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65-518: The longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) is a pine species native to the Southeastern United States , found along the coastal plain from East Texas to southern Virginia , extending into northern and central Florida . In this area it is also known as "yellow pine" or "long leaf yellow pine", although it is properly just one out of a number of species termed yellow pine . It reaches a height of 30–35 m (98–115 ft) and

130-409: A gap or no tree canopy is above it. In the grass stage, it is very resistant to low intensity fires because the terminal bud is protected from lethal heating by the tightly packed needles. While relatively immune to fire at this stage, the plant is quite appealing to feral pigs ; the early settlers' habit of releasing swine into the woodlands to feed may have been partly responsible for the decline of

195-449: A century ago, and these usually are dug up and sold as fatwood , "fat lighter", or "lighter wood", which is in demand as kindling for fireplaces, wood stoves, and barbecue pits. In old-growth pine, the heartwood of the bole is often saturated in the same way. When boards are cut from the fat lighter wood, they are very heavy and will not rot, but buildings constructed of them are quite flammable and make extremely hot fires. The seeds of

260-502: A diameter of 0.7 m (28 in). In the past, before extensive logging, they reportedly grew to 47 m (154 ft) with a diameter of 1.2 m (47 in). The tree is a cultural symbol of the Southern United States , being the official state tree of Alabama . This particular species is one of the eight pine tree species that falls under the "Pine" designation as the state tree of North Carolina . The bark

325-564: A means to evaluate soil fertility and vigour of the trees. The bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in "pseudo whorls", actually a very tight spiral but appearing like a ring of branches arising from the same point. Many pines are uninodal, producing just one such whorl of branches each year, from buds at the tip of the year's new shoot , but others are multinodal, producing two or more whorls of branches per year. Pines have four types of leaf : Pines are monoecious , having

390-404: A midstory canopy ) leads to open longleaf pine forests or savannas . New seedlings do not appear at all tree-like and resemble a dark-green fountain of needles. This form is called the grass stage. During this stage, which lasts for 5–12 years, vertical growth is very slow, and the tree may take a number of years simply to grow ankle high. After that, it has a growth spurt, especially if it is in

455-573: A plan to reintroduce longleaf pines to the Dendron Swamp Natural Area Preserve , with seedlings propagated from cones collected at South Quay Sandhills Natural Area Preserve . Vast forests of longleaf pine once were present along the southeastern Atlantic coast and Gulf Coast of North America , as part of the eastern savannas . These forests were the source of naval stores – resin , turpentine , and timber  – needed by merchants and

520-412: A plant’s reproduction and growing ability. When a treefall gap forms, there is a distinguishable difference in the amount of light that penetrates through to the lower levels of the forest; however, the amount of light that is now able to penetrate depends on how big the gap actually is. A treefall gap that is only 5 meters in diameter will allow less light to reach the understory than a larger gap that

585-651: A relief measure under the Resettlement Administration . These landowners were resettled on more fertile land elsewhere. Today, the South Carolina Sand Hills State Forest comprises about half of the acreage, and half is owned by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as the adjacent Carolina Sandhills National Wildlife Refuge . At first, restoration of forest cover was the goal. Fire suppression

650-441: A significant role in gap-regeneration time. Treefall gaps are important in maintenance of some plant species diversity. Disturbance is important in tropics as a mechanism for maintaining diversity. According to the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH), some disturbance is critical and the maximum number of species will be found where the “frequency and intensity” of disturbances are at an intermediate scale. IDH helps explain

715-438: A small, but sharp, downward-pointing spine on the middle of each scale. The seeds are 7–9 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 8  in) long, with a 25–40 mm (1– 1 + 5 ⁄ 8  in) wing. Longleaf pine takes 100 to 150 years to become full size and may live to be 500 years old. When young, they grow a long taproot , which usually is 2–3 metres ( 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 –10 feet) long; by maturity, they have

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780-457: A treefall gap causes a break in the canopy to form, allowing light to penetrate through to the understory . This light can now reach shrubs and treelet species, which under normal circumstances never grow tall enough to reach the canopy. Under a normal canopy (i.e. one where there is no treefall gap), there is very little light that filters through, placing a light limitation on the understory plant community. This light limitation often restricts

