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133-722: The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972, commonly called the " London Convention " or "LC '72" and also abbreviated as Marine Dumping , is an agreement to control pollution of the sea by dumping and to encourage regional agreements supplementary to the convention. It covers the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, and platforms. It does not cover discharges from land-based sources such as pipes and outfalls, wastes generated incidental to normal operation of vessels, or placement of materials for purposes other than mere disposal, providing such disposal

266-409: A circular economy , effective disposal facilities, export and import control and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced. In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth

399-473: A principle of law is a source of law. This means that it is compulsory, so a court can quash or confirm a decision through the application of the precautionary principle. In this sense, the precautionary principle is not a simple idea or a desideratum but a source of law. This is the legal status of the precautionary principle in the European Union. On the other hand, an 'approach' usually does not have

532-536: A statutory requirement in some areas of law. The concept "precautionary principle" is generally considered to have arisen in English from a translation of the German term Vorsorgeprinzip in the 1970s in response to forest degradation and sea pollution , where German lawmakers adopted clean air act banning use of certain substances suspected in causing the environmental damage even though evidence of their impact

665-493: A teleological interpretation of the convention such that the goal of protecting the marine environment determines what is allowed or prohibited, even if the specific polluting pathway may vary. Waste disposal Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal . This includes the collection , transport , treatment , and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of

798-453: A test pilot ). In the case of technological innovation, containment of impact tends to be more difficult if that technology can self-replicate. Bill Joy emphasised the dangers of replicating genetic technology, nanotechnology, and robotic technology in his article in Wired , " Why the future doesn't need us ", though he does not specifically cite the precautionary principle. The application of

931-592: A "general principle of EU law". In Case T-74/00 Artegodan , the General Court (then Court of First Instance) appeared willing to extrapolate from the limited provision for the precautionary principle in environmental policy in article 191(2) TFEU to a general principle of EU law. In France, the Charter for the Environment contains a formulation of the precautionary principle (article 5): When

1064-502: A "quasi- option effect" which should induce a " risk -neutral" society to favour current decisions that allow for more flexibility in the future. Gollier et al. conclude that "more scientific uncertainty as to the distribution of a future risk – that is, a larger variability of beliefs – should induce society to take stronger prevention measures today." The principle was also derived from religious beliefs that particular areas of science and technology should be restricted as they "belong to

1197-796: A damaged nuclear power plant into the Pacific Ocean raised questions for the Governing Bodies of the London Convention (LC) and its Protocol (LP) and the Fukushima District Court as to whether the action constituted dumping under Article 4. In 2021 the Governing Bodies received concerns about the release from Greenpeace International, South Korea, as well as Japan asking whether the prohibition to dump radioactive materials from "man-made structures at sea" bans discharges from land-based pipelines protruding into

1330-422: A large and increasing number of international treaties and declarations in the fields of sustainable development, environmental protection, health, trade, and food safety, although at times it has attracted debate over how to accurately define it and apply it to complex scenarios with multiple risks. In some legal systems, as in law of the European Union , the application of the precautionary principle has been made

1463-533: A large risk to many variable communities, including underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the globe, it has even been encouraged by the World Health Organization when there is no other option. Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste

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1596-588: A meeting of environmentalists in 1998, is another example of the strong version. Strong precaution can also be termed as a "no-regrets" principle, where costs are not considered in preventative action. Weak precaution holds that lack of scientific evidence does not preclude action if damage would otherwise be serious and irreversible. Humans practice weak precaution every day, and often incur costs, to avoid hazards that are far from certain: we do not walk in moderately dangerous areas at night, we exercise, we buy smoke detectors, we buckle our seatbelts. According to

1729-656: A permit. Parties to the protocol are further obligated to adopt measures to ensure that the issuance of permits and permit conditions for the dumping of reverse list substances comply with Annex 2 (the Waste Assessment Annex) of the protocol. The substances on the reverse list include dredged material; sewage sludge ; industrial fish processing waste; vessels and offshore platforms or other man-made structures at sea; inert, inorganic geological material; organic material of natural origin; and bulky items including iron, steel, concrete and similar materials for which

1862-404: A prior special permit for the dumping of a number of other identified materials and a prior general permit for other wastes or matter. Since its entering into force in 1975, the convention has provided a framework for international control and prevention of marine pollution within which the contracting parties have achieved continuous progress in keeping the oceans clean. Among its milestones are

