136-592: London Colney ( / ˈ k oʊ n i / ) is a village and civil parish in Hertfordshire , England. It is located to the north of London, close to Junction 22 of the M25 motorway . It is around 2.5 miles (4.0 km) south-east of St Albans city centre (and within said city's contiguous built-up area) and part of the City and District of St Albans . At the time of the 2011 census the population of London Colney ward
272-522: A London borough . (Since the new county was beforehand a mixture of metropolitan boroughs , municipal boroughs and urban districts, no extant parish councils were abolished.) In 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 retained rural parishes, but abolished most urban parishes, as well as the urban districts and boroughs which had administered them. Provision was made for smaller urban districts and boroughs to become successor parishes , with
408-534: A League Cup tie in the 2002–03 season – was marred by violence inside Vicarage Road. On 2 January 2006, Watford won 2–1 at Kenilworth Road in the Championship, followed by a 1–1 draw between the sides, on 9 April 2006, a point that secured Watford's place in the 2006 Championship play-offs, from which they eventually won promotion to the Premier League for the second time, beating Leeds United, 3–0, at
544-515: A Special Expense, to residents of the unparished area to fund those activities. If the district council does not opt to make a Special Expenses charge, there is an element of double taxation of residents of parished areas, because services provided to residents of the unparished area are funded by council tax paid by residents of the whole district, rather than only by residents of the unparished area. Parish councils comprise volunteer councillors who are elected to serve for four years. Decisions of
680-456: A Third Division player. McGarry joined Ipswich in 1964, and was replaced by player-manager Ken Furphy , from Workington Furphy rebuilt the team around players such as Keith Eddy and Dennis Bond , but after holding Liverpool to a draw in the FA Cup and narrowly failing to win promotion in 1966–67 , Bond was sold to Tottenham Hotspur for £ 30,000, Watford's record transfer receipt at
816-576: A boundary coterminous with an existing urban district or borough or, if divided by a new district boundary, as much as was comprised in a single district. There were 300 such successor parishes established. In urban areas that were considered too large to be single parishes, the parishes were simply abolished, and they became unparished areas . The distinction between types of parish was no longer made; whether parishes continued by virtue of being retained rural parishes or were created as successor parishes, they were all simply termed parishes. The 1972 act allowed
952-477: A city council (though most cities are not parishes but principal areas, or in England specifically metropolitan boroughs or non-metropolitan districts ). The chairman of a town council will have the title "town mayor" and that of a parish council which is a city will usually have the title of mayor . When a city or town has been abolished as a borough, and it is considered desirable to maintain continuity of
1088-462: A city council. According to the Department for Communities and Local Government , in England in 2011 there were 9,946 parishes. Since 1997 around 100 new civil parishes have been created, in some cases by splitting existing civil parishes, but mostly by creating new ones from unparished areas. Parish or town councils have very few statutory duties (things they are required to do by law) but have
1224-509: A city was Hereford , whose city council was merged in 1998 to form a unitary Herefordshire . The area of the city of Hereford remained unparished until 2000 when a parish council was created for the city. As another example, the charter trustees for the City of Bath make up the majority of the councillors on Bath and North East Somerset Council. Civil parishes cover 35% of England's population, with one in Greater London and few in
1360-440: A civil parish is usually an elected parish council (which can decide to call itself a town, village, community or neighbourhood council, or a city council if the parish has city status). Alternatively, in parishes with small populations (typically fewer than 150 electors) governance may be by a parish meeting which all electors may attend; alternatively, parishes with small populations may be grouped with one or more neighbours under
1496-481: A civil parish which has no parish council, the parish meeting may levy a council tax precept for expenditure relating to specific functions, powers and rights which have been conferred on it by legislation. In places where there is no civil parish ( unparished areas ), the administration of the activities normally undertaken by the parish becomes the responsibility of the district or borough council. The district council may make an additional council tax charge, known as
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#17327762954461632-593: A club record 42 league goals in the season. Holton was sold to Northampton the following year after another 34 goals, to the anger of supporters. Burgess was succeeded by Bill McGarry , who bought new players such as Charlie Livesey and Ron Saunders , and in his only season at the club led the club to what was at the time its highest ever league position: third in the Third Division. Eighteen-year-old Northern Irish goalkeeper Pat Jennings also featured under McGarry, and made his international debut despite being
1768-586: A common parish council. Wales was also divided into civil parishes until 1974, when they were replaced by communities , which are similar to English parishes in the way they operate. Civil parishes in Scotland were abolished for local government purposes by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929 ; the Scottish equivalent of English civil parishes are the community council areas established by
1904-446: A couple of weeks prior. Billy McKinlay , who had only been appointed first team coach on 26 September 2014, was appointed as his immediate successor on the same day – his first position in management. A week later, McKinlay was released by mutual consent and former Partizan coach Slaviša Jokanović appointed in his place, apparently because the club favoured a head coach with greater experience. On 4 June 2015, Quique Sánchez Flores
2040-468: A deal which entitled Watford to buy the stadium back for £7 million in future. Watford took up this option in 2004 using a campaign backed and funded by the fans called "Lets buy back the Vic". Vicarage Road is a four-sided ground with a capacity of 21,577. The East Stand, part of which was constructed in 1922, was closed to the general public in 2008 for health and safety reasons, although it still hosted
2176-599: A further three years under McBain between 1956 and 1959, Watford's following three managers presided over improved teams. Ron Burgess led Watford to promotion from the Fourth Division in 1959–60. Bill McGarry was only in charge for one full season (1963–64), but Watford recorded a finish of third in the Third Division , the club's highest Football League finish until that point. His successor Ken Furphy matched that achievement in 1966–67, and led Watford to
2312-435: A lack of funds, however, Furphy eventually joined Blackburn Rovers , to be succeeded by George Kirby . Forced to sell players to survive, Watford fell back into the Third Division in 1972. The team continued to struggle in the third tier, and despite a managerial change, Watford were relegated again in 1975. Lifelong Watford supporter musician Elton John became club chairman in 1976. The singer declared an ambition to take