845-416: A wide spreading lateral root system with several deep 'sinker' roots. They grow on well-drained, usually sandy soil , characteristically in pure stands. Longleaf pine also is known as being one of several species grouped as a southern yellow pine or longleaf yellow pine, and in the past as pitch pine (a name dropped as it caused confusion with pitch pine, Pinus rigida ). The species epithet palustris

910-431: Is 10 meters wide. In addition, a smaller gap will receive more direct radiation from the sun, whereas a larger gap will receive high amounts of diffuse radiation. The increased amount of light that is now available to the understory community will release them from their previous light limitation. Seed dispersal in treefall gaps is significantly reduced compared to normal understory areas. One study suggests that within

975-607: Is Latin for "of the marsh" and indicates its common habitat. The scientific name meaning "of marshes" is a misunderstanding on the part of Philip Miller , who described the species, after seeing longleaf pine forests with temporary winter flooding. Longleaf pine is highly pyrophytic (resistant to wildfire ) and dependent on fire. Their thick bark and growth habits help to provide a tolerance to fire. Periodic natural wildfire and anthropogenic fires select for this species by removing competition and exposing bare soil for successful germination of seeds. The lack of medium-tall trees (called

1040-541: Is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus Pinus ( / ˈ p aɪ n ə s / ) of the family Pinaceae . Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae . World Flora Online accepts 187 species names of pines as current, with additional synonyms, making it the largest family among the conifers. The American Conifer Society (ACS) and the Royal Horticultural Society accept 121 species. The highest species diversity of pines

1105-515: Is enough force to cause large-scale blow-downs. Studies have shown that small-scale disturbances, such as treefall gaps forming after tree deaths, have a higher reoccurrence rate than do large-scale disturbances, such as blow-downs. Since small-scale disturbances are more frequent, they account for about 88% of carbon emissions from the Amazon rainforest and for more biomass loss then do large-scale disturbances. These small disturbances add carbon into

1170-802: Is found in Mexico. Pines are widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere ; they occupy large areas of boreal forest , but are found in many habitats, including the Mediterranean Basin . The timber from pine trees is called "pine"; it is one of the most extensively used types of timber. There are currently 818 named cultivars (or trinomials ) recognized by the ACS. It is a well-known type of Christmas tree . Pine trees are evergreen , coniferous resinous trees (or, rarely, shrubs ) growing 3–80 metres (10–260 feet) tall, with

1235-477: Is home to some of the best-preserved stands of longleaf pines. These forests have been burned regularly for many decades to encourage bobwhite quail habitat in private hunting plantations. Before European settlement, longleaf pine forest dominated as much as 90,000,000 acres (360,000 km) stretching from Virginia south to Florida and west to East Texas. Its range was defined by the frequent widespread fires that were lit by humans and occurred naturally throughout

1300-690: Is no upper limit in gap size. However, it must be caused by a tree or a large limb. For example, a field would not be considered a treefall gap. Tree falls are commonly caused by old age, natural hazards , or parasitic plants (or certain epiphytes ). Scientists have not been able to come to a conclusion on one absolute method for measuring a treefall gap. However, there are two types of measurements that are commonly used: This method does not necessarily take into account irregularity in gap shapes. Most gaps do not conform to one particular shape, so assumptions must be made. Gaps that are uniformly shaped (e.g. ellipse, triangle, etc.) can be quantified by measuring

1365-482: Is not completed until the intact canopy’s height is met by new growth. Lianas are a common woody vine found in tropical forests. These vines utilize trees to venture into the canopy in search of sunlight and nutrients. Thus, when a tree falls, it brings all the liana growth with it. Following a tree fall, lianas have a high survival rate (~90%) and they can quickly begin sprouting. This causes potential problems as new trees begin to grow but are unable or are limited by

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1430-400: Is not the case according to one study. Species of ants that are found in treefall gaps are the same species that are found in the densely wooded forests that surround them. The formations of these gaps seem to have little to no effect on the ant species living there. There have been studies that show a noticeable difference in the species diversity of butterflies in treefall gaps and those in