1995-567: A publication by the New Zealand Treasury Department: The weak version [of the Precautionary Principle] is the least restrictive and allows preventive measures to be taken in the face of uncertainty, but does not require them (e.g., Rio Declaration 1992; United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change 1992). To satisfy the threshold of harm, there must be some evidence relating to both

2128-422: A reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation." As Garcia (1995) pointed out, "the wording, largely similar to that of the principle, is subtly different in that: it recognizes that there may be differences in local capabilities to apply the approach, and it calls for cost-effectiveness in applying the approach, e.g., taking economic and social costs into account." The "approach"

2261-462: A remote chance of irreparable damage to the ecology, then you shouldn't do it, no matter how great the possible advantages of the action may be. You are not allowed to balance costs against benefits when deciding what to do. As noted by Rupert and O'Riordan, the challenge in application of the principle is "in making it clear that absence of certainty, or there being insufficient evidence-based analysis, were not impediments to innovation, so long as there

2394-657: A responsible to address any scientific requests from the consultative meeting, including the preparation of lists of hazardous substances, developing guide-lines on the implementation of the convention, and maintaining awareness of the impacts on the marine environments of inputs from all waste sources. The convention is implemented in the United States through Title I of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) which directs that implementing regulations are to apply binding requirements of LC to

2527-479: A single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required. The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance

2660-427: A variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery. This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting

2793-416: Is a comprehensive method for evaluating the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use of the world's limited resources and minimize

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2926-526: Is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for the disposal of both municipal solid waste and solid residue from wastewater treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent. Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as " thermal treatment ". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat , gas , steam , and ash . Incineration

3059-434: Is a good way to develop a city's waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management. An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy . The tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate

3192-483: Is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation

3325-403: Is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house. The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address

3458-409: Is burned is the largest hazard with incineration. In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for

3591-459: Is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste ). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as the emission of gaseous pollutants including substantial quantities of carbon dioxide . Incineration

3724-711: Is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organic compounds such as dioxins , furans , and PAHs , which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such as mercury and lead which can be volatilised in

3857-418: Is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that require less energy and resources to produce. Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources. Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and energy, while also minimizing

3990-462: Is extensively studied by engineers and philosophers. The principle is often used by policy makers in situations where there is the possibility of harm from making a certain decision (e.g. taking a particular course of action) and conclusive evidence is not yet available. For example, a government may decide to limit or restrict the widespread release of a medicine or new technology until it has been thoroughly tested. The principle acknowledges that while

4123-406: Is generally considered a softening of the "principle": As Recuerda has noted, the distinction between the precautionary principle and a precautionary approach is diffuse and, in some contexts, controversial. In the negotiations of international declarations, the United States has opposed the use of the term principle because this term has special connotations in legal language, due to the fact that

London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter - Misplaced Pages Continue

4256-412: Is highly dependent on the conditions around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste. The range of hazards due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical. There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste. The hazards of incineration are

4389-469: Is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported. A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which

4522-577: Is limited". Various interests being represented by various groups proposing the principle resulted in great variability of its formulation: one study identified 14 different formulations of the principle in treaties and non-treaty declarations. R.B. Stewart (2002) reduced the precautionary principle to four basic versions: Carolyn Raffensperger of the Wingspread convention placed the principle in opposition to approaches based on risk management and cost-benefit analysis . Dave Brower ( Friends of

4655-506: Is made of assignment of liability for environmental harm. Strong versions justify or require precautionary measures and some also establish liability for environmental harm, which is effectively a strong form of "polluter pays". For example, the Earth Charter states: "When knowledge is limited apply a precautionary approach ... Place the burden of proof on those who argue that a proposed activity will not cause significant harm, and make

4788-534: Is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of "substantial research funding ", which motivated scientists often require. Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to

4921-582: Is much wider, and specifically where preliminary-objective-scientific-evaluation indicates that there are reasonable grounds for concern that potentially dangerous effects on the environment, human, animal or [and] plant health may be inconsistent with the high level of protection [for what] chosen for the Community." The January 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety says, in regard to controversies over GMOs : "Lack of scientific certainty due to insufficient relevant scientific information ... shall not prevent