2448-598: A mid-table finish in Division Two in 1996–97 , Jackett was demoted to the position of assistant manager. Taylor returned as manager, and won the Second Division title in 1997–98 – Watford's second league title under his management. A second successive promotion followed in 1998–99 , thanks to a 2–0 play-off final victory over Bolton Wanderers . Watford's first Premiership season started with an early victory over Liverpool, but Watford's form soon faded, and
2584-529: A new code. In either case the code must comply with the Nolan Principles of Public Life . A parish can be granted city status by the Crown . As of 2020 , eight parishes in England have city status, each having a long-established Anglican cathedral: Chichester , Ely , Hereford , Lichfield , Ripon , Salisbury , Truro and Wells . The council of an ungrouped parish may pass a resolution giving
2720-431: A new smaller manor, there was a means of making a chapel which, if generating or endowed with enough funds, would generally justify foundation of a parish, with its own parish priest (and in latter centuries vestry ). This consistency was a result of canon law which prized the status quo in issues between local churches and so made boundary changes and sub-division difficult. The consistency of these boundaries until
2856-694: A parish (a "detached part") was in a different county . In other cases, counties surrounded a whole parish meaning it was in an unconnected, "alien" county. These anomalies resulted in a highly localised difference in applicable representatives on the national level , justices of the peace , sheriffs, bailiffs with inconvenience to the inhabitants. If a parish was split then churchwardens, highway wardens and constables would also spend more time or money travelling large distances. Some parishes straddled two or more counties, such as Todmorden in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Watford F.C. Watford Football Club
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#17327762954462992-416: A parish council, and instead will only have a parish meeting : an example of direct democracy . Alternatively several small parishes can be grouped together and share a common parish council, or even a common parish meeting. A parish council may decide to call itself a town council, village council, community council, neighbourhood council, or if the parish has city status, the parish council may call itself
3128-503: A population of between 100 and 300 could request their county council to establish a parish council. Provision was also made for a grouped parish council to be established covering two or more rural parishes. In such groups, each parish retained its own parish meeting which could vote to leave the group, but otherwise the grouped parish council acted across the combined area of the parishes included. Urban civil parishes were not given their own parish councils, but were directly administered by
3264-537: A possible 6 under his stewardship, after just eight days he too was replaced, by Slaviša Jokanović . With Jokanović managing the team, Watford finished second in the Championship, after being edged out on the final day by champions AFC Bournemouth, and were promoted. Watford did not renew Jokanović's contract and he was replaced by the Spaniard Quique Sánchez Flores ahead of the 2015–16 season. Under Sánchez Flores Watford finished 13th in
3400-427: A post office; a tanning salon; and a turf accountant. There is also a retail park, Colney Fields, which contains a Sainsbury's , Marks & Spencer 's, Next , Boots , Monsoon and TK Maxx . There are several doctor's practices and a library. Associated with the village there are walks, nature reserves and ponds. The Mosquito Aircraft Museum, now known as the de Havilland Aircraft Museum , established in 1959,
3536-1079: A range of discretionary powers which they may exercise voluntarily. These powers have been defined by various pieces of legislation. The role they play can vary significantly depending on the size, resources and ability of the council, but their activities can include any of the following: Parish councils have powers to provide and manage various local facilities; these can include allotments , cemeteries, parks, playgrounds, playing fields and village greens , village halls or community centres , bus shelters, street lighting, roadside verges, car parks, footpaths, litter bins and war memorials. Larger parish councils may also be involved in running markets , public toilets and public clocks, museums and leisure centres . Parish councils may spend money on various things they deem to be beneficial to their communities, such as providing grants to local community groups or local projects, or fund things such as public events, crime prevention measures, community transport schemes, traffic calming or tourism promotion. Parish councils have
3672-409: A role in the planning system; they have a statutory right to be consulted on any planning applications in their areas. They may also produce a neighbourhood plan to influence local development. The Localism Act 2011 allowed eligible parish councils to be granted a " general power of competence " which allows them within certain limits the freedom to do anything an individual can do provided it
3808-406: A senior squad number for Watford in 2024-25 or made a senior appearance Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Watford's team was selected by committee until 1903, when former England international John Goodall was appointed player-manager . The impact was immediate, as Watford secured promotion to
3944-598: A set number of guardians for each parish, hence a final purpose of urban civil parishes. With the abolition of the Poor Law system in 1930, urban parishes became a geographical division only with no administrative power; that was exercised at the urban district or borough council level. In 1965 civil parishes in London were formally abolished when Greater London was created, as the legislative framework for Greater London did not make provision for any local government body below
4080-403: A short-term contract to the end of the season. He was sacked on 19 July 2020 with two games to go with Hayden Mullins appointed as interim coach until the end of the season. In the 2020–21 season, there were two more coaches, beginning with Vladimir Ivic , and followed by Xisco Munoz , who ultimately steered Watford towards promotion to the Premier League. Xisco continued to coach the team for
4216-943: A small village or town ward to a large tract of mostly uninhabited moorland in the Cheviots, Pennines or Dartmoor. The two largest as at December 2023 are Stanhope (County Durham) at 98.6 square miles (255 km ), and Dartmoor Forest (Devon) at 79.07 square miles (204.8 km ). The two smallest are parcels of shared rural land: Lands Common to Axminster and Kilmington (Devon) at 0.012 square miles (0.031 km ; 3.1 ha; 7.7 acres), and Lands Common to Brancepeth and Brandon and Byshottles (County Durham) at 0.0165 square miles (0.043 km ; 4.3 ha; 10.6 acres). The next two smallest are parishes in built up areas: Chester Castle (Cheshire) at 0.0168 square miles (0.044 km ; 4.4 ha; 10.8 acres) (no recorded population) and Hamilton Lea (Leicestershire) at 0.07 square miles (0.18 km ; 18 ha; 45 acres) (1,021 residents at
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4352-521: A spur to the creation of new parishes in some larger towns which were previously unparished, in order to retain a local tier of government; examples include Shrewsbury (2009), Salisbury (2009), Crewe (2013) and Weymouth (2019). In 2003 seven new parish councils were set up for Burton upon Trent , and in 2001 the Milton Keynes urban area became entirely parished, with ten new parishes being created. Parishes can also be abolished where there
4488-541: Is a professional football club based in Watford , Hertfordshire , England. The club competes in the EFL Championship , the second tier of English football . The team played at several grounds in their early history, including what is now West Herts Sports Club, before moving to Vicarage Road in 1922. They have a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Luton Town . Graham Taylor 's tenure as manager at
