are in the Keratin type 2 family. Fibrous keratin molecules supercoil to form a very stable, left-handed superhelical motif to multimerise, forming filaments consisting of multiple copies of the keratin monomer . The major force that keeps

2880-449: The cytoskeleton to mechanically stabilize the cell against physical stress. It does this through connections to desmosomes, cell–cell junctional plaques, and hemidesmosomes, cell-basement membrane adhesive structures. Cells in the epidermis contain a structural matrix of keratin, which makes this outermost layer of the skin almost waterproof, and along with collagen and elastin gives skin its strength. Rubbing and pressure cause thickening of

2960-523: The day in a concealed location, going their separate ways at nightfall to forage, and returning to their refuge before dawn. Such behavior has been little studied, and how the insects find their way back is unknown. Stick insects are often kept in captivity: almost 300 species have been reared in laboratories or as pets. The most commonly kept is the Indian (or laboratory) stick insect, Carausius morosus , which eats vegetables such as lettuce. Droppings of

3040-441: The daytime, and changes in the width of the retinal layer to adapt to changes in available light are significantly more pronounced in adults. The larger size of the adult insects' eyes makes them more prone to radiation damage. This explains why fully grown individuals are mostly nocturnal. Lessened sensitivity to light in the newly emerged insects helps them to escape from the leaf litter wherein they are hatched and move upward into

3120-435: The distinguishing feature of keratins is the presence of large amounts of the sulfur -containing amino acid cysteine , required for the disulfide bridges that confer additional strength and rigidity by permanent, thermally stable crosslinking —in much the same way that non-protein sulfur bridges stabilize vulcanized rubber . Human hair is approximately 14% cysteine. The pungent smells of burning hair and skin are due to

3200-582: The entire leaf blade. In the event of heavy outbreaks, entire stands of trees can be completely denuded. Continuous defoliation over several years often results in the death of the tree. Because these species cannot fly, infestations are typically contained to a radius of a few hundred yards. Nevertheless, the damage incurred to parks in the region is often costly. Control efforts in the case of infestations have typically involved chemical pesticides ; ground fires are effective at killing eggs but have obvious disadvantages. In New South Wales, research has investigated

3280-424: The extinct genus and species Eoprephasma hichensi have been recovered from Ypresian age sediments in the U.S. state of Washington and British Columbia , Canada. The species is one of the youngest members of the stem phasmatodean group Susumanioidea . In Europe there are 17 species of stick insects described, belonging to the genera Bacillus Clonopsis , Leptynia and Pijnackeria . There are also

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3360-415: The eyes and mouth of a predator. The spray often contains pungent-smelling volatile metabolites , previously thought to be concentrated in the insect from its plant food sources. However, it now seems more likely that the insect manufactures its own defensive chemicals. Additionally, the chemistry of the defense spray from at least one species, Anisomorpha buprestoides , has been shown to vary based on

3440-407: The feasibility of controlling stick insects using natural enemies such as parasitic wasps ( Myrmecomimesis spp.). The classification of the Phasmatodea is complex and the relationships between its members are poorly understood. Furthermore, there is much confusion over the ordinal name. Phasmida is preferred by many authors, though it is incorrectly formed ; Phasmatodea is correctly formed, and

3520-417: The female deposits her eggs through one of these methods of oviposition : she will either flick her egg to the ground by a movement of the ovipositor or her entire abdomen, carefully place the eggs in the axils of the host plant, bury them in small pits in the soil, or stick the eggs to a substrate , usually a stem or leaf of the food plant. A single female lays from 100 to 1,200 eggs after mating, depending on

3600-409: The females lay eggs in the autumn before dying, and the new generation hatches in the spring. Some species have wings and can disperse by flying, while others are more restricted. Phasmids vary greatly in size, with females typically growing larger than males of the same species. Males of the smallest species, such as Timema cristinae , reach about 2 centimetres (0.8 in) long, while females of

3680-420: The first three groups have females with ocelli, which like the wings seems to have re-evolved from ancestors that had lost them. Phasmids have an impressive visual system that allows them to perceive significant detail even in dim conditions, which suits their typically nocturnal lifestyle. They are born equipped with tiny compound eyes with a limited number of facets. As phasmids grow through successive molts ,

3760-676: The form of startle displays , spines or toxic secretions. Stick insects from the genera Phryganistria , Ctenomorpha , and Phobaeticus include the world's longest insects. Members of the order are found on all continents except Antarctica , but they are most abundant in the tropics and subtropics . They are herbivorous, with many species living unobtrusively in the tree canopy. They have an incomplete metamorphosis life cycle with three stages: egg, nymph and adult. Many phasmids are parthenogenic , and do not require fertilized eggs for female offspring to be produced. In hotter climates, they may breed all year round; in more temperate regions,