5054-909: Is not contrary to aims of the convention. It entered into force in 1975. As of September 2016, there were 89 Parties to the convention. The convention was called for by the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (June 1972, Stockholm), the treaty was drafted at the Intergovernmental Conference on the Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea (13 November 1972, London) and it was opened for signature on 29 December 1972. It entered into force on 30 August 1975 when 15 nations ratified. As of 1 October 2001, there were 78 Contracting Parties to

5187-415: Is not the risk that must be avoided or amended, but a potential risk that must be prevented. Thus, in the case of regulation of scientific research, there is a third party beyond the scientist and the regulator: the consumer. In an analysis concerning application of the precautionary principle to nanotechnology , Chris Phoenix and Mike Treder posit that there are two forms of the principle, which they call

5320-781: Is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include waste paper and cardboard, plastic recycling , metal recycling , electronic devices, wood recycling , glass recycling , cloth and textile and so many more. In July 2017, the Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and solid waste , including plastic , textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China. Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material , food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes to decompose

5453-568: Is required whenever there is a possible risk to health, safety, or the environment, even if the supporting evidence is speculative and even if the economic costs of regulation are high. In 1982, the United Nations World Charter for Nature gave the first international recognition to the strong version of the principle, suggesting that when "potential adverse effects are not fully understood, the activities should not proceed". The widely publicised Wingspread Declaration, from

London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter - Misplaced Pages Continue

5586-549: Is so important. Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause. There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management. Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are asthma and tuberculosis . The exposure to waste on an average individual

5719-405: Is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource recovery . The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action

5852-518: Is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world. Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms of

5985-453: Is the most common method of disposal in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection

6118-469: Is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid waste , which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity. Waste management practices are not the same across countries ( developed and developing nations ); regions ( urban and rural areas ), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches. Proper management of waste

6251-421: Is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy . The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery . This last step is the final resort for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered. The waste hierarchy represents

6384-469: Is used in which waste is transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America. In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning

6517-528: The Lisbon Treaty states that: Union policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Union. It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay. After

6650-533: The Soviet Union ), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Serbia (ratified as Serbia and Montenegro ), Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tanzania, Tonga, Tunisia, Ukraine (ratified as Ukrainian SSR ), United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, and Vanuatu. (Insert Reference). Japan's 2023 release of water from

6783-609: The Thames to proper distance in the country". However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842 of the social reformer , Edwin Chadwick , in which he argued for

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6916-663: The Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle was convened by the Science and Environmental Health Network and concluded with the following formulation, described by Stewart Brand as "the clearest and most frequently cited": When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In this context

7049-557: The "strict form" and the "active form". The former "requires inaction when action might pose a risk", while the latter means "choosing less risky alternatives when they are available, and [...] taking responsibility for potential risks." Thomas Alured Faunce has argued for stronger application of the precautionary principle by chemical and health technology regulators particularly in relation to Ti0 2 and ZnO nanoparticles in sunscreens , biocidal nanosilver in waterways and products whose manufacture, handling or recycling exposes humans to

7182-681: The 1920s in Britain. These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor. Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems. Curbside collection

7315-599: The 1993 ban on ocean disposal of low-level radioactive wastes and the resolutions to end the dumping and incineration of industrial wastes. The efforts of the Parties are supported by a permanent secretariat hosted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The consultative meeting of the contracting parties to the London convention is the governing and political decision-making body of

7448-497: The Earth ) concluded that "all technology should be assumed guilty until proven innocent". Freeman Dyson described the application of precautionary principle as "deliberately one-sided", for example when used as justification to destroy genetic engineering research plantations and threaten researchers in spite of scientific evidence demonstrating lack of harm: The Precautionary Principle says that if some course of action carries even

7581-399: The Earth. Recycling not only benefits the environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items are made can be made into new products. Materials for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection . In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate

7714-634: The Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the United States , the People's Republic of China , Japan and Germany . Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse, 'R'epair, 'R'epurpose , 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two ('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to

7847-490: The London Convention is to prevent indiscriminate disposal at sea of wastes that could be liable for creating hazards to human health; harming living resources and marine life; damaging amenities; or interfering with other legitimate uses of the sea. The 1972 Convention extends its scope over "all marine waters other than the internal waters" of the States and prohibits the dumping of certain hazardous materials. It further requires