4624-439: Is a territorial designation which is the lowest tier of local government. Civil parishes can trace their origin to the ancient system of parishes , which for centuries were the principal unit of secular and religious administration in most of England and Wales. Civil and religious parishes were formally split into two types in the 19th century and are now entirely separate. Civil parishes in their modern form came into being through
4760-507: Is at present the only part of England where civil parishes cannot be created. If enough electors in the area of a proposed new parish (ranging from 50% in an area with less than 500 electors to 10% in one with more than 2,500) sign a petition demanding its creation, then the local district council or unitary authority must consider the proposal. Since the beginning of the 21st century, numerous parish councils have been created, including some relatively large urban ones. The main driver has been
4896-539: Is evidence that this is in response to "justified, clear and sustained local support" from the area's inhabitants. Examples are Birtley , which was abolished in 2006, and Southsea , abolished in 2010. Every civil parish has a parish meeting, which all the electors of the parish are entitled to attend. Generally a meeting is held once a year. A civil parish may have a parish council which exercises various local responsibilities prescribed by statute. Parishes with fewer than 200 electors are usually deemed too small to have
5032-623: Is located at Salisbury Hall on the south side of the M25 motorway. London Colney has a great selection of open-water fishing in the River Colne and associated lakes. The High Street crosses the River Colne (a tributary of the Thames joining at Staines-upon-Thames ) at the multi-arched brick-built Telfords Bridge (a Grade II listed building ). The original fording point can still be seen on
5168-405: Is not prohibited by other legislation, as opposed to being limited to the powers explicitly granted to them by law. To be eligible for this, a parish council must meet certain conditions such as having a clerk with suitable qualifications. Parish councils receive funding by levying a " precept " on the council tax paid by the residents of the parish (or parishes) served by the parish council. In
5304-539: Is situated between the Arsenal Training Centre and the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre . London Colney has a non-League football team, London Colney F.C. , who play at Cotlandswick Playing Fields. The 84 bus route runs through London Colney towards St Albans from Barnet , and Uno bus routes 602, 636, 658 and 659 also connect the village with St Albans , Hatfield , Watford , Borehamwood and Luton . The actor Philip Madoc lived in
5440-504: The 'Standards Board regime' with local monitoring by district, unitary or equivalent authorities. Under new regulations which came into effect in 2012 all parish councils in England are required to adopt a code of conduct with which parish councillors must comply, and to promote and maintain high standards. A new criminal offence of failing to comply with statutory requirements was introduced. More than one 'model code' has been published, and councils are free to modify an existing code or adopt
5576-592: The 2012–13 season Watford finished third in the Championship, and reached the play-off final where they were defeated in the final by Crystal Palace 1–0 via an extra-time penalty by Kevin Phillips . The following season, Giuseppe Sannino replaced Zola, as their new manager and the team finished the season in 13th place. Sannino resigned at the start of the 2014–15 season and was replaced by Óscar García , who left shortly afterwards for "health reasons". Billy McKinlay replaced him but, despite winning 4 points out of
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5712-490: The FA Cup . Boothroyd continued as manager, and spent heavily on players, including a then-club record £3.25 million for Nathan Ellington . Watford led the Championship by several points early in 2007–08 , but only finished sixth; Boothroyd's team were defeated 6–1 on aggregate by Hull City in the play-off semi-finals. Boothroyd left the club by mutual consent three months into the 2008–09 season , with Watford 21st in
5848-526: The First Division top scorer , before signing for Italian Serie A side Milan for £1 million at the end of the season. An FA Cup Final appearance followed in the 1984 fixture , where they lost to Everton . After guiding Watford to a ninth-place finish in 1986–87 , Taylor left the club to manage Aston Villa . Following Taylor's departure, Wimbledon manager Dave Bassett was appointed as his replacement, and England winger John Barnes
5984-761: The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 , which have fewer powers than their English and Welsh counterparts. There are no equivalent units in Northern Ireland . The parish system in Europe was established between the 8th and 12th centuries, and an early form was long established in England by the time of the Norman Conquest . These areas were originally based on the territory of manors , which, in some cases, derived their bounds from Roman or Iron Age estates; some large manors were sub-divided into several parishes. Initially, churches and their priests were
6120-1010: The Local Government Act 1894 ( 56 & 57 Vict. c. 73) to become the smallest geographical area for local government in rural areas. The act abolished the civil (non-ecclesiastical) duties of vestries . Parishes which straddled county boundaries or sanitary districts had to be split so that the part in each urban or rural sanitary district became a separate parish (see List of county exclaves in England and Wales 1844–1974 ). The sanitary districts were then reconstituted as urban districts and rural districts , with parishes that fell within urban districts classed as urban parishes, and parishes that fell within rural districts were classed as rural parishes. The 1894 act established elected civil parish councils as to all rural parishes with more than 300 electors, and established annual parish meetings in all rural parishes. Civil parishes were grouped to form either rural or urban districts which are thereafter classified as either type. The parish meetings for parishes with
6256-411: The Local Government Act 1894 ( 56 & 57 Vict. c. 73), which established elected parish councils to take on the secular functions of the parish vestry . A civil parish can range in size from a sparsely populated rural area with fewer than a hundred inhabitants, to a large town with a population in excess of 100,000 . This scope is similar to that of municipalities in continental Europe, such as
6392-528: The Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . Over a fourteen-season span, Watford played in a higher division than Luton (between the 2006–07 and the 2019–20 seasons), with Luton dropping out of the football league altogether for six seasons between 2009–10 and 2014–15 . The rivalry between the two clubs resumed in the 2020–21 season. On 26 September 2020, Watford won the first league match of
6528-470: The Second Division followed in 1978–79 , and Ross Jenkins finished the season as the league's top scorer with 29 goals. Watford consolidated with 18th and 9th-placed finishes over the following two seasons, and secured promotion to the First Division for the first time in 1981–82 , finishing second behind rivals Luton Town . Watford started the 1982–83 season with four league wins from
