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99-471: Frederick Alexander Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell , CH , PC , FRS ( / ˈ tʃ ɑːr w ɛ l / CHAR -wel ; 5 April 1886 – 3 July 1957) was a British physicist who was prime scientific adviser to Winston Churchill in World War II . He was involved in the development of radar and infra-red guidance systems. He was sceptical of the first reports of

198-469: A bubble" in the interstellar medium (the rarefied hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the galaxy). The point where the solar wind's strength is no longer great enough to push back the interstellar medium is known as the heliopause and is often considered to be the outer border of the Solar System. The distance to the heliopause is not precisely known and probably depends on the current velocity of

297-548: A comet-like tail that extends to Earth's orbit. Earth itself is largely protected from the solar wind by its magnetic field , which deflects most of the charged particles; however, some of the charged particles are trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt . A smaller number of particles from the solar wind manage to travel, as though on an electromagnetic energy transmission line, to the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere in

396-400: A driver of the solar wind as a swarm of nanoflares in the form omnipresent jetting activity a.k.a. jetlets producing short-lived streams of hot plasma and Alfvén waves at the base of the solar corona. This activity could also be connected to the magnetic switchback phenomenon of the solar wind. The solar wind is observed to exist in two fundamental states, termed the slow solar wind and

495-476: A force would be a waste of resources. Lindemann's paper was based on the incorrect premise that strategic bombing could cause a breakdown in German morale. Despite this, his arguments were used in support of Bomber Command 's claim for priority in allocation of resources. Lindemann played an important part in the battle of the beams , championing countermeasures against German radio navigation devices to increase

594-456: A living person, and Parker, at age 91, was on hand to observe the launch. While early models of the solar wind relied primarily on thermal energy to accelerate the material, by the 1960s it was clear that thermal acceleration alone cannot account for the high speed of solar wind. An additional unknown acceleration mechanism is required and likely relates to magnetic fields in the solar atmosphere. The Sun's corona , or extended outer layer,

693-401: A massive bomber force on German cities to break the spirit of the people. His proposal that "bombing must be directed to working class houses. Middle class houses have too much space round them, so are bound to waste bombs" changed accepted conventions of limiting civilian casualties in wartime". His dehousing paper was criticised by many other scientific minds in government service, who felt such

792-582: A new body without him. He stayed in close contact with the Jacksons at Rignell Farm, who enriched a poor wartime diet with dairy products they brought into Oxford themselves. When Churchill became Prime Minister , he appointed Lindemann as the British government's leading scientific adviser, with David Bensusan-Butt as his private secretary. Lindemann attended meetings of the War Cabinet, accompanied

891-690: A pilot's licence because of Clementine's grave concerns. They became close friends and remained so for 35 years, with Lindemann visiting Chartwell more than 100 times from 1925 to 1939. Lindemann opposed the General Strike of 1926 , and mobilised the reluctant staff of the Clarendon to produce copies of Churchill's anti-strike newspaper, the British Gazette . Lindemann was also alarmed and fearful of political developments in Germany . In

990-516: A release of magnetic energy at the Sun. CMEs are often called "solar storms" or "space storms" in the popular media. They are sometimes, but not always, associated with solar flares , which are another manifestation of magnetic energy release at the Sun. CMEs cause shock waves in the thin plasma of the heliosphere, launching electromagnetic waves and accelerating particles (mostly protons and electrons ) to form showers of ionizing radiation that precede

1089-418: A similar suggestion at a Royal Institution address the previous year, in which he had postulated that the ejected material consisted of electrons, whereas in his study of Comet Morehouse he had supposed them to be ions . The idea that the ejected material consisted of both ions and electrons was first suggested by Norwegian scientist Kristian Birkeland . His geomagnetic surveys showed that auroral activity

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1188-403: A small circle of the intelligent and the aristocratic should run the world, resulting in a peaceable and stable society, "led by supermen and served by helots." Some sources claim that he was Jewish, but Frederick Smith's official biography declares that he was not. Lindemann supported eugenics , held the working class, homosexuals , and black people in contempt, and supported sterilisation of

1287-510: A somewhat common, and possibly constant, instrument for the entrance of solar wind into terrestrial magnetospheres under various IMF orientations. The solar wind affects other incoming cosmic rays interacting with planetary atmospheres. Moreover, planets with a weak or non-existent magnetosphere are subject to atmospheric stripping by the solar wind. Venus , the nearest and most similar planet to Earth, has 100 times denser atmosphere, with little or no geo-magnetic field. Space probes discovered