1495-433: Is now endangered as a result of this decline. Longleaf pine seeds are large and nutritious, forming a significant food source for birds (notably the brown-headed nuthatch ) and other wildlife . Nine salamander species and 26 frog species are characteristic of pine savannas, along with 56 species of reptiles , 13 of which could be considered specialists on this habitat. The Red Hills Region of Florida and Georgia

1560-449: Is now restricted to fir ( Abies ) and Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga ). Pines are gymnosperms . The genus is divided into two subgenera based on the number of fibrovascular bundles in the needle. The subgenera can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters: Phylogenetic evidence indicates that both subgenera have a very ancient divergence from one another. Each subgenus is further divided into sections and subsections. Many of

1625-801: Is one of the world's oldest living organisms at around 4,800 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California. An older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as " Prometheus " after the Greek immortal . The spiral growth of branches, needles, and cones scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called "candles"; they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then later turn green and spread outward. These "candles" offer foresters

1690-515: Is one of the two Southeastern U.S. pines with long needles, the other being slash pine . The cones , both female seed cones (ovulate strobili) and male pollen cones (staminate strobili ), are initiated during the growing season before buds emerge. Pollen cones begin forming in their buds in July, while seed conelets are formed during a relatively short period of time in August. Pollination occurs early

1755-485: Is proposed that treefall gaps maintain plant species diversity in tropical forests in three main ways. First, they create habitats that have a lot of light. Being in an area that contains a high amount of light allows species that cannot grow in total or partial shade to develop rapidly. The increased levels of light creates competition between the shade intolerant species, and the species that prefer low levels of light are eliminated. This release from competition would allow

1820-652: Is the largest genus of the Pinaceae , the pine family, which first appeared in the Jurassic period. Based on recent Transcriptome analysis, Pinus is most closely related to the genus Cathaya , which in turn is closely related to spruces . These genera, with firs and larches , form the pinoid clade of the Pinaceae. Pines first appeared during the Early Cretaceous, with the oldest verified fossil of

1885-411: Is thick, reddish-brown, and scaly. The leaves are dark green and needle-like, and occur in bundles of mainly three, sometimes two or four, especially in seedlings. They often are twisted and 20–45 centimetres ( 7 + 3 ⁄ 4 – 17 + 3 ⁄ 4 inches) in length. A local race of P. palustris in a cove near Rockingham, North Carolina, have needles up to 24 inches (61 centimeters ) in length. It

1950-409: The navy for their ships . They have been cutover since for timber and usually replaced with faster-growing loblolly pine and slash pine , for agriculture , and for urban and suburban development. Due to this deforestation and overharvesting, only about 3% of the original longleaf pine forest remains, and little new is planted. Longleaf pine is available, however, at many nurseries within its range;

2015-402: The sandhills region of South Carolina, between the piedmont and coastal plain. The region is characterized by deep, infertile sands deposited by a prehistoric sea, with generally arid conditions. By the 1930s, most of the native longleaf had been logged, and the land was heavily eroded. Between 1935 and 1939, the federal government purchased large portions of this area from local landowners as

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2080-488: The 20th century by a private landowner (a property now owned and conserved by the LandTrust for Central North Carolina). The United States Forest Service is conducting prescribed burning programs in the 258,864-acre Francis Marion National Forest , located outside of Charleston, South Carolina . They are hoping to increase the longleaf pine forest type to 44,700 acres (181 km) by 2017 and 53,500 acres (217 km) in

2145-494: The Gap Hypothesis which postulates that more light and more diverse resources caused by the falling of a canopy tree may aid in more species abundance . Although treefall gaps have been shown to promote species diversity among a variety of species, a gap’s effect on different species is likely to produce mixed results (i.e. some species will experience more diversity because of gaps while others will not). The creation of

2210-665: The Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’ (source of English pituitary ). Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs (from Old Norse fura , by way of Middle English firre ). In some European languages, Germanic cognates of the Old Norse name are still in use for pines — in Danish fyr , in Norwegian fura/fure/furu , Swedish fura/furu , Dutch vuren , and German Föhre — but in modern English, fir