6664-472: The break with Rome , parishes managed ecclesiastical matters, while the manor was the principal unit of local administration and justice. Later, the church replaced the manor court as the rural administrative centre, and levied a local tax on produce known as a tithe . In the medieval period, responsibilities such as relief of the poor passed increasingly from the lord of the manor to the parish's rector , who in practice would delegate tasks among his vestry or
6800-692: The communes of France . However, unlike their continental European counterparts, parish councils are not principal authorities , and in most cases have a relatively minor role in local government. As of September 2023 , there are 10,464 parishes in England, and in 2020 they covered approximately 40% of the English population. For historical reasons, civil parishes predominantly cover rural areas and smaller urban areas, with most larger urban areas being wholly or partly unparished ; but since 1997 it has been possible for civil parishes to be created within unparished areas if demanded by local residents . In 2007
6936-568: The final and were defeated 6–0, a joint record margin of victory for an FA Cup Final. In the league Watford finished 11th, with 50 points, both club records for the Premier League era. After four games of being in charge in the 2019–20 season, Gracia was sacked due to poor form in the league. 30 minutes after he was sacked, former manager Quique Sánchez Flores was again appointed. He survived only until 1 December 2019 after getting only one win since his appointment in September. A caretaker manager
SECTION 50
#17327762954467072-644: The following season . Mackay left to manage Cardiff City in June 2011 and was replaced by Sean Dyche . Despite presiding over Watford's highest league position in four years by finishing 11th, Dyche was dismissed as Watford manager in July 2012. In June 2012, Laurence Bassini completed the sale of the club to the Pozzo family ( Gino Pozzo and his father). Following Dyche's sacking, the new owners brought in former Italy international Gianfranco Zola to take charge. In
7208-470: The (often well-endowed) monasteries. After the dissolution of the monasteries , the power to levy a rate to fund relief of the poor was conferred on the parish authorities by the Poor Relief Act 1601 . Both before and after this optional social change, local (vestry-administered) charities are well-documented. The parish authorities were known as vestries and consisted of all the ratepayers of
7344-564: The 19th century is useful to historians, and is also of cultural significance in terms of shaping local identities; reinforced by the use of grouped parish boundaries, often, by successive local authority areas; and in a very rough, operations-geared way by most postcode districts. There was (and is) wide disparity in parish size. Writtle , Essex traditionally measures 13,568 acres (21 sq mi) – two parishes neighbouring are Shellow Bowells at 469 acres (0.7 sq mi), and Chignall Smealy at 476 acres (0.7 sq mi) Until
7480-591: The 2011 census, Newland with Woodhouse Moor and Beaumont Chase reported inhabitants, and there were no new deserted parishes recorded. Nearly all instances of detached parts of civil parishes (areas not contiguous with the main part of the parish) and of those straddling counties have been ended. 14 examples remain in England as at 2022, including Barnby Moor and Wallingwells , both in Nottinghamshire. Direct predecessors of civil parishes are most often known as "ancient parishes", although many date only from
7616-400: The 2014–15 season, and with Watford sitting in 2nd place, Sannino's position had become the subject of much speculation following rumours of dressing-room unrest and some players taking a dislike to his style of management. Sannino resigned from his position as head coach on 31 August 2014 after just over eight months in charge. His final game in charge was a 4–2 win at home to Huddersfield Town
7752-511: The 2021 census). The 2001 census recorded several parishes with no inhabitants. These were Chester Castle (in the middle of Chester city centre), Newland with Woodhouse Moor , Beaumont Chase , Martinsthorpe , Meering , Stanground North (subsequently abolished), Sturston , Tottington , and Tyneham (subsequently merged). The lands of the last three were taken over by the Armed Forces during World War II and remain deserted. In
7888-406: The 2021–22 Premier League campaign until October 2021, and was subsequently followed by Claudio Ranieri from October 2021 to January 2022. Former England manager Roy Hodgson took hold of the reigns from February 2022 until the season's end, where Watford finished in 19th place and were relegated from the Premier League. Rob Edwards was announced as the new manager for the 2022–23 season, but
8024-493: The 21st century. Watford's initial nickname was The Brewers , in reference to the Benskins Brewery , which owned the freehold of Vicarage Road. This nickname did not prove particularly popular, and upon the adoption of a blue-and-white colour scheme in the 1920s, the club became predominantly known as The Blues . When Watford changed kit colours in 1959, supporters chose The Hornets as the team's new nickname, and
8160-445: The Championship table. Under Boothroyd's successor, Brendan Rodgers , Watford finished 13th. Rodgers left to manage Reading at the end of the season; Malky Mackay , who had previously served as caretaker manager, was his replacement. Amid the departures of several key players during Mackay's tenure, including Tommy Smith and Jay DeMerit , and the club coming close to administration , Watford finished 16th in 2009–10 and 14th
8296-442: The Championship. Luton were promoted to the 2023-24 Premier League , but were relegated back to the Championship after one season. The head-to-head record between the clubs, in competitions which currently exist, stands at Luton 55 wins, Watford 38 wins, with 29 draws. Watford have remained the higher ranked team at the end of every season since 1997 (and for 28 of the last 29 seasons, with only 1996–97 seeing Luton finish higher in
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#17327762954468432-492: The First Division in the 1981–82 season, with Luton taking the championship ahead of Watford. They were also relegated together from the new Division 1 in 1995–96, with Watford finishing 23rd ahead of bottom-placed Luton. Watford's promotion from Division 2 in 1997–98 meant that the two sides did not meet again until Luton won promotion to the Championship for the 2005–06 season. The only meeting between those seasons –
8568-564: The First and Second Divisions unanimously voted for Watford to stay in the league. McBain returned in 1956, and the team remained in the division until 1958; the league was restructured into four national divisions for the 1958–59 season, and Watford were placed in the Fourth Division . Ron Burgess replaced McBain during that season, and in the following campaign Burgess presided over Watford's first Football League promotion. This team included Fourth Division top scorer Cliff Holton , who scored
8704-569: The Hertfordshire Senior Cup of 1894–95 and attracted crowds of 400 to 500 even when West Herts were at home. The two clubs talked of an amalgamation, which ultimately occurred on 15 April 1898. This was reported by the Watford Observer of 7 May 1898. It was agreed that the two clubs should complete their remaining fixtures for the season. The new club was named Watford Football Club. Following relegation to
8840-685: The Hornets. Harrison departed in 1990, and over the next few years, the closest Watford came to promotion was a seventh-placed finish in Division One in the 1994–95 season . However, in the following season – Glenn Roeder 's third as manager – Watford struggled. Despite the return of Graham Taylor as caretaker manager in February 1996, the club was relegated to Division Two. Following the relegation, Taylor became director of football, with former Watford midfielder Kenny Jackett as manager. After