3840-488: The form of a plant mimicry . Most phasmids are known for effectively replicating the forms of sticks and leaves, and the bodies of some species (such as Pseudodiacantha macklotti and Bactrododema centaurum ) are covered in mossy or lichenous outgrowths that supplement their disguise. Remaining absolutely stationary enhances their inconspicuousness. Some species have the ability to change color as their surroundings shift ( Bostra scabrinota , Timema californica ). In

3920-405: The gradual formation of hairballs that may be expelled orally or excreted. In humans, trichophagia may lead to Rapunzel syndrome , an extremely rare but potentially fatal intestinal condition. Keratin expression is helpful in determining epithelial origin in anaplastic cancers. Tumors that express keratin include carcinomas , thymomas , sarcomas and trophoblastic neoplasms . Furthermore,

4000-476: The head. Chewing mandibles are uniform across species. The legs are typically long and slender, and some species are capable of limb autotomy (appendage shedding). Phasmids have long, slender antennae , as long as or longer than the rest of the body in some species. All phasmids possess compound eyes , but ocelli (light-sensitive organs) are only known from the five groups Lanceocercata, Necrosciinae, Pseudophasmatidae, Palophidae and Phylliidae. Of these only

4080-406: The insect lands. Others will maintain their display for up to 20 minutes, hoping to frighten the predator and convey the appearance of a larger size. Some, such as Pterinoxylus spinulosus , accompany the visual display with the noise made by rubbing together parts of the wings. Some species, such as the young nymphs of Extatosoma tiaratum , have been observed to curl the abdomen upwards over

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4160-399: The insect makes rhythmic, repetitive, side-to-side movements. The common interpretation of this behavior's function is it enhances crypsis by mimicking vegetation moving in the wind. These movements may also be important in allowing the insects to discriminate objects from the background by relative motion. Rocking movements by these generally sedentary insects may replace flying or running as

4240-556: The insect's life stage or the particular population it is part of. This chemical spray variation also corresponds with regionally specific color forms in populations in Florida, with the different variants having distinct behaviors. The spray from one species, Megacrania nigrosulfurea , is used as a treatment for skin infections by a tribe in Papua New Guinea because of its antibacterial constituents. Some species employ

4320-413: The intruder can clasp the female's abdomen and insert his genitalia . If he is discovered, the males will enter into combat wherein they lean backward, both clasped to the female's abdomen, and freely suspended, engage in rapid, sweeping blows with their forelegs in a manner similar to boxing . Usually, when the intruder gains attachment to the female's abdomen, these conflicts result in the displacement of

4400-403: The island of Borneo , making it the richest place in the world for Phasmatodea. Phasmatodea species exhibit mechanisms for defense from predators that prevent an attack from happening in the first place (primary defense), and defenses that are deployed after an attack has been initiated (secondary defense). The defense mechanism most readily identifiable with Phasmatodea is camouflage , in

4480-465: The leaves of trees and shrubs, and a conspicuous component of many Neotropical systems. Phasmatodea has been postulated as dominant light-gap herbivores there. Their role in the forest ecosystem is considered important by many scientists, who stress the significance of light gaps in maintaining succession and resilience in climax forests . The presence of phasmids lowers the net production of early successional plants by consuming them and then enriches

4560-425: The legs together, grasping at the threat. If the menace is caught, the spines can, in humans, draw blood and inflict considerable pain. Some species are equipped with a pair of glands at the anterior (front) edge of the prothorax that enables the insect to release defensive secretions, including chemical compounds of varying effect: some produce distinct odors, and others can cause a stinging, burning sensation in

4640-520: The longest, an undescribed species informally known as Phryganistria "chinensis" , is up to 64 centimetres (25 in) in total length, including outstretched legs. This makes it the world's longest insect . The heaviest species of phasmid is likely to be Heteropteryx dilatata , the females of which may weigh as much as 65 g (2.3 oz). Some phasmids have cylindrical stick-like shapes, while others have flattened, leaflike shapes. Many species are wingless, or have reduced wings. The thorax

4720-428: The male functions well as a shield. This could indicate that manipulation by females is taking place: if females accept ejaculate at a slow rate, for instance, the males are forced to remain in copulo for longer and the female's chances of survival are enhanced. Also, evolution could have simply favored males that remained attached to their females longer, since females are often less abundant than males and represent