1386-534: A special contempt for the bureaucrat and all his ways. The Ministry of Supply and the Ordnance Board were two of his pet aversions, and he derived a great deal of pleasure from forestalling them with new inventions. In his appointment as Personal Assistant to the Prime Minister no field of activity was closed to him. He was as obstinate as a mule, and unwilling to admit that there was any problem under

1485-645: A spinning aircraft was almost invariably irrecoverable and the result to the pilot fatal. In 1919, Lindemann was appointed professor of experimental philosophy (physics) at the University of Oxford and director of the Clarendon Laboratory , largely on the recommendation of Henry Tizard , who had been a colleague in Berlin. Also in 1919, he was one of the first to suggest that an electrically neutral wind of positively charged protons and electrons

1584-431: A total solar eclipse ). Later spectroscopic work confirmed this extraordinary temperature to be the case. In the mid-1950s, British mathematician Sydney Chapman calculated the properties of a gas at such a temperature and determined that the corona being such a superb conductor of heat, it must extend way out into space, beyond the orbit of Earth. Also in the 1950s, German astronomer Ludwig Biermann became interested in

1683-415: Is a region of plasma that is heated to over a megakelvin . As a result of thermal collisions, the particles within the inner corona have a range and distribution of speeds described by a Maxwellian distribution . The mean velocity of these particles is about 145 km/s , which is well below the solar escape velocity of 618 km/s . However, a few of the particles achieve energies sufficient to reach

1782-495: Is about (2–3) × 10 solar masses , or about 1.3–1.9 million tonnes per second. This is equivalent to losing a mass equal to the Earth every 150 million years. However, since the Sun's formation, only about 0.01% of its initial mass has been lost through the solar wind. Other stars have much stronger stellar winds that result in significantly higher mass-loss rates. In March 2023 solar extreme ultraviolet observations have shown that small-scale magnetic reconnection could be

1881-588: Is astir. Germany is arming." Lindemann was prevailed upon to release Jackson in 1940 to join the RAF; Jackson flew in the Battle of Britain and won a DFC . Lindemann also assisted the new Prime Minister in the rescue of a number of German Jewish physicists, primarily at the University of Göttingen , who immigrated to Britain; they assisted the vital war work developing at the Clarendon Laboratory, including

1980-441: Is easier for the solar wind to infiltrate the magnetosphere than previously believed. A group of scientists directly observed the existence of certain waves in the solar wind that were not expected. A recent study shows that these waves enable incoming charged particles of solar wind to breach the magnetopause. This suggests that the magnetic bubble forms more as a filter than a continuous barrier. This latest discovery occurred through

2079-471: Is emitted from the Sun . He may have been unaware that Kristian Birkeland had speculated three years earlier that the solar wind might be a mixture of positively and negatively charged particles. At the same time he worked on the theory of specific heats and on temperature inversion in the stratosphere , and began to bring the two scientific disciplines together. In the field of chemical kinetics , he proposed

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2178-665: Is gas caught in bubbles of the magnetic field, which are ripped off by the solar wind. In 2015 the NASA Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution ( MAVEN ) mission measured the rate of atmospheric stripping caused by the magnetic field carried by the solar wind as it flows past Mars, which generates an electric field, much as a turbine on Earth can be used to generate electricity. This electric field accelerates electrically charged gas atoms, called ions, in Mars's upper atmosphere and shoots them into space. The MAVEN mission measured

2277-468: Is lunacy: it couldn't be done, Mr. Lubbock" and that at the end of the war, the committee would find that the rocket was "a mare's nest". Lindemann took the view that long-range military rockets were feasible only if they were propelled by solid fuels and would need to be of enormous size. He rejected arguments that relatively compact liquid fuels could be used to propel such weapons. In fairness, "Cherwell [Lindemann] had strong scientific grounds for doubting

2376-538: Is roughly shaped like a hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn out in a long wake on the opposite side. The boundary of this region is called the magnetopause , and some of the particles are able to penetrate the magnetosphere through this region by partial reconnection of the magnetic field lines. The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of Earth's magnetosphere. Fluctuations in its speed, density, direction, and entrained magnetic field strongly affect Earth's local space environment. For example,

2475-428: Is still very hot at large distances from the Sun. As solar gravity weakens with increasing distance from the Sun, the outer coronal atmosphere is able to escape supersonically into interstellar space. Parker was also the first person to notice that the weakening influence of the Sun's gravity has the same effect on hydrodynamic flow as a de Laval nozzle , inciting a transition from subsonic to supersonic flow. There