8976-463: The Pozzo family, Gianfranco Zola was appointed head coach, replacing former centre back Sean Dyche in July 2012,. Zola took Watford to third position in the Championship in 2012–13 but resigned on 16 December 2013. He was replaced by fellow Italian Beppe Sannino in December 2013. Sannino guided the team to a final league position of 13th. Despite winning four of the first five league matches of
9112-558: The Premier League, and reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup , ending Arsenal's bid to win the competition for three successive times, but were beaten 2–1 by Crystal Palace . Near the end of the season, in May 2016, Sánchez Flores and the club enacted a break clause in his contract, and he was replaced by Italian coach Walter Mazzarri who signed a three-year contract. At the end of the next season, in May 2017, Watford finished 17th and Mazzari resigned, replaced by Marco Silva . The new coach
9248-718: The Southern League First Division in 1903–04. Goodall retired as a player in 1907, and left the club in 1910. He was replaced by his former captain, Harry Kent , who become known for his financial management of the club; under Kent, Watford frequently made a profit in the transfer market. Kent led the club to the Southern League title in 1914–15 , and missed out on a second title in 1919–20 on goal average , before resigning in 1926. His three immediate successors – Fred Pagnam , Neil McBain and Bill Findlay – all played for Watford before and during
9384-513: The Southern League Second Division in 1903, Watford appointed its first manager – former England international and First Division top scorer John Goodall . He led Watford to promotion, and kept the team in the division until his departure in 1910. Despite financial constraints, Watford won the Southern League title in the 1914–15 season under his successor, Harry Kent . Watford held the title for five years following
9520-547: The Southern League between 1900 and 1920, and continued to do so in The Football League until 1937, when Luton gained promotion from Division Three South. Luton remained in a higher division than Watford until 1963. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Watford and Luton met sporadically. Despite this, the rivalry grew in significance, particularly following an ill-tempered match between the sides in 1969, in which three players were sent off. Both sides won promotion to
9656-422: The Third Division title in 1969, before taking the club to its first FA Cup semi-final in 1970. Following Furphy's departure in 1971, Watford entered a period of decline, experiencing relegation under subsequent managers George Kirby and Mike Keen . Graham Taylor took charge of Watford in 1977. He led the club to promotion to the Third Division in 1978, the Second Division in 1979, and the First Division for
9792-614: The Western side of the bridge, with the Bull and Green Dragon pubs conveniently situated on opposite sides of the ford. Nearby flooded gravel pits form a nature reserve for wild birds. The A6 used to pass through the village. The bypass was built in 1959, to join with the A414 at the north end of the village. The A6 became the A1081 in 1986, with the M25 erasing the original South Mimms Bypass and
9928-738: The administration of the poor laws was the main civil function of parishes, the Poor Law Amendment Act 1866 , which received royal assent on 10 August 1866, declared all areas that levied a separate rate or had their own overseer of the poor to be parishes. This included the Church of England parishes (until then simply known as "parishes"), extra-parochial areas , townships and chapelries . To have collected rates this means these beforehand had their own vestries, boards or equivalent bodies. Parishes using this definition subsequently became known as "civil parishes" to distinguish them from
10064-399: The charter, the charter may be transferred to a parish council for its area. Where there is no such parish council, the district council may appoint charter trustees to whom the charter and the arms of the former borough will belong. The charter trustees (who consist of the councillor or councillors for the area of the former borough) maintain traditions such as mayoralty . An example of such
10200-576: The club between 1977 and 1987 saw Watford rise from the fourth tier to the first. The team finished second in the First Division in 1982–83 , competed in the UEFA Cup in 1983–84 , and reached the 1984 FA Cup final . Watford declined between 1987 and 1997, before Taylor returned as manager, leading the team to successive promotions from the renamed Second Division to the Premier League for one season in 1999–2000 . The club played again in
10336-461: The club can be traced back to 1881 when Watford Rovers were formed by Henry Grover, who went on to play for the club as a full back . Rovers, originally composed entirely of amateur players , held home games at several locations in the town of Watford . The team first competed in the FA Cup in the 1886–87 season , and in 1889 Watford won the County Cup for the first time. The team became
10472-503: The club have gained notoriety for an excessive number of managerial sackings and a lack of giving managers time, instead sacking them very quickly after a poor run of form. After a disappointing start to the 2019–20 season, Javi Gracia was sacked and replaced by previous manager Quique Sánchez Flores. Then Quique Sánchez Flores was fired again after a 2–1 loss to Southampton on 1 December. On 6 December 2019, Nigel Pearson agreed to take manager's job, with Craig Shakespeare as his assistant, on
10608-463: The club later introduced a crest depicting a hornet. In 1974 the design was changed to depict Harry the Hornet, the club's mascot. The club's nickname remains, but in 1978 the hornet crest was replaced by a depiction of a hart – a male red fallow deer– on a yellow and black background. A hart represents the town's location in the county of Hertfordshire . It has now been confirmed by the club that it
10744-464: The club the previous summer as Vialli's reserve team manager. Watford's weak financial position was exposed in 2002–03 , following the collapse of ITV Digital . The club was facing administration, but an agreement by players and staff to a 12% wage deferral helped the club's cash flow, and a run to the FA Cup semi-final generated vital revenue. Financial constraints saw a large number of players released that summer. After consolidating in 2003–04 ,
10880-431: The club were relegated after finishing bottom. Graham Taylor retired at the end of the 2000–01 season , and was replaced by Gianluca Vialli . Wage bills at the club rose by £4 million during Vialli's tenure, and the club finished 14th in the division in 2001–02. Vialli was sacked at the end of the season, following a dispute with the club's board over the wage bill. He was replaced by Ray Lewington , who had joined
11016-537: The council are carried out by a paid officer, typically known as a parish clerk. Councils may employ additional people (including bodies corporate, provided where necessary, by tender) to carry out specific tasks dictated by the council. Some councils have chosen to pay their elected members an allowance, as permitted under part 5 of the Local Authorities (Members' Allowances) (England) Regulations 2003. The number of councillors varies roughly in proportion to
11152-464: The council of the urban district or borough in which they were contained. Many urban parishes were coterminous (geographically identical) with the urban district or municipal borough in which they lay. Towns which included multiple urban parishes often consolidated the urban parishes into one. The urban parishes continued to be used as an electoral area for electing guardians to the poor law unions . The unions took in areas in multiple parishes and had