4800-441: The more brightly illuminated foliage. Young stick insects are diurnal (daytime) feeders and move around freely, expanding their foraging range. Stick insects have two types of pads on their legs: sticky "toe pads" and non-stick "heel pads" a little further up their legs. The heel pads are covered in microscopic hairs which create strong friction at low pressure, enabling them to grip without having to be peeled energetically from

4880-883: The nucleus . The human genome encodes 54 functional keratin genes , located in two clusters on chromosomes 12 and 17. This suggests that they originated from a series of gene duplications on these chromosomes. The keratins include the following proteins of which KRT23 , KRT24 , KRT25 , KRT26 , KRT27 , KRT28 , KRT31 , KRT32 , KRT33A , KRT33B , KRT34 , KRT35 , KRT36 , KRT37 , KRT38 , KRT39 , KRT40 , KRT71 , KRT72 , KRT73 , KRT74 , KRT75 , KRT76 , KRT77 , KRT78 , KRT79 , KRT8 , KRT80 , KRT81 , KRT82 , KRT83 , KRT84 , KRT85 and KRT86 have been used to describe keratins past 20. The first sequences of keratins were determined by Israel Hanukoglu and Elaine Fuchs (1982, 1983). These sequences revealed that there are two distinct but homologous keratin families, which were named type I and type II keratins. By analysis of

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4960-401: The number of facets in each eye is increased along with the number of photoreceptor cells . The sensitivity of the adult eye is at least tenfold that of the nymph in its first instar (developmental stage). As the eye grows more complex, the mechanisms to adapt to dark/light changes are also enhanced: eyes in dark conditions evidence fewer screening pigments, which would block light, than during

5040-420: The original mate. Lengthy pairings have also been described in terms of a defensive alliance. When cleaved together, the pair is more unwieldy for predators to handle. Also, the chemical defenses (secretions, reflex bleeding, regurgitation) of the individual stick insect are enhanced when two are paired. Females survive attacks by predators significantly better when pairing, largely because the dorsal position of

5120-710: The outer, cornified layer of the epidermis and form protective calluses, which are useful for athletes and on the fingertips of musicians who play stringed instruments. Keratinized epidermal cells are constantly shed and replaced. These hard, integumentary structures are formed by intercellular cementing of fibers formed from the dead, cornified cells generated by specialized beds deep within the skin. Hair grows continuously and feathers molt and regenerate. The constituent proteins may be phylogenetically homologous but differ somewhat in chemical structure and supermolecular organization. The evolutionary relationships are complex and only partially known. Multiple genes have been identified for

5200-410: The phasmid egg is left to develop in the recesses of the nest in a protected environment. When threatened, some phasmids that are equipped with femoral spines on the metathoracic legs ( Oncotophasma martini , Eurycantha calcarata , Eurycantha horrida , Diapheromera veliei , Diapheromera covilleae , Heteropteryx dilatata ) respond by curling the abdomen upward and repeatedly swinging

5280-405: The phasmid embryo. There, the egg hatches and the young nymph, which initially resembles an ant (another instance of mimicry among Phasmatodea), eventually emerges from the nest and climbs the nearest tree to safety in the foliage. The eggs of stick insects have a coating of calcium oxalate which makes them survive unscathed in the digestive tract of birds. It has been suggested that birds may have

5360-404: The primary structures of these keratins and other intermediate filament proteins, Hanukoglu and Fuchs suggested a model in which keratins and intermediate filament proteins contain a central ~310 residue domain with four segments in α-helical conformation that are separated by three short linker segments predicted to be in beta-turn conformation. This model has been confirmed by the determination of

5440-422: The prothorax used for defense. Another is the presence of a specially formed sclerite (hardened plate), called a vomer, which allows the male to clasp the female during mating. The order is divided into two, or sometimes three, suborders. The traditional division is into the suborder groups Anareolatae and Areolatae, which are distinguished according to whether the insect has sunken areola, or circular areas, on

5520-530: The remaining taxa . This division is, however, not fully supported by the molecular studies, which recover Agathemerodea as nested within Euphasmatodea rather than being the sister group of the latter group. Recent taxonomic treatments recognise two suborders, with Agathemeridae placed in Pseudophasmatoidea within Euphasmatodea and Agathemerodea treated as nomen dubium While suggestions have been made that various insects extending back to