2574-699: The Ulysses probe was launched to study the solar wind from high solar latitudes. All prior observations had been made at or near the Solar System's ecliptic plane. In the late 1990s, the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer (UVCS) instrument on board the SOHO spacecraft observed the acceleration region of the fast solar wind emanating from the poles of the Sun and found that the wind accelerates much faster than can be accounted for by thermodynamic expansion alone. Parker's model predicted that

2673-487: The British government he had snubbed and insulted. "Love me, love my dog, and if you don't love my dog, you damn well can't love me," Churchill reportedly said to a member of Parliament who had questioned his reliance on Lindemann, and later to the same MP Churchill added, "Don't you know that he is one of my oldest and greatest friends?". In July 1941 Lindemann was raised to the peerage as Baron Cherwell , of Oxford in

2772-723: The Earl of Iveagh 's home, hosted with painter Augustus John and literary luminaries Lytton Strachey , John Betjeman , Evelyn Waugh , the Carringtons and the Mitfords , the Sitwells and the Huxley families . One frequently intoxicated visitor was a wayward Randolph Churchill . In 1932, Lindemann joined Winston to complete a road trip throughout Europe and they were dismayed at what they saw. Churchill later said, "A terrible process

2871-614: The Lindemann mechanism in 1921 for unimolecular chemical reactions, and showed that the first step is one of bimolecular activation. Around this time, Clementine Churchill – the wife of Winston , at that time a government minister – partnered with Lindemann for a charity tennis match. Although the two men had very different lifestyles, they both excelled at a sport: Churchill's was polo . Lindemann's ability to explain scientific issues concisely, and his excellent flying skills, probably impressed Churchill, who had given up trying to earn

2970-528: The Manhattan Project . Churchill got Lindemann onto the "Committee for the Study of Aerial Defence" which under Sir Henry Tizard was putting its resources behind the development of radar . Lindemann's presence was disruptive, insisting instead that his own ideas of aerial mines and infra-red beams be given priority over radar. To resolve the situation, the committee dissolved itself to reform as

3069-494: The aurora . CMEs are not the only cause of space weather . Different patches on the Sun are known to give rise to slightly different speeds and densities of wind depending on local conditions. In isolation, each of these different wind streams would form a spiral with a slightly different angle, with fast-moving streams moving out more directly and slow-moving streams wrapping more around the Sun. Fast-moving streams tend to overtake slower streams that originate westward of them on

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3168-603: The 1930s, Lindemann advised Winston Churchill when the latter was out of Government – the Wilderness Years – and leading a campaign for rearmament. He appointed to the Clarendon one of Churchill's social set, the young Welshman Derek Jackson . This brilliant young physicist, the son of Sir Charles Jackson , transferred from the Nobel prize-winning labs at Cambridge and worked on Lindemann's top-secret nuclear energy projects. Lindemann moved in rich circles at Biddesden ,

3267-464: The Alfvén critical surface of the Sun lay. Based on remote images of the corona, estimates had put it somewhere between 10 and 20 solar radii from the surface of the Sun. On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface. The solar wind "blows

3366-469: The Allies on Germany each month, are testaments to both the intellectual and the psychological power of his statistical presentations. Lindemann's statistical branch often caused tensions between government departments, but because it allowed Churchill to make quick decisions based on accurate data which directly affected the war effort, its importance should not be underestimated. In 1940, Lindemann supported

3465-674: The British merchant ships operating in the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, a move that added two million tons of wheat as well as raw materials for war fighting to stocks in Britain, but meant few ships were available to carry wheat from Australia to India [ 25 ] . The Ministry of War Transport warned that such dramatic cuts to shipping capacity in South East Asia would "portend violent changes and perhaps cataclysms in

3564-536: The CME. When a CME impacts the Earth's magnetosphere, it temporarily deforms the Earth's magnetic field , changing the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical ground currents in Earth itself; this is called a geomagnetic storm and it is a global phenomenon. CME impacts can induce magnetic reconnection in Earth's magnetotail (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form

3663-529: The County of Oxford. Lindemann enthusiastically supported the controversial Morgenthau Plan , which Churchill subsequently endorsed on 15 September 1944. Following his 1945 return to the Clarendon Laboratory, Lindemann created the Atomic Energy Authority . Lindemann was a teetotaller , non- smoker and a vegetarian , although Churchill would sometimes induce him to take a glass of brandy. He