11288-466: The council will an election be held. However, sometimes there are fewer candidates than seats. When this happens, the vacant seats have to be filled by co-option by the council. If a vacancy arises for a seat mid-term, an election is only held if a certain number (usually ten) of parish residents request an election. Otherwise the council will co-opt someone to be the replacement councillor. The Localism Act 2011 introduced new arrangements which replaced
11424-459: The creation of town and parish councils is encouraged in unparished areas . The Local Government and Rating Act 1997 created a procedure which gave residents in unparished areas the right to demand that a new parish and parish council be created. This right was extended to London boroughs by the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007 – with this, the City of London
11560-528: The day before. Sannino's departure initiated a bizarre sequence of events which led to Watford having three further head coaches in little more than a month. On 2 September, Watford confirmed the appointment of former Brighton & Hove Albion head coach Óscar García as the successor to Sannino, beating off competition from fellow Championship side Leeds United for his services. García, however, resigned from his position on 29 September 2014 for health reasons, having been admitted to hospital with chest pains
11696-463: The desire to have a more local tier of government when new larger authorities have been created, which are felt to be remote from local concerns and identity. A number of parishes have been created in places which used to have their own borough or district council; examples include Daventry (2003), Folkestone (2004), Kidderminster (2015) and Sutton Coldfield (2016). The trend towards the creation of geographically large unitary authorities has been
11832-527: The dressing rooms and the matchday press area. In November 2013, the East Stand was demolished and in its place a new steel-framed, 3,500-seater stand was constructed. The stand opened fully on Boxing Day 2014 and was named The Elton John Stand after the club's longstanding chairman. The Graham Taylor Stand (previously the Rous Stand), built in 1986, has two tiers and runs the length of the pitch, with
11968-479: The dualled section south of London Colney. London Colney Parish Council publishes a quarterly magazine, called The London Colney News . The magazine has been produced continuously since 1984. Arsenal F.C. has its training ground near Bell Lane, London Colney. Watford F.C. also train in London Colney on Arsenal F.C.'s old training ground, University College London Union 's (UCLU) Sports Grounds, which
12104-513: The early part of their managerial tenures. None were able to lead the team to promotion from the Third Division South , although Findlay did lead Watford to a Third Division South Cup win in 1937. Up until Findlay's departure in 1947, Watford had been managed by five managers in 44 years, all of whom played for the team. By contrast, six men managed the club between 1947 and 1956, only two of whom were former Watford players. After
12240-439: The ecclesiastical parishes. The Church of England parishes, which cover more than 99% of England, have become officially (and to avoid ambiguity) termed ecclesiastical parishes . The limits of many of these have diverged; most greatly through changes in population and church attendance (these factors can cause churches to be opened or closed). Since 1921, each has been the responsibility of its own parochial church council . In
12376-534: The established English Church, which for a few years after Henry VIII alternated between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England , before settling on the latter on the accession of Elizabeth I in 1558. By the 18th century, religious membership was becoming more fractured in some places, due in part to the progress of Methodism . The legitimacy of the parish vestry came into question, and
12512-597: The first time in Watford's history in 1982. After a second-placed finish in the First Division in 1983, Watford competed in European competition for the first time in 1983–84, as well as reaching the 1984 FA Cup final . Taylor left the club at the end of 1986–87. Under the six subsequent permanent managers ( Dave Bassett , Steve Harrison , Colin Lee , Steve Perryman , Glenn Roeder and Kenny Jackett ), Watford slid from 9th in
12648-586: The following season started well, with the club in the upper half of the Championship at the end of September. Poor form, however, saw the club drop towards the relegation zone. Despite reaching the semi-final of the League Cup , Watford's league form did not improve, and Lewington was sacked in March 2005. His successor, Aidy Boothroyd , led the club to Championship survival. Watford finished third in
12784-427: The following season 19th out of 20 and were relegated back to the Championship. On June 4th 2024, the Pozzo family decided to put up 10% of the club for sale under fan ownership in order to generate cash for the club. Watford's kit has changed considerably over the course of the club's history. The club's kit featured various combinations of red, green and yellow stripes, before a new colour scheme of black and white
12920-535: The football section of "West Hertfordshire Club and Ground" in 1891, and consequently moved to a ground on Cassio Road . In 1893 Watford Rovers changed their name to "West Herts" and in 1896 they joined the Southern Football League . West Herts fortunes slumped at the start of the 1897–98 season and attendances were less than 200. They took the bold step of turning professional and their fortunes revived. Watford St. Mary's were runners up in
13056-585: The game to the Z-Cars theme tune . However, in mid-April 2019 the team changed their entrance song to Elton John's " I'm Still Standing ". The club returned to Z Cars as the theme to welcome players to the pitch in August 2019 at the start of the 2019–20 Premier League season, following fan pressure and petitions. Watford Rovers played at several grounds in the late 19th century, including Cassiobury Park , Vicarage Meadow and Market Street, Watford . In 1890,
13192-645: The gift and continued patronage (benefaction) of the lord of the manor , but not all were willing and able to provide, so residents would be expected to attend the church of the nearest manor with a church. Later, the churches and priests became to a greater extent the responsibility of the Catholic Church thus this was formalised; the grouping of manors into one parish was recorded, as was a manor-parish existing in its own right. Boundaries changed little, and for centuries after 1180 'froze', despite changes to manors' extents. However, by subinfeudation , making
13328-455: The government at the time of the Local Government Act 1972 discouraged their creation for large towns or their suburbs, but there is generally nothing to stop their establishment. For example, Birmingham has two parishes ( New Frankley and Sutton Coldfield ), Oxford has four, and the Milton Keynes urban area has 24. Parishes could not however be established in London until the law was changed in 2007. A civil parish can range in area from
13464-400: The highest tier in 2006–07 under Aidy Boothroyd 's management, and then again from 2015 to 2020, reaching the 2019 FA Cup final , their second FA Cup final, but losing to a record-equalling 6–0 score line. In April 2021, Watford were promoted back into the Premier League having spent just one season in the Championship, but were relegated back to the Championship in May 2022. The origins of
13600-476: The late 19th century, most of the "ancient" (a legal term equivalent to time immemorial ) irregularities inherited by the civil parish system were cleaned up, and the majority of exclaves were abolished. The census of 1911 noted that 8,322 (58%) of "parishes" in England and Wales were not geographically identical when comparing the civil to the ecclesiastical form. In 1894, civil parishes were reformed by