7980-667: The Party of [I]mport, in order to avoid or minimize such potential adverse effects, from taking a decision, as appropriate, with regard to the import of the living modified organism in question." Pope Francis makes reference to the principle and the Rio Declaration in his 2015 encyclical letter , Laudato si' , noting that alongside its environmental significance, the precautionary principle "makes it possible to protect those who are most vulnerable and whose ability to defend their interests and to assemble incontrovertible evidence

8113-477: The US accession to the 1996 Protocol and, further on, to the protocol's implementation. Through its International Program Office, NOS would also contribute to the international co-operation efforts towards meeting the objectives of the 1996 Protocol. The legal interpretation about carbon capture and storage (CCS) is uncertain. The sub-seabed wastes fall within the scope of the treaty, which can prohibit CCS projects like

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8246-532: The adoption of the European Commission's communication on the precautionary principle, the principle has come to inform much EU policy, including areas beyond environmental policy . As of 2006 it had been integrated into EU laws "in matters such as general product safety, the use of additives for use in animal nutrition, the incineration of waste, and the regulation of genetically modified organisms". Through its application in case law , it has become

8379-457: The appellate court to stop the planting of Bt eggplant in test fields, saying the impacts of such an undertaking to the environment, native crops and human health are still unknown. The Court of Appeals granted the petition, citing the precautionary principle stating "when human activities may lead to threats of serious and irreversible damage to the environment that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish

8512-519: The application of the principle... decisions should be guided by: (i) careful evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable, serious or irreversible damage to the environment; and (ii) an assessment of risk-weighted consequence of various options". The most significant points of Justice Preston's decision are the following findings: A petition filed 17 May 2013 by environmental group Greenpeace Southeast Asia and farmer-scientist coalition Masipag ( Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapaunlad ng Agrikultura ) asked

8645-422: The cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling. Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. As much as it

8778-496: The collaboration with relevant local and national agencies that are involved in point and non-point source pollution control . In this context, integrated coastal management (ICM) comes as a natural framework for effective implementation of the objectives of the protocol. Relaying on its vast ICM technical expertise, the National Ocean Service (NOS) is to contribute to the creation of the necessary foundation for

8911-412: The combustion process.. Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, it is possible to clean up

9044-420: The concern is physical impact, and limited to those circumstances where such wastes are generated at locations with no land-disposal alternatives. In addition, the 1996 protocol prohibits altogether the practice of incineration at sea, except for emergencies, and prohibits the exports of wastes or other matter to non-Parties for the purpose of dumping or incineration at sea. The 1996 protocol has effectively moved

9177-783: The convention. International Administration of the Convention functions through Consultative Meetings held at International Maritime Organization (IMO) headquarters in London. The London Convention consists of 22 Articles and three Annexes. It follows a "black list/grey list" approach to regulating ocean dumping; Annex I materials (black list) generally may not be ocean dumped (though for certain Annex I materials dumping may be permissible if present only as " trace contaminants " or "rapidly rendered harmless" and Annex II materials (grey list) require "special care". Annex III lays out general technical factors to be considered in establishing criteria for issuance of ocean dumping permits. The main objective of

9310-509: The convention. It takes advice on issues needing multidisciplinary expertise from the Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) which is composed of specialised experts nominated by the IMO , FAO , UNESCO , IOC , WMO , WHO , IAEA , UN , and UNEP . A scientific group on dumping, composed of government experts from the parties to the convention

9443-476: The creation of the first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer. However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas. Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at

9576-590: The cultivation of a cautious attitude toward actions that may endanger the future of humanity or the biosphere that supported it. In 1988, Konrad von Moltke described the German concept for a British audience, which he translated into English as the precautionary principle. In economics, the Precautionary Principle has been analyzed in terms of "the effect on rational decision-making", of "the interaction of irreversibility " and " uncertainty ". Authors such as Epstein (1980) and Arrow and Fischer (1974) show that "irreversibility of possible future consequences" creates

9709-602: The decision of the Court of Appeals which stopped the field trials for the genetically modified eggplant. The court is the first in the world to adopt the precautionary principle regarding GMO products in its decision. The Supreme Court decision was later reversed following an appeal by researchers at the University of the Philippines Los Baños. Body Shop International , a UK-based cosmetics company, included

9842-483: The entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal. A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal , although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens ). Incineration