3762-470: The County of Oxford. The following year he was made Paymaster General by Churchill, an office he retained until 1945. In 1943 he was also sworn of the Privy Council . When Churchill returned as Prime Minister in 1951, Lindemann was again appointed Paymaster-General, this time with a seat in the cabinet. He continued in this post until October 1953. In 1956 he was made Viscount Cherwell of Oxford, in

3861-453: The Earth's magnetosphere and on various space weather phenomena, such as the behavior of Van Allen radiation belts . Magnetic switchbacks are sudden reversals in the magnetic field of the solar wind. They can also be described as traveling disturbances in the solar wind that caused the magnetic field to bend back on itself. They were first observed by the NASA–ESA mission Ulysses ,

3960-439: The Earth's magnetosphere . Irish academic George FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun, reaching the Earth after several days. In 1910, British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington essentially suggested the existence of the solar wind, without naming it, in a footnote to an article on Comet Morehouse . Eddington's proposition was never fully embraced, even though he had also made

4059-638: The Earth's orbit at 1 astronomical unit (AU) the plasma flows at speeds ranging from 250 to 750 km/s with a density ranging between 3 and 10 particles per cubic centimeter and temperature ranging from 10 to 10 kelvin . On average, the plasma density decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun, while the velocity decreases and flattens out at 1 AU. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 reported plasma density n between 0.001 and 0.005 particles/cm at distances of 80 to 120 AU, increasing rapidly beyond 120 AU at heliopause to between 0.05 and 0.2 particles/cm . At 1  AU ,

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4158-461: The Earth, through an effect called interplanetary scintillation . Where the solar wind intersects with a planet that has a well-developed magnetic field (such as Earth, Jupiter or Saturn), the particles are deflected by the Lorentz force . This region, known as the magnetosphere , causes the particles to travel around the planet rather than bombarding the atmosphere or surface. The magnetosphere

4257-520: The Indian subcontinent to Europe. Cherwell and Churchill's policies contributed heavily to the severity of the famine. Kenya , Tanganyika and Somaliland also suffered famine that year. Following the Air Ministry Area bombing directive on 12 February 1942, Lindemann presented in a paper on " Dehousing " to Churchill on 30 March 1942, which calculated the effects of area bombardment by

4356-591: The Order of the Companions of Honour, and a maximum of 65 members. Additionally, foreigners or Commonwealth citizens from outside the Commonwealth realms may be added as honorary members. Members are organised into a single class and are appointed by the monarch of the Commonwealth realms in their capacity as sovereign of the order. While membership of the order confers no title or precedence , those inducted into

4455-590: The Sun to flow to Earth in narrow beams known as " strahl ", which caused a highly unusual "polar rain" event, in which a visible aurora appeared over the North Pole. In addition, Earth's magnetosphere increased to between 5 and 6 times its normal size. The STEREO mission was launched in 2006 to study coronal mass ejections and the solar corona, using stereoscopy from two widely separated imaging systems. Each STEREO spacecraft carried two heliospheric imagers: highly sensitive wide-field cameras capable of imaging

4554-448: The Sun's magnetic field . Such open lines are particularly prevalent around the Sun's magnetic poles. The plasma source is small magnetic fields created by convection cells in the solar atmosphere. These fields confine the plasma and transport it into the narrow necks of the coronal funnels, which are located only 20,000 km above the photosphere. The plasma is released into the funnel when these magnetic field lines reconnect. Near

4653-497: The Sun's gravitational influence is matched by other stars. The maximum extent of that influence has been estimated at between 50,000 AU and 2 light-years, compared to the heliopause (the outer boundary of the heliosphere), which has been detected at about 120 AU by the Voyager 1 spacecraft. The Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the termination shock more than five times between August 30 and December 10, 2007. Voyager 2 crossed

4752-466: The Sun, and geomagnetic storms that can change the direction of magnetic field lines. The existence of particles flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington . In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observations of what would later be called a solar flare . This is a sudden, localised increase in brightness on

4851-489: The Sun, forming turbulent co-rotating interaction regions that give rise to wave motions and accelerated particles, and that affect Earth's magnetosphere in the same way as, but more gently than, CMEs. CMEs have a complex internal structure, with a highly turbulent region of hot and compressed plasma (known as sheath) preceding an arrival of relatively cold and strongly magnetized plasma region (known as magnetic cloud or ejecta). Sheath and ejecta have very different impact on