2275-480: The South; by the 1920s, most of the "limitless" virgin longleaf pine forests were gone. In " pine barrens " most of the day. Low, level, sandy tracts; the pines wide apart; the sunny spaces between full of beautiful abounding grasses, liatris , long, wand-like solidago , saw palmettos , etc., covering the ground in garden style. Here I sauntered in delightful freedom, meeting none of the cat-clawed vines, or shrubs, of

2340-603: The alluvial bottoms. Efforts are being made to restore longleaf pine ecosystems within its natural range. Some groups such as the Longleaf Alliance are actively promoting research, education, and management of the longleaf pine. The USDA offers cost-sharing and technical assistance to private landowners for longleaf restoration through the NRCS Longleaf Pine Initiative. Similar programs are available through most state forestry agencies in

2405-499: The canopy gap, taken at different heights, and a series of geometric calculations to calculate the gap area." By doing this, the scientists were able to obtain a more accurate measurement as they are now accounting for differences in structure around the periphery of the gap. Recovery time can be rapid (5–7 meters per year) or much slower depending upon the vegetation present in the gap. Sometimes, vegetation can impede growth, as with lianas in tropical forests . Gap-phase regeneration

2470-445: The centers of treefall gaps in order to determine their frequency. Pictures taken by these satellites are radiometrically changed from numbers into physical units. Light Detection and Ranging ( LiDAR ) is used to distinguish canopy gaps on spatial scales for separating the different types of gaps. With satellite imaging, steps have to be implemented to remove extraneous details such as seas, rivers, clouds, etc. These can interfere with

2535-436: The diversity of some plant groups, which could possibly contain much of the vascular plant community in these areas. Treefall gaps, like the rest of tropical forests, contain an abundant number of animal species. As with all tropical habitats, insects make up the majority of the animal biomass. It has been thought that the development of treefall gaps would cause harm to the development of leaf litter ant assemblages, but that

2600-715: The environment and back into the carbon cycle ; however, it is not a significant amount when compared to how much carbon is being sequestered in the above ground biomass. Because of this, the Amazon is considered to be a carbon sink . When researchers attempt to locate treefall gaps on a broad scale, it can be difficult to do so on the ground because of the large scale of the forests that they are generally focusing on. Satellite imagery has proven quite useful for large-scale disturbances such as blow-downs but remains difficult for small-scale disturbances such as treefall gaps. In some instances Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are used to map

2665-420: The first three years after the gaps formed, the seed dispersal rate was 72% lower than the rates in nearby understory. Most forms of dispersal, such as wind and animal dispersal, show a reduction in the number of seeds dispersed. However, explosive dispersion shows an increase Explosive dispersion describes a mechanism by which the parent plant ejects its seeds using pressure, ensuring that they land far from

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2730-403: The following spring, with the male cones 3–8 cm ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 + 1 ⁄ 4  in) long. The female (seed) cones mature in about 20 months from pollination; when mature, they are yellow-brown in color, 15–25 cm (6– 9 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) long, and 5–7 cm (2– 2 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) broad, opening to 12 cm ( 4 + 3 ⁄ 4  in), and have

2795-562: The genus being Pinus yorkshirensis from the Hauterivian - Barremian boundary (~130-125 million years ago) from the Speeton Clay , England. The evolutionary history of the genus Pinus has been complicated by hybridization . Pines are prone to inter-specific breeding. Wind pollination, long life spans, overlapping generations, large population size, and weak reproductive isolation make breeding across species more likely. As

2860-450: The length and width of each gap. Commonly, however, the gap is irregularly shaped and must be divided into smaller sections to be measured individually in order to obtain higher accuracy. This method provides a more accurate measurement as it takes into account differences in structure of the gap descending from the canopy to the forest floor. One of the most recent strategies, pioneered by K. and S.I. Yamamoto, "utilized two photographs of

2925-408: The long term. In addition to longleaf restoration, prescribed burning will enhance the endangered red-cockaded woodpeckers' preferred habitat of open, park-like stands, provide habitat for wildlife dependent on grass-shrub habitat, which is very limited, and reduce the risk of damaging wildfires. Since the 1960s, longleaf restoration has been ongoing on almost 95,000 acres of state and federal land in