13736-526: The league in Boothroyd's first full season , and defeated Leeds United 3–0 in the play-off final to gain promotion to the Premier League . But the team did not record a Premier League win until November, and Ashley Young was sold to Aston Villa for a club record fee of £9.65 million in January 2007. Watford finished bottom after only winning five league games, but did reach the semi-finals of
13872-422: The league than Watford) whilst Luton still have many more years in a higher league throughout both teams history. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. U21 players to have been given
14008-400: The lorry drivers then approached Constable Alec Scott and mentioned the strange man. Scott found Richter who asked to be taken to a hospital as he was feeling unwell. Scott called his superiors who quickly sent a car to pick up Richter and take him to jail. The village has several estate agents; a motorcycle showroom; a tattooist; several takeaways; hairdressers; supermarkets, one incorporating
14144-465: The mid 19th century. Using a longer historical lens the better terms are "pre-separation (civil and ecclesiastical) parish", "original medieval parishes" and "new parishes". The Victoria County History , a landmark collaborative work mostly written in the 20th century (although incomplete), summarises the history of each English "parish", roughly meaning late medieval parish. A minority of these had exclaves , which could be: In some cases an exclave of
14280-465: The new district councils (outside London) to review their parishes, and many areas left unparished in 1972 have since been made parishes, either in whole or part. For example, Hinckley , whilst entirely unparished in 1974, now has four civil parishes, which together cover part of its area, whilst the central part of the town remains unparished. Some parishes were sub-divided into smaller territories known as hamlets , tithings or townships . Nowadays
14416-400: The opening five fixtures; in the space of seven years, the club had climbed from bottom place in the lowest division of The Football League to top position in the highest division. Watford were unable to maintain a title challenge, but eventually finished the season second behind Liverpool, which ensured UEFA Cup qualification for the following season. Luther Blissett finished the season as
14552-488: The other conurbations. Civil parishes vary greatly in population: some have populations below 100 and have no settlement larger than a hamlet , while others cover towns with populations of tens of thousands. Weston-super-Mare , with a population of 71,758, is the most populous civil parish. In many cases small settlements, today popularly termed villages , localities or suburbs, are in a single parish which originally had one church. Large urban areas are mostly unparished, as
14688-401: The parish the status of a town, at which point the council becomes a town council . Around 400 parish councils are called town councils. Under the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007 , a civil parish may be given one of the following alternative styles: As a result, a parish council can be called a town council, a community council, a village council or occasionally
14824-404: The parish. As the number of ratepayers of some parishes grew, it became increasingly difficult to convene meetings as an open vestry. In some, mostly built-up, areas the select vestry took over responsibility from the entire body of ratepayers. This innovation improved efficiency, but allowed governance by a self-perpetuating elite. The administration of the parish system relied on the monopoly of
14960-562: The parish; the church rate ceased to be levied in many parishes and became voluntary from 1868. During the 17th century it was found that the 1601 Poor Law did not work well for very large parishes, which were particularly common in northern England. Such parishes were typically subdivided into multiple townships , which levied their rates separately. The Poor Relief Act 1662 therefore directed that for poor law purposes 'parish' meant any place which maintained its own poor, thereby converting many townships into separate 'poor law parishes'. As
15096-499: The perceived inefficiency and corruption inherent in the system became a source for concern in some places. For this reason, during the early 19th century the parish progressively lost its powers to ad hoc boards and other organisations, such as the boards of guardians given responsibility for poor relief through the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 . Sanitary districts covered England in 1875 and Ireland three years later. The replacement boards were each entitled to levy their own rate in
15232-435: The place from Colney Street . The village was on the boundary of the 1860s London Coal Tax area; two posts still stand. London Colney was historically part of the ancient parish of St Albans St Peter . In 1894 it became part of the civil parish of St Peter Rural , which was abolished in 1947 when London Colney became a separate civil parish. London Colney Primary School was initially due to open on 4 September 1939. It
15368-411: The population of the parish. Most rural parish councillors are elected to represent the entire parish, though in parishes with larger populations or those that cover larger areas, the parish can be divided into wards. Each of these wards then returns councillors to the parish council (the numbers depending on their population). Only if there are more candidates standing for election than there are seats on
15504-438: The right to create civil parishes was extended to London boroughs , although only one, Queen's Park , has so far been created. Eight parishes also have city status (a status granted by the monarch ). A civil parish may be equally known as and confirmed as a town, village, neighbourhood or community by resolution of its parish council, a right not conferred on other units of English local government. The governing body of
15640-423: The season between the two clubs, 1–0, at Vicarage Road. On 17 April 2021 in the reverse fixture at Kenilworth Road, Luton won, 1–0, so the spoils for the season were shared. With Watford's promotion back to the Premier League for season 2021–22 , the rivalry did not commence that year; although it resumed for the 2022–23 season after Watford's immediate relegation from the Premier League, whilst Luton remained in
15776-549: The stadium in 1974 and returned in 2005 and 2010 to stage fundraising concerts for the club. Former events include horse and carriage shows and greyhound racing . The Watford Training Ground is located on the University College London Union (UCLU) Shenley Sports grounds in St Albans , Hertfordshire . Watford fans maintain a rivalry with those of Luton Town . The two sides met regularly in
15912-511: The suspension of the Southern League during the First World War – after finishing the 1919–20 season runners-up on goal average , the club resigned from the Southern League to join the new Football League Third Division . From 1921–22 , the third tier of The Football League consisted of two parallel sections of 22 clubs, fighting both for promotion to the Second Division and also battling to hold on to their league status. There
16048-521: The team into the First Division, and sacked Kirby's successor Mike Keen in April 1977. When Graham Taylor was named as Keen's successor, the club was still in the Fourth Division. Taylor achieved promotion in his first season ; Watford won the Fourth Division title, recording the most wins, fewest defeats, most goals scored and fewest goals conceded of any side in the division. Promotion to