9975-478: The entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, and food. Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials. Waste management is intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health , the environment , planetary resources, and aesthetics . The aim of waste management

10108-402: The evidence that certain animals are sentient sufficient whenever "statistically significant evidence ... of the presence of at least one credible indicator of sentience in at least one species of that order" has been obtained. For practical reasons, Birch says, the evidence of sentience should concern the order , so that if one species meets the conditions of sentience, then all the species of

10241-547: The extent that this would not relax the MPRSA. On 17 November 1996, a special meeting of the Contracting Parties adopted the "1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972" which is to replace the 1972 Convention, subject to ratification. In line with UNCED's Agenda 21, the 1996 Protocol reflects the global trend towards precaution and prevention with

10374-431: The extreme, such a requirement could involve bans and prohibitions on entire classes of potentially threatening activities or substances (Cooney, 2005). Over time, there has been a gradual transformation of the precautionary principle from what appears in the Rio Declaration to a stronger form that arguably [by whom] acts as restraint on development in the absence of firm evidence that it will do no harm. No introduction to

10507-442: The generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of a product. Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower

10640-462: The hybrids of these two methods. The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally effective than landfill, or incineration. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resource recovery ). Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through

10773-530: The importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population. In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London. The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for

10906-951: The injection of CO 2 into offshore platforms built into sub-seabed geological formations. State parties – (87 as of 2013) Afghanistan, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Azerbaijan, Barbados, Belarus (ratified as Byelorussian SSR ), Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cape Verde, Chile, People's Republic of China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan (ratified but w/ exclusion), Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, South Korea, Libya, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Nauru, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Russia (ratified as

11039-400: The lack of waste clearance regulations. Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by

11172-418: The life of products and delays their entry into the waste stream. Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts associated with extracting and processing those materials. Product life-cycle analysis (LCA)

11305-509: The likelihood of occurrence and the severity of consequences. Some, but not all, require consideration of the costs of precautionary measures. Weak formulations do not preclude weighing benefits against the costs. Factors other than scientific uncertainty, including economic considerations, may provide legitimate grounds for postponing action. Under weak formulations, the requirement to justify the need for action (the burden of proof) generally falls on those advocating precautionary action. No mention

11438-782: The materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as " single-stream recycling ". The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres , polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons , newspapers , magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes. PVC , LDPE , PP , and PS (see resin identification code ) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of

11571-473: The need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills. Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management. Precautionary principle In an engineering context, the precautionary principle manifests itself as the factor of safety , discussed in detail in the monograph of Elishakoff . It was apparently suggested, in civil engineering, by Belidor in 1729. Interrelation between safety factor and reliability

11704-523: The need for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste. Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging. The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends

11837-434: The non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair') refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving

11970-421: The occurrence of any damage, albeit unpredictable in the current state of scientific knowledge, may seriously and irreversibly harm the environment, public authorities shall, with due respect for the principle of precaution and the areas within their jurisdiction, ensure the implementation of procedures for risk assessment and the adoption of temporary measures commensurate with the risk involved in order to preclude

12103-691: The occurrence of such damage. On 18 July 2005, the City of San Francisco passed a precautionary principle purchasing ordinance, which requires the city to weigh the environmental and health costs of its $ 600 million in annual purchases – for everything from cleaning supplies to computers. Members of the Bay Area Working Group on the Precautionary Principle contributed to drafting the Ordinance. The most important Australian court case so far, due to its exceptionally detailed consideration of

12236-607: The organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or anaerobic methods. Some methods use

12369-425: The overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods. The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance, and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing

12502-419: The parties agreeing to move from controlled dispersal at sea of a variety of land-generated wastes towards integrated land-based solutions for most, and controlled sea disposal of few, remaining categories of wastes or other matter. Among the most important innovations brought by the 1996 protocol is the codification of the " precautionary approach " and the "polluter pays principle." Reflecting these principles,

12635-533: The people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps. Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution , industrialisation, and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in England , the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to

12768-441: The polluting parties pay for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable materials. Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources . Common waste produced during pre-modern times

12901-426: The precautionary principle consists of an epistemic and a decision rule. The former concerns the "evidential bar" that should be required for animal sentience. In other words, how much evidence of sentience is necessary before one decides to apply precautionary measures? According to Birch, only some evidence would be sufficient, which means that the evidential bar should be set at low levels. Birch proposes to consider