4950-768: The United Kingdom circa 1871 and became naturalised. Frederick was born in Baden-Baden in Germany, where his American mother Olga Noble, the widow of a wealthy banker, was taking "the cure" . After schooling in Scotland and Darmstadt , he attended the University of Berlin , where he studied under Walther Nernst . He carried out research in physics at the Sorbonne that confirmed theories, first put forward by Albert Einstein , on specific heats at very low temperatures. For this and other scientific work, Lindemann

5049-402: The allocation of this award to that country's citizens in preference to other Australian honours. The last Australian member, Doug Anthony , former Deputy Prime Minister of Australia, died on 20 December 2020. Companions from other Commonwealth realms continue to be appointed, Dame Kiri Te Kanawa , a New Zealand soprano, was given the award in 2018 and Canadian author Margaret Atwood was given

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5148-399: The auroral zones. The only time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to produce phenomena such as the aurora and geomagnetic storms . Bright auroras strongly heat the ionosphere, causing its plasma to expand into the magnetosphere, increasing the size of the plasma geosphere and injecting atmospheric matter into the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms result when

5247-468: The award in 2019. Sebastian Coe , Baron Coe CH represented the Order at the 2023 Coronation . The insignia of the order is in the form of an oval medallion, surmounted by a royal crown (but, until recently, surmounted by an imperial crown ), and with a rectangular panel within, depicting on it an oak tree, a shield with the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom hanging from one branch, and, on

5346-536: The classification of merit. It is now described as being "awarded for having a major contribution to the arts, science, medicine, or government lasting over a long period of time". The first recipients of the order were all decorated for "services in connection with the war " and were listed in The London Gazette . The order consists of the monarch of the Commonwealth realms, who is the Sovereign of

5445-535: The comet Whipple–Fedke (1942g). American astrophysicist Eugene Parker realised that heat flowing from the Sun in Chapman's model, and the comet tail blowing away from the Sun in Biermann's hypothesis, had to be the result of the same phenomenon which he termed the "solar wind". In 1957, Parker showed that although the Sun's corona is strongly attracted by solar gravity, it is such a good conductor of heat that it

5544-452: The composition of the Sun's photosphere . The slow solar wind is twice as dense and more variable in nature than the fast solar wind. The slow solar wind appears to originate from a region around the Sun's equatorial belt that is known as the "streamer belt", where coronal streamers are produced by magnetic flux open to the heliosphere draping over closed magnetic loops. The exact coronal structures involved in slow solar wind formation and

5643-486: The distinctive arrangement of the four identical Cluster spacecraft, which fly in a controlled configuration through near-Earth space. As they sweep from the magnetosphere into interplanetary space and back again, the fleet provides exceptional three-dimensional insights on the phenomena that connect the sun to Earth. The research characterised variances in formation of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) largely influenced by Kelvin–Helmholtz instability (which occur at

5742-434: The enemy's V-weapons programme. He pressed the case for the strategic area bombing of cities. His abiding influence on Churchill stemmed from close personal friendship, as a member of the latter's country-house set. In Churchill's second government, he was given a seat in the cabinet, and later created Viscount Cherwell of Oxford. Lindemann was the second of three sons of Adolph Friedrich Lindemann , who had emigrated to

5841-495: The experimental department MD1 . He worked on hollow charge weapons, the sticky bomb and other new weapons. General Ismay , who supervised MD1, recalled: Churchill used to say that the Prof's brain was a beautiful piece of mechanism, and the Prof did not dissent from that judgement. He seemed to have a poor opinion of the intellect of everyone with the exception of Lord Birkenhead , Mr Churchill and Professor Lindemann; and he had

5940-422: The fact that the tail of a comet always points away from the Sun, regardless of the direction in which the comet is travelling. Biermann postulated that this happens because the Sun emits a steady stream of particles that pushes the comet's tail away. German astronomer Paul Ahnert is credited (by Wilfried Schröder) as being the first to relate solar wind to the direction of a comet's tail based on observations of

6039-411: The fast solar wind, though their differences extend well beyond their speeds. In near-Earth space, the slow solar wind is observed to have a velocity of 300–500 km/s , a temperature of ~ 100  kilokelvin and a composition that is a close match to the corona . By contrast, the fast solar wind has a typical velocity of 750 km/s , a temperature of 800 kilokelvin and it nearly matches

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6138-494: The fast wind is still not understood and cannot be fully explained by Parker's theory. However, the gravitational and electromagnetic explanation for this acceleration is detailed in an earlier paper by 1970 Nobel laureate in Physics , Hannes Alfvén . From May 10 to May 12, 1999, NASA's Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) and WIND spacecraft observed a 98% decrease of solar wind density. This allowed energetic electrons from