2990-640: The longleaf pine are edible raw or roasted. The longleaf pine is the official state tree of Alabama. It is referenced by name in the first line of the official North Carolina State Toast . Also, the state's highest honor is named the " Order of the Long Leaf Pine ". The state tree of North Carolina is officially designated as simply "pine", under which this and seven other species fall. Pine See List of Pinus species for complete taxonomy to species level. See list of pines by region for list of species by geographic distribution . A pine

3055-783: The longleaf's native range. In August 2009, the Alabama Forestry Commission received $ 1.757 million in stimulus money to restore longleaf pines in state forests. Four large core areas within the range of the species provide the opportunity to protect the biological diversity of the coastal plain and to restore wilderness areas east of the Mississippi River. Each of these four ( Eglin Air Force Base : 187,000+ ha; Apalachicola National Forest : 228,000+ ha; Okefenokee - Osceola : 289,000+ ha; De Soto National Forest : 200,000+ ha) have nearby lands that offer

3120-586: The majority of species reaching 15–45 m (50–150 ft) tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon , and the tallest is an 83.45 m (273.8 ft) tall sugar pine located in Yosemite National Park . Pines are long lived and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine ( P. longaeva ). One individual of this species, dubbed " Methuselah ",

3185-507: The male and female cones on the same tree. The male cones are small, typically 1–5 cm long, and only present for a short period (usually in spring, though autumn in a few pines), falling as soon as they have shed their pollen . The female cones take 1.5–3 years (depending on species) to mature after pollination , with actual fertilization delayed one year. At maturity the female cones are 3–60 cm long. Each cone has numerous spirally arranged scales, with two seeds on each fertile scale;

3250-458: The number of shade intolerant species to increase. Second, species may be able to survive on resources that spread from the middle of the gap all the way to the surrounding denser forest. Tree or plant diversity may be maintained by the distribution and sharing of resources over a gradient if species are uniquely adapted to the resources available in a specific treefall gap. Lastly, the rate of regeneration of different species may differ based on

3315-581: The parent plant. This type of dispersal is used in several shrub species. The increase shows that treefall gaps have a positive effect on the seed dispersal of shrubs. These shrubs either survived the creation of the gap or migrated in soon after it was created. Because of their unique method of dispersal, these plants have an advantage when colonizing the gap. As the treefall gap ages and the canopy layer begins to return to normal, other forms of seed dispersal begin to increase in frequency, eventually returning to their pre-gap values years after its formation. It

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3380-761: The pines have diversified, gene transfer between different species has created a complex history of genetic relatedness. P. nelsonii P. aristata P. balfouriana P. longaeva P. pinceana P. maximartinezii P. rzedowskii P. quadrifolia P. monophylla P. culminicola P. discolor P. remota P. edulis P. cembroides P. bungeana P. squamata P. gerardiana P. krempfii P. peuce P. lambertiana P. strobus P. chiapensis P. monticola P. flexilis P. strobiformis P. ayacahuite P. albicaulis P. koraiensis P. sibirica P. cembra P. parviflora P. wallichiana Treefall gap There

3445-575: The potential to expand the total protected territory for each area to well beyond 500,000 ha. These areas would provide the opportunity not only to restore forest stands, but also to restore populations of native plants and animals threatened by landscape fragmentation. Notable eccentric populations exist within the Uwharrie National Forest in the central Piedmont region of North Carolina. These have survived owing to relative inaccessibility, and in one instance, intentional protection in

3510-663: The presence of lianas. Many gaps have been found to enter a state where growth has been halted because of lianas. Therefore, scientists have begun looking into their effects on gap regeneration. A study conducted on Barro Colorado Island found that lianas play a likely role in slowing gap-regeneration time. Lianas have been able to keep a gap in a low-canopy state, and this is especially true for gaps that are at least 13 years old. Further studies by Schnitzer et al. have shown that as lianas increase in density, species richness and pioneer tree density decrease for all gaps (i.e. low and high canopy gaps). This data suggests that lianas play