5600-543: The soil by defecation . This enables the late succession plants to become established and encourages the recycling of the tropical forest. Phasmatodea are recognized as injurious to forest and shade trees by defoliation . Didymuria violescens , Podacanthus wilkinsoni and Ctenomorphodes tessulatus in Australia, Diapheromera femorata in North America and Graeffea crouani in coconut plantations in

5680-435: The species D. veiliei and D. covilleae . During these encounters, the approach of a challenger causes the existing mate to manipulate the female's abdomen, which he has clasped by means of the clasping organ, or vomer, down upon itself to block the site of attachment. Occasionally, the consort will strike out at the competitor with the mid femora, which are equipped with an enlarged and hooked spine in both sexes that can draw

5760-423: The species. Many species of phasmids are parthenogenic , meaning the females lay eggs without needing to mate with males to produce offspring. Eggs from virgin mothers are entirely female and hatch into nymphs that are exact copies of their mothers. Stick insect species that are the product of hybridisation are usually obligate parthenogens , but non-hybrids are facultative parthenogens , meaning they retain

5840-453: The stick insect Eurycnema versirubra (Serville, 1838) [= Eurycnema versifasciata ] fed with specific plants are made into a medicinal tea by Malaysian Chinese to treat ailments. The botanical illustrator Marianne North (1830–1890) painted leaf and stick insects that she saw on her travels in the 1870s. Tribesmen in Sarawak eat phasmids and their eggs. Some indigenous people of

5920-716: The strong, goliath , spiny and children's . The custom of keeping stick insects as pets was probably brought to Australia by either Chinese , Japanese or Vietnamese immigrants during World War II , the Korean War or the Vietnam War . Stick insects have been kept as pets since the time of the Han dynasty . They were kept inside birdcages and people in the Far East believe they bring good luck and fortune , just like crickets . The video game Disco Elysium includes

6000-577: The surface at each step. The sticky toe pads are used to provide additional grip when climbing but are not used on a level surface. Phasmatodea can be found all over the world except for the Antarctic and Patagonia. They are most numerous in the tropics and subtropics . The greatest diversity is found in Southeast Asia and South America , followed by Australia , Central America, and the southern United States. Over 300 species are known from

6080-409: The surface of many cell types. It has been proposed that keratins can be divided into 'hard' and 'soft' forms, or ' cytokeratins ' and 'other keratins'. That model is now understood to be correct. A new nuclear addition in 2006 to describe keratins takes this into account. Keratin filaments are intermediate filaments . Like all intermediate filaments, keratin proteins form filamentous polymers in

6160-511: The underside of the apices of the middle and hind tibiae (Areolate) or not (Anareolate). However the phylogenetic (evolutionary) relationships between the different groups is poorly resolved. The monophyly of Anareolatae has been questioned and the morphology of the eggs may be a better basis for classification. An alternative is to divide the Phasmatodea into three suborders Agathemerodea (1 genus and 8 species), Timematodea (1 genus and 21 species) and Euphasmatodea (or Verophasmatodea) for

6240-1084: The volatile sulfur compounds formed. Extensive disulfide bonding contributes to the insolubility of keratins, except in a small number of solvents such as dissociating or reducing agents. The more flexible and elastic keratins of hair have fewer interchain disulfide bridges than the keratins in mammalian fingernails , hooves and claws (homologous structures), which are harder and more like their analogs in other vertebrate classes. Hair and other α-keratins consist of α-helically coiled single protein strands (with regular intra-chain H-bonding ), which are then further twisted into superhelical ropes that may be further coiled. The β-keratins of reptiles and birds have β-pleated sheets twisted together, then stabilized and hardened by disulfide bridges. Thiolated polymers (= thiomers ) can form disulfide bridges with cysteine substructures of keratins getting covalently attached to these proteins. Thiomers exhibit therefore high binding properties to keratins found in hair, on skin and on

6320-598: The wild. One Australian species, the Lord Howe Island stick insect , is now listed as critically endangered. It was believed extinct until its rediscovery on the rock known as Ball's Pyramid . An effort is underway in Australia to rear this species in captivity . The best known of the stick insects is the Indian or laboratory stick insect ( Carausius morosus ). This insect grows to roughly 10 cm (4 in) and reproduces parthenogenically , and although males have been recorded, they are rare. Fossils of

6400-452: The β-keratins in feathers, and this is probably characteristic of all keratins. The silk fibroins produced by insects and spiders are often classified as keratins, though it is unclear whether they are phylogenetically related to vertebrate keratins. Silk found in insect pupae , and in spider webs and egg casings, also has twisted β-pleated sheets incorporated into fibers wound into larger supermolecular aggregates. The structure of

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