6237-432: The first spacecraft to fly over the Sun 's poles. Parker Solar Probe observed first switchbacks in 2018. Over the Sun's lifetime, the interaction of its surface layers with the escaping solar wind has significantly decreased its surface rotation rate. The wind is considered responsible for comets' tails, along with the Sun's radiation. The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in celestial radio waves observed on

6336-484: The forecasts that were being made of a 70–80 ton rocket with a 10 ton warhead". A pivotal exchange where Churchill rebuffed Lindemann occurred at the Cabinet Defence Committee (Operations) meeting on 29 June 1943, and was dramatised in the film Operation Crossbow . Lindemann's political career was a result of his close friendship with Winston Churchill , who protected Lindemann from the many in

6435-780: The interface of two fluids) as a result of differences in thickness and numerous other characteristics of the boundary layer. Experts believe that this was the first occasion that the appearance of Kelvin–Helmholtz waves at the magnetopause had been displayed at high latitude downward orientation of the IMF. These waves are being seen in unforeseen places under solar wind conditions that were formerly believed to be undesired for their generation. These discoveries show how Earth's magnetosphere can be penetrated by solar particles under specific IMF circumstances. The findings are also relevant to studies of magnetospheric progressions around other planetary bodies. This study suggests that Kelvin–Helmholtz waves can be

6534-443: The left shoulder. Solar wind At a distance of more than a few solar radii from the Sun, the solar wind reaches speeds of 250–750  km/s and is supersonic, meaning it moves faster than the speed of fast magnetosonic waves . The flow of the solar wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock . Other related phenomena include the aurora (northern and southern lights), comet tails that always point away from

6633-527: The left, a mounted knight in armour. The insignia's blue border bears in gold letters the motto IN ACTION FAITHFUL AND IN HONOUR CLEAR , Alexander Pope 's description (in iambic pentameter ) in his Epistle to Mr Addison of James Craggs the Younger , later used on Craggs's monument in Westminster Abbey . Men wear the badge on a neck ribbon (red with golden border threads) and women on a bow at

6732-517: The levels of ionizing radiation and radio interference can vary by factors of hundreds to thousands; and the shape and location of the magnetopause and bow shock wave upstream of it can change by several Earth radii, exposing geosynchronous satellites to the direct solar wind. These phenomena are collectively called space weather . From the European Space Agency 's Cluster mission, a new study has taken place that proposes that it

6831-494: The mentally incompetent. He believed – Mukerjee concludes, referring to Lindemann's lecture on Eugenics – that Science could yield a race of humans blessed with 'the mental make-up of the worker bee' ... At the lower end of the race and class spectrum, one could remove the ability to suffer or to feel ambition ... Instead of subscribing to what he called 'the fetish of equality', Lindemann recommended that human differences should be accepted and indeed enhanced by means of science. It

6930-509: The method by which the material is released is still under debate. Observations of the Sun between 1996 and 2001 showed that emission of the slow solar wind occurred at latitudes up to 30–35° during the solar minimum (the period of lowest solar activity), then expanded toward the poles as the solar cycle approached maximum. At solar maximum , the poles were also emitting a slow solar wind. The fast solar wind originates from coronal holes , which are funnel-like regions of open field lines in

7029-459: The news of her death, Lindemann withdrew from his romantic pursuits and chose to spend the rest of his life alone. Lindemann died in his sleep at Oxford on 3 July 1957, aged 71, one year after becoming Viscount Cherwell, at which point the barony and viscountcy became extinct. Companion of Honour The Order of the Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms . It

7128-567: The order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH . Appointments to the order are generally made on the advice of prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms. For Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. Originally, the order was limited to 50 ordinary members, but in 1943 it was enlarged to 65, with a quota of 45 members for the United Kingdom , seven for Australia , two each for New Zealand and South Africa , and nine for India , Burma , and

7227-542: The other British colonies . The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom, seven for Australia, two for New Zealand, and nine for other Commonwealth realms. The quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding two places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the nine for the other countries to seven. Whilst still able to nominate candidates to the order, the Cabinet of Australia has effectively stopped

7326-559: The performance of the regular ministries and prioritised the logistical machinery of warfare. S-Branch distilled thousands of sources of data into succinct charts and figures, so that the status of the nation's food supplies (for example) could be instantly evaluated. The bar charts now on display in the Cabinet War Rooms which compare Allied shipping tonnage lost to new ships delivered each month, and those comparing bomb tonnage dropped by Germany on Britain with that dropped by