3575-597: The preserve, primarily from timber companies. One of its main goals is the restoration of longleaf pine forest, to which end he has had 8 million longleaf pine seedlings planted on the land. A 2009 study by the National Wildlife Federation says that longleaf pine forests will be particularly well adapted to environmental changes caused by climate disruption . In 2023, the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation announced

3640-521: The remaining trees and seedlings. The exposed earth left behind by clear-cutting operations was highly susceptible to erosion, and nutrients were washed from the already porous soils. This further destroyed the natural seeding process. At the peak of the timber cutting in the 1890s and first decade of the new century, the longleaf pine forests of the Sandhills were providing millions of board feet of timber each year. The timber cutters gradually moved across

3705-453: The scales at the base and tip of the cone are small and sterile, without seeds. The seeds are mostly small and winged, and are anemophilous (wind-dispersed), but some are larger and have only a vestigial wing, and are bird -dispersed. Female cones are woody and sometimes armed to protect developing seeds from foragers. At maturity, the cones usually open to release the seeds. In some of the bird-dispersed species, for example whitebark pine ,

3770-469: The seeds are only released by the bird breaking the cones open. In others, the seeds are stored in closed cones for many years until an environmental cue triggers the cones to open, releasing the seeds. This is called serotiny . The most common form of serotiny is pyriscence, in which a resin binds the cones shut until melted by a forest fire, for example in P. rigida . The modern English name "pine" derives from Latin pinus , which some have traced to

3835-492: The size of the gap. While species diversity may vary when the treefall gaps differ greatly in size, it has been argued that it is highly unlikely, since the relationship between gap size and the microclimate is irregular because of the large spatial and temporal deviation in microclimate. Support for these three hypotheses is mixed, but there is evidence that supports the fact that some species of plants benefit from being in gaps more than others. In tropical forests, gaps maintain

3900-422: The smaller groups of Pinus are composed of closely related species with recent divergence and history of hybridization. This results in low morphological and genetic differences. This, coupled with low sampling and underdeveloped genetic techniques, has made taxonomy difficult to determine. Recent research using large genetic datasets has clarified these relationships into the groupings we recognize today. Pinus

3965-416: The southeast. In the late 19th century, these virgin timber stands were "among the most sought-after timber trees in the country." This rich ecosystem now has been relegated to less than 5% of its presettlement range due to fire suppression and clear-cutting practices: As they stripped the woods of their trees, loggers left mounds of flammable debris that frequently fueled catastrophic fires, destroying both

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4030-753: The southernmost known point of sale is in Lake Worth Beach, Florida . The yellow, resinous wood is used for lumber and pulp . Boards cut years ago from virgin timber were very wide, up to 1 m (3.3 ft), and a thriving salvage business obtains these boards from demolition projects to be reused as flooring in upscale homes. The extremely long needles are popular for use in the ancient craft of coiled basket making. Annual sales of pine straw for use as mulch were estimated at $ 200M in 2021. The stumps and taproots of old trees become saturated with resin and will not rot. Farmers sometimes find old buried stumps in fields, even in some that were cleared

4095-432: The species. Longleaf pine forests are rich in biodiversity . They are well-documented for their high levels of plant diversity, in groups including sedges, grasses, carnivorous plants, and orchids. These forests also provide habitat for gopher tortoises , which as keystone species, dig burrows that provide habitat for hundreds of other species of animals. The red-cockaded woodpecker is dependent on mature pine forests and

4160-460: The surrounding understory. The types of vegetation present in the gaps play a key role in determining which species of butterfly live there. This supports the hypothesis that in a natural forest, treefall gaps will promote species diversity. Large-scale blow-downs of trees are generally caused by squall lines or tornadoes generating strong winds. Some studies have measured the downburst speed of these winds to be between 26 and 41 m/s, which

4225-542: Was practiced until the 1960s, when prescribed fire was introduced on both the state forest and the Sandhills NWR as part of the restoration of the longleaf/wiregrass ecosystem. Nokuse Plantation is a 53,000-acre private nature preserve located around 100 miles east of Pensacola, Florida . The preserve was established by M.C. Davis, a wealthy philanthropist who made his fortune buying and selling land and mineral rights, and who has spent $ 90 million purchasing land for

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