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156-602: In the beginning of the European colonial era , trade companies such as the East India Company were the most common method used to settle new land. That changed after Maryland's Royal Grant in 1632, when King Charles I granted George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore , proprietary rights to an area east of the Potomac River in exchange for a share of the income derived there. Proprietary colonies later became

312-600: A network of missions in an effort to convert the Indigenous to Roman Catholicism and focus their labor. The Spanish population was relatively small (about 1,500), and the Indigenous population to whom they ministered has been estimated at 20,000. French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River , and they established a small colonial presence at Fort Maurepas near Biloxi, Mississippi , in 1699. From there, they began to build trade routes into

468-560: A raid on Deerfield in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . They destroyed the settlement, killing many and capturing more than 100 captives. These were taken on an overland journey hundreds of miles north to the Caughnawaga mission village south of Montreal . Most of the children who survived the journey were adopted by Mohawk families. Several adults were later redeemed (ransomed) or released in negotiated prisoner exchanges, including

624-643: A British-dominated territory. By the early eighteenth century, the French had become the chief European rivals of the British. During the eighteenth century, it was highly possible for the Indian subcontinent to have succumbed to French control, but the defeat inflicted on them in the Seven Years War (1756–1763) permanently curtailed French ambitions. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 restored the original five to

780-817: A French settlement in Penobscot Bay near Castine, Maine , which had all been bases for attacks on New England settlers migrating toward Acadia during King William's War. The frontier areas between the Saint Lawrence River and the primarily coastal settlements of Massachusetts and New York were still dominated by Indigenous peoples, primarily Abenaki in the east and Iroquois west of the Hudson River. The Hudson River – Lake Champlain corridor had also been used for raiding expeditions in both directions in earlier conflicts. The threat of Indigenous peoples had receded somewhat because of reductions in

936-455: A North Carolina with its own assembly and deputy governor. In 1712, the division of Carolina into North and South was completed with the elevation of the deputy governor to governor of North Carolina. The Lords Proprietors failed to protect the settlers when enemies attacked or threatened the colony. For example, during Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), the colonists drove French and Spanish forces away from Charlestown. Again, between 1715 and 1718,

1092-541: A captured boy, Ashur Rice, was returned to Marlborough after he was ransomed in 1708 by his father Thomas Rice. New England colonists were unable to effectively combat these raids, so they retaliated by launching an expedition against Acadia led by the famous Indigenous fighter Benjamin Church . The expedition raided Grand Pré , Chignecto , and other settlements. French accounts claim that Church attempted an attack on Acadia's capital of Port Royal, but Church's account of

1248-633: A colony; the company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states . There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent gained independence from Britain in August 1947. During period of the British Raj , famines in India , often attributed to El Nino droughts and failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including

1404-651: A commission established by the lord proprietor. The lord proprietor typically instructed the governor what to do. Only through those instructions could legislation be made. In 1629, King Charles I granted Sir Robert Heath (the attorney general ) the southern half of the English land in the New World between 36 degrees and 31 degrees north latitude from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The land

1560-450: A division of the province into two sections: East Jersey which was held by Carteret and West Jersey which was held by Fenwick. Sir George Carteret died in 1680. His property was left to Trustees who put East Jersey up for sale in a public auction. In 1682, the property was sold to William Penn and eleven associates who each sold half of their share to twelve others, forming an association of twenty-four proprietors. This body became known as

1716-562: A fleet in 1706 that destroyed French fishing outposts on the island's northern coasts. In December 1708, a combined force of French, Canadian, and Mi'kmaq volunteers captured St. John's and destroyed the fortifications. They lacked the resources to hold the prize, however, so they abandoned it, and St. John's was reoccupied and refortified by the English in 1709. (The same French expedition also tried to take Ferryland , but it successfully resisted.) English fleet commanders contemplated attacks on Plaisance in 1703 and 1711 but did not make them,

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1872-566: A generous headright system whereby they granted 150 acres of land to each member of a family. An indentured male servant who served his term received his freedom dues from his master and a grant of one hundred acres from the Lords Proprietors. To attract planters with capital to invest, the Lords Proprietors also gave the owner and master the 150-acre headright for every slave imported to the Colony. These incentives drew 6,600 colonists to

2028-602: A global empire. The British Parliament 's attempt to raise taxes from North American colonists raised fears among the Americans that their rights as "Englishmen", and particularly their rights of self-government, were in danger. From 1765, a series of disputes with Parliament over taxation led to the American Revolution , first to informal committees of correspondence among the colonies, then to coordinated protest and resistance, with an important event in 1770,

2184-465: A lighter ship was developed , the caravel , which could sail further and faster, was highly maneuverable, and could sail " into the wind ". Enabled by new nautical technology, with the added incentive to find an alternative " Silk Road " after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Empire effectively closed profitable trade routes with Asia, early European exploration of Africa

2340-661: A massive profit in Europe provided another reason for crossing the Atlantic, in