7425-460: The precision of their bombing campaigns. He almost undermined the vital work of Sir Henry Tizard and his team who developed all the important radar technology. Lindemann argued against the rumoured existence of the V-2 rocket , asserting it was "a great hoax to distract our attention from some other weapon." He mistakenly concluded that "to put a four-thousand horsepower turbine in a twenty-inch space

7524-415: The pressure of plasmas contained inside the magnetosphere is sufficiently large to inflate and thereby distort the geomagnetic field. Although Mars is larger than Mercury and four times farther from the Sun, it is thought that the solar wind has stripped away up to a third of its original atmosphere, leaving a layer 1/100th as dense as the Earth's. It is believed the mechanism for this atmospheric stripping

7623-507: The prime minister on conferences abroad, and sent him an average of one missive a day. He saw Churchill almost daily for the duration of the war, and wielded more influence than any other civilian adviser. He would hold this office again for the first two years of Churchill's 1951 peacetime administration. Lindemann established a special statistical branch, known as ' S-Branch ', within the government, constituted from subject specialists, and reporting directly to Churchill. This branch scrutinised

7722-410: The rate of atmospheric stripping at about 100 grams (≈1/4 lb) per second. Mercury , the nearest planet to the Sun, bears the full brunt of the solar wind, and since its atmosphere is vestigial and transient, its surface is bathed in radiation. Mercury has an intrinsic magnetic field, so under normal solar wind conditions, the solar wind cannot penetrate its magnetosphere and particles only reach

7821-547: The seaborne trade of large numbers of countries" but the Ministry was ignored. The "menace of famine suddenly loomed up like a hydra-headed monster with a hundred clamouring mouths" according to C. B. A. Behrens in the official history of Allied merchant shipping. It has been estimated between 1.5 and 4 million people died during the Bengal famine of 1943 , despite the fact that food stocks continued to be produced and shipped out of

7920-449: The solar disc, which is now known to often occur in conjunction with an episodic ejection of material and magnetic flux from the Sun's atmosphere, known as a coronal mass ejection . The following day, a powerful geomagnetic storm was observed, and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection; the geomagnetic storm is now attributed to the arrival of the coronal mass ejection in near-Earth space and its subsequent interaction with

8019-603: The solar wind and the local density of the interstellar medium, but it is far outside Pluto 's orbit. Scientists hope to gain perspective on the heliopause from data acquired through the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission, launched in October 2008. The heliopause is noted as one of the ways of defining the extent of the Solar System, along with the Kuiper Belt and the radius at which

8118-416: The solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. Three years later, in 1919, British physicist Frederick Lindemann also suggested that the Sun ejects particles of both polarities: protons as well as electrons. Around the 1930s, scientists had concluded that the temperature of the solar corona must be a million degrees Celsius because of the way it extended into space (as seen during

8217-400: The solar wind itself, via Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons. Movies from STEREO revealed the solar wind near the ecliptic, as a large-scale turbulent flow. On December 13, 2010, Voyager 1 determined that the velocity of the solar wind, at its location 10.8 billion miles (17.4 billion kilometres) from Earth had slowed to zero. "We have gotten to the point where

8316-442: The solar wind, and lunar soil returned for study confirmed that the lunar regolith is enriched in atomic nuclei deposited from the solar wind. These elements may prove useful resources for future lunar expeditions. The Alfvén surface is the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal. Researchers were unsure exactly where

8415-417: The structure and dynamics of the solar corona, in an attempt to understand the mechanisms that cause particles to be heated and accelerated as solar wind. During its seven-year mission, the probe will make twenty-four orbits of the Sun, passing further into the corona with each orbit's perihelion , ultimately passing within 0.04 astronomical units of the Sun's surface. It is the first NASA spacecraft named for

8514-544: The sun which he was not qualified to solve. He would write a memorandum on high strategy one day, and a thesis on egg production on the next. He seemed to try to give the impression of wanting to quarrel with everybody, and of preferring everyone's room to their company; but once he had accepted a man as a friend, he never failed him, and there are many of his war-time colleagues who will ever remember him with deep personal affection. He hated Hitler and all his works, and his contribution to Hitler's downfall in all sorts of odd ways

8613-457: The surface in the cusp regions. During coronal mass ejections, however, the magnetopause may get pressed into the surface of the planet, and under these conditions, the solar wind may interact freely with the planetary surface. The Earth's Moon has no atmosphere or intrinsic magnetic field , and consequently its surface is bombarded with the full solar wind. The Project Apollo missions deployed passive aluminum collectors in an attempt to sample