13034-473: The precautionary principle has been invoked in order to grant potentially sentient animals "basic legal protections". Birch's formulation of the animal sentience precautionary principle runs as follows: Where there are threats of serious, negative animal welfare outcomes, lack of full scientific certainty as to the sentience of the animals in question shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent those outcomes. This version of

13167-453: The precautionary principle in their 2006 chemicals strategy. Fields typically concerned by the precautionary principle are the possibility of: The precautionary principle is often applied to biological fields because changes cannot be easily contained and have the potential of being global. The principle has less relevance to contained fields such as aeronautics , where the few people undergoing risk have given informed consent (e.g.,

13300-422: The precautionary principle suitable for the problem of animal sentience has been proposed by LSE philosopher Jonathan Birch : "The idea is that when the evidence of sentience is inconclusive, we should 'give the animal the benefit of doubt' or 'err on the side of caution' in formulating animal protection legislation." Since we cannot reach absolute certainty with regards to the fact that some animals are sentient,

13433-459: The precautionary principle would be complete without brief reference to the difference between the precautionary principle and the precautionary approach . Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration 1992 states that: "in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall be not used as

13566-612: The precautionary principle, is Telstra Corporation Limited v Hornsby Shire Council. The principle was summarised by reference to the NSW Protection of the Environment Administration Act 1991 , which itself provides a good definition of the principle: "If there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reasoning for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation. In

13699-425: The principle can be seen in the public policy of requiring pharmaceutical companies to carry out clinical trials to show that new medications are safe. Oxford based philosopher Nick Bostrom discusses the idea of a future powerful superintelligence , and the risks should it attempt to gain atomic level control of matter. Application of the principle modifies the status of innovation and risk assessment : it

13832-483: The product moves through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its useful life. During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This stage

13965-496: The progress of science and technology has often brought great benefit to humanity, it has also contributed to the creation of new threats and risks. It implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure to such harm, when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk. These protections should be relaxed only if further scientific findings emerge that provide sound evidence that no harm will result. The principle has become an underlying rationale for

14098-418: The progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product. The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the product lifecycle , encompasses several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture, distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages,

14231-679: The proponent of an activity, rather than the public, should bear the burden of proof. In February 2000, the Commission of the European Communities noted in a Communication from the Commission on the Precautionary Principle that "The precautionary principle is not defined in the Treaties of the European Union , which prescribes it [the Precautionary Principle] only once – to protect the environment. But in practice, its scope

14364-403: The protocol embodies a major structural revision of the convention the so-called "reverse list" approach. Now, instead of prohibiting the dumping of certain (listed) hazardous materials, the parties are obligated to prohibit the dumping of any waste or other matter that is not listed in Annex 1 ("the reverse list") of the 1996 protocol. Dumping of wastes or other matter on this reverse list requires

14497-492: The range of the impact of human action and, as such, ethics must be modified so that the far distant effects of one's actions should now be considered. His maxim is designed to embody the precautionary principle in its prescription that one should "Act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life" or, stated conversely, "Do not compromise the conditions for an indefinite continuation of humanity on earth." To achieve this Jonas argued for

14630-690: The rapidly expanding city, and the Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dustbin . In the Ashanti Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded. The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to

14763-422: The realm of God", as postulated by Prince Charles and Pope Benedict XVI . Many definitions of the precautionary principle exist: "precaution" may be defined as "caution in advance", "caution practiced in the context of uncertainty", or informed prudence . Two ideas lie at the core of the principle: One of the primary foundations of the precautionary principle, and globally accepted definitions, results from

14896-460: The recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat). Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not a "waste-'management'" practice. The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce , Reuse and Recycle , which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimisation . The waste hierarchy

15029-423: The responsible parties liable for environmental harm." Reversal of proof requires those proposing an activity to prove that the product, process or technology is sufficiently "safe" before approval is granted. Requiring proof of "no environmental harm" before any action proceeds implies the public is not prepared to accept any environmental risk, no matter what economic or social benefits may arise (Peterson, 2006). At

15162-607: The rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In San Francisco , the local government established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of "Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system charges customers by

15295-425: The risk of inhaling multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Appeals to the precautionary principle have often characterized the debates concerning animal sentience – that is, the question of whether animals are able to feel "subjective experiences with an attractive or aversive quality", such as pain, pleasure, happiness, or joy – in relation to the question of whether we should legally protect sentient animals. A version of

15428-525: The same meaning, although in some particular cases an approach could be binding. A precautionary approach is a particular "lens" used to identify risk that every prudent person possesses (Recuerda, 2008) On 2 February 2000, the European Commission issued a Communication on the precautionary principle, in which it adopted a procedure for the application of this concept, but without giving a detailed definition of it. Paragraph 2 of article 191 of

15561-430: The same order should be considered sentient and should be thus legally protected. This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, "to investigate sentience separately in different orders" is feasible, whereas on the other hand, since some orders include thousands of species, it would be unfeasible to study their sentience separately. What is more, the evidential bar should be so low that only one indicator of sentience in

15694-402: The scope of the original London convention landwards, relating it to the policy and management issues of land as well as sea wastes disposal. Indicative for this shift are such elements as the codification of the precautionary approach and the establishment of requirements such as the "waste prevention audit," the identification and control of the sources of contamination for certain materials, and

15827-890: The sea. The London Convention Secretariat explained on 29 July 2022 that "man-made structures at sea" is not currently defined by treaties, but interpretations including those based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea seem to exclude pipelines as land-based. On the other hand, the Legal Affairs Office of the International Maritime Organization said that parties to the LC/LP could decide whether protruding pipelines count as "other man-made structures at sea". This allows

15960-425: The second part of the animal sentience precautionary principle, the decision rule concerns the requirement that we have to act once there is sufficient evidence of a seriously bad outcome. According to Birch, "we should aim to include within the scope of animal protection legislation all animals for which the evidence of sentience is sufficient, according to the standard of sufficiency outlined [above]". In other words,

16093-606: The species of a specific order will be sufficient in order for the precautionary principle to be applied. Such indicator should be "an observable phenomenon that experiments can be designed to detect, and it must be credible that the presence of this indicator is explained by sentience". Lists of such criteria already exist for detecting animal pain. The aim is to create analogous lists for other criteria of sentience, such as happiness, fear, or joy. The presence of one of these criteria should be demonstrated by means of experiments which must meet "the normal scientific standards". Regarding

16226-460: The threat." Respondents filed a motion for reconsideration in June 2013 and on 20 September 2013 the Court of Appeals chose to uphold their May decision saying the bt talong field trials violate the people's constitutional right to a "balanced and healthful ecology." The Supreme Court on 8 December 2015 permanently stopped the field testing for Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) talong (eggplant), upholding

16359-437: The turn of the 20th century in other large cities of Europe and North America . In 1895, New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management. Early garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in

16492-419: The type of waste and the most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation should be explained to the community. Segregated waste

16625-449: The understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal. The polluter-pays principle mandates that

16758-436: The unnecessary generation of waste. In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a more sustainable future. Resource efficiency reflects

16891-499: The volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America. Other businesses such as Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling cans. In addition, in some areas of

17024-453: The waste management process and waste-related laws , technologies, and economic mechanisms. Waste can either be solid , liquid , or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial , biological , household, municipal, organic, biomedical , radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health. Health issues are associated with

17157-581: The work of the Rio Conference , or " Earth Summit " in 1992. Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration notes: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation . In 1998,

17290-512: The world the disposal of municipal solid waste can cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure the environmental sustainability of certain practices. This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on

17423-488: Was inconclusive at that time. The concept was introduced into environmental legislation along with other innovative (at that time) mechanisms such as "polluter pays", principle of pollution prevention and responsibility for survival of future ecosystems. The precautionary principle was promulgated in philosophy by Hans Jonas in his 1979 text, The Imperative of Responsibility , wherein Jonas argued that technology had altered

17556-463: Was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste , and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact . Tools made out of wood or metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations. However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which

17689-568: Was no reasonable likelihood of serious harm". Lack of this nuanced application makes the principle "self-cancelling" according to Stewart Brand , because "nothing is fully established" in science, starting from the precautionary principle itself and including "gravity or Darwinian evolution". A balanced application should ensure that "precautionary measures should be" only taken "during early stages" and as "relevant scientific evidence becomes established", regulatory measures should only respond to that evidence. Strong precaution holds that regulation

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