16184-425: The team moved to a site on Cassio Road , and remained there for 32 years, before moving to Watford's current stadium at nearby Vicarage Road in 1922. The new stadium was initially owned by Benskins Brewery ; the club rented the ground until 2001, when it purchased the freehold outright. However, the club's financial situation worsened following the purchase, and in 2002 Watford sold the ground for £6 million in
16320-660: The team recorded five consecutive top six finishes between 1934–35 and 1938–39 , and won the Football League Third Division South Cup in 1937. The Football League was suspended in 1939 due to the Second World War. Football resumed in 1946, with Watford still in the Third Division South. A 23rd-placed finish in 1950–51 meant that the club had to apply for re-election to the league once more, but again teams in
16456-399: The time. Furphy's rebuilding came to fruition in 1969 with the signing of Barry Endean , whose arrival marked the start of an unbeaten run after Christmas. Watford secured the Third Division title in April, at home to Plymouth Argyle . A year later Watford reached the FA Cup semi-final for the first time, defeating First Division teams Stoke City and Liverpool along the way. Hampered by
16592-486: The top tier in 1987, to 13th in the third tier in 1997. Taylor returned as manager for the start of the 1997–98 season. He led the club to consecutive promotions, but could not prevent relegation from the Premier League in 1999–2000 . Since Taylor's retirement in 2001, Watford have had twelve managers. Of these, Aidy Boothroyd took Watford back to the Premier League in 2006, but Watford were relegated in 2007, and Boothroyd departed in 2008. Following Watford's takeover by
16728-487: The upper section containing the club's corporate hospitality. At either end of the pitch, The Vicarage Road Stand is split between the club's family section and away supporters, while the Rookery Stand is for home supporters only. Both stands were built in the 1990s, financed by proceeds from player sales. In the summer of 2015, The Elton John Stand was revamped in order to accommodate an extra 700 seats. This number
16864-714: The village for a number of years. A minor scandal occurred in 2004, when local resident Jake 'the Snake' Roberts was convicted of cruelty to animals after allowing his pet snake to starve to death. The story appeared in the Herts Advertiser newspaper, and noted that the former WWE wrestler lived in Whitehorse Lane. Civil parishes in England In England, a civil parish is a type of administrative parish used for local government . It
17000-477: Was 9,507, increasing to 9,804 at the 2021 census . It is considered a satellite or dormitory village of St Albans, where some villagers travel to work and shop. Colney was first recorded in the 13th century. It takes its name from the River Colne , with the Old English suffix ēa , meaning "river". The name London Colney, first recorded in 1555, referred to "Colney on the road to London", and distinguished
17136-504: Was a re-election system in place which meant the bottom two teams in each of the two divisions had to apply for re-election to the league. Watford finished outside the top six league positions in every season between 1922 and 1934. Following Kent's departure in 1926, they finished 21st out of 22 clubs in 1926–27 , but were unanimously re-elected to the league after a ballot of clubs in the top two divisions of The Football League. By contrast, under Neil McBain and subsequently Bill Findlay ,
17272-441: Was adopted for the 1909–10 season. These colours were retained until the 1920s, when the club introduced an all-blue shirt. After a change of colours to gold shirts and black shorts for 1959–60, the team's nickname was changed to The Hornets, after a popular vote via the supporters club. These colours remained until 1976, when Watford's kits started featuring red, and the gold was changed to yellow. That colour scheme has continued into
17408-590: Was announced as Watford's head coach starting on 1 July 2016. Mazzari's tenure as manager was terminated at the end of the season. On 27 May 2017 Marco Silva was appointed head coach. On 21 January 2018, Javi Gracia was appointed as head coach following Silva's departure. Gracia has been met with widespread praise since his appointment after a successful 2018–19 Premier League campaign which saw Watford finish with their highest points tally ever in English Premier League football. Since around 2019,
17544-414: Was announced as the new head coach as the replacement to Jokanović, who had failed to agree contract terms. Despite going on to lead the newly promoted Watford to a comfortable mid-table position in the Premier League and the semi-final of the FA Cup, it was announced on 13 May 2016 that Sánchez Flores would be leaving the club at the end of the season. Following Sánchez Flores's departure, Walter Mazzarri
17680-414: Was appointed for one game before Nigel Pearson came into management. Watford ended Liverpool's unbeaten run of 44 top-flight games in February 2020, but Pearson was sacked 2 games before the end of the season, and the club were relegated, finishing 19th out of 20. Watford finished the 2020–21 Championship season in second place, gaining immediate promotion back to the Premier League, but again finished
17816-472: Was in fact a Moose on the crest and not a Hart as previously thought by Watford fans. Until Barnet and, later, Stevenage joined the Football League, Watford were Hertfordshire's only league club. Other nicknames have since been adopted, including Yellow Army and The 'Orns . Until April 2019, when Watford played at Vicarage Road their players traditionally entered the pitch at the start of
17952-407: Was released by the club in September 2022 after 11 games in charge. Rob Edwards subsequently has gone on to have considerable success at rivals Luton Town . Slaven Bilić was announced as his replacement on an 18-month contract. Bilic was subsequently sacked on 7 March 2023 and replaced by Chris Wilder on a short-term contract until the end of the season, making it the third time in four seasons
18088-426: Was revised a day later to around 1,000 extra seats following the announcement of an expansion in the north-east corner. Between 1997 and early 2013, Watford shared Vicarage Road with rugby union side Saracens F.C. The stadium has hosted matches for the England under-21s , and senior international football between overseas teams. Elton John has also used Vicarage Road as a venue for concerts: He first played at
18224-422: Was sacked after approximately six months, following interest from Everton, in January 2018, and the club hired Javi Gracia . In April 2019 Watford came back from 2–0 down to beat Wolverhampton Wanderers to reach the FA Cup final for the second time in their history, with Gerard Deulofeu scoring twice and Troy Deeney scoring a penalty in the 94th minute to take it to extra time. They met Manchester City in
18360-589: Was sold to Liverpool. After 4 wins from his opening 23 league fixtures, Bassett was sacked in January 1988. Watford were bottom of the First Division at the time of his departure, and Steve Harrison could not prevent relegation at the end of the season. In 1988–89 , Harrison's Watford failed to return to the First Division, after defeat in the Second Division play-offs. The under-18 team won the FA Youth Cup , beating Manchester City 2–1 after extra time, with future England international David James in goal for
18496-468: Was then closed on the same day, as war was declared. It opened properly a day later. In the early morning of 12 May 1941, a German spy, Karel Richter , descended by parachute near London Colney. Richter buried his equipment and hid for a couple of days. Driven out by hunger (he had mistakenly buried his food parcel as well), Richter was approached by two lorry drivers who asked him the way to London. Suspicious of Richter's non-committal reply and foreignness,
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