8712-400: The terminal velocity of 400 km/s , which allows them to feed the solar wind. At the same temperature, electrons, due to their much smaller mass, reach escape velocity and build up an electric field that further accelerates ions away from the Sun. The total number of particles carried away from the Sun by the solar wind is about 1.3 × 10 per second. Thus, the total mass loss each year

8811-583: The wind exerts a pressure typically in the range of 1–6 nPa ( (1–6) × 10  N/m ), although it can readily vary outside that range. The ram pressure is a function of wind speed and density. The formula is where m p is the proton mass, pressure P is in Pa (pascals), n is the density in particles/cm and V is the speed in km/s of the solar wind. Both the fast and slow solar wind can be interrupted by large, fast-moving bursts of plasma called coronal mass ejections , or CMEs. CMEs are caused by

8910-474: The wind from the Sun, which until now has always had an outward motion, is no longer moving outward; it is only moving sideways so that it can end up going down the tail of the heliosphere, which is a comet-shaped-like object", said Voyager project scientist Edward Stone. In 2018, NASA launched the Parker Solar Probe , named in honor of American astrophysicist Eugene Parker, on a mission to study

9009-414: The wind should make the transition to supersonic flow at an altitude of about four solar radii (approx. 3,000,000 km) from the photosphere (surface); but the transition (or "sonic point") now appears to be much lower, perhaps only one solar radius (approx. 700,000 km) above the photosphere, suggesting that some additional mechanism accelerates the solar wind away from the Sun. The acceleration of

9108-416: Was almost uninterrupted. As these displays and other geomagnetic activity were being produced by particles from the Sun, he concluded that the Earth was being continually bombarded by "rays of electric corpuscles emitted by the Sun". He proposed in 1916 that, "From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, but of both kinds"; in other words,

9207-627: Was an excellent pianist, and sufficiently able as a tennis player to compete at Wimbledon . Lindemann, or the "Prof", never married. In his younger years, he had pursued two romantic interests but was rejected on both occasions. When he was 49, Lindemann became entranced with the 27-year-old Lady Elizabeth Lindsay, daughter of David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford . One day in February 1937, he learnt from Lady Elizabeth's father that, while travelling in Italy, she had fallen ill with pneumonia and died; upon

9306-474: Was considerable. With power, Lindemann was able to sideline Tizard; especially after Tizard did not acknowledge that the Germans were using radio navigation to bomb Britain. Lindemann has been described as having "an almost pathological hatred for Nazi Germany, and an almost medieval desire for revenge was a part of his character". Fearing food shortages in Britain, he convinced Churchill to divert 56 percent of

9405-587: Was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1920. In 1911 he was invited to the Solvay Conference on "Radiation and the Quanta", where he was the youngest attendee. He was known to friends as "the Prof" in reference to his position at the University of Oxford , and as "Baron Berlin" to his many detractors because of his German accent and haughty aristocratic manner. Lindemann believed that

9504-522: Was founded on 4 June 1917 by King George V as a reward for outstanding achievements. It was founded on the same date as the Order of the British Empire . The order was originally intended to be conferred upon a limited number of persons for whom this special distinction seemed to be the most appropriate form of recognition, constituting an honour dissociated from either the acceptance of title or

9603-678: Was no longer necessary, he wrote, to wait for 'the haphazard process of natural selection to ensure that the slow and heavy mind gravitates to the lowest form of activity.' At the outbreak of the First World War , Lindemann was playing tennis in Germany and had to leave in haste to avoid internment . In 1915 he joined the staff of the Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough . He developed a mathematical theory of aircraft spin recovery and later learned to fly so that he could test his ideas himself. Prior to Lindemann's work,

9702-557: Was strong opposition to Parker's hypothesis on the solar wind; the paper he submitted to The Astrophysical Journal in 1958 was rejected by two reviewers, before being accepted by the editor Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar . In January 1959, the Soviet spacecraft Luna 1 first directly observed the solar wind and measured its strength, using hemispherical ion traps. The discovery, made by Konstantin Gringauz  [ ru ] ,

9801-621: Was verified by Luna 2 , Luna 3 , and the more distant measurements of Venera 1 . Three years later, a similar measurement was performed by American geophysicist Marcia Neugebauer and collaborators using the Mariner ;2 spacecraft. The first numerical simulation of the solar wind in the solar corona, including closed and open field lines , was performed by Pneuman and Kopp in 1971. The magnetohydrodynamics equations in steady state were solved iteratively starting with an initial dipolar configuration. In 1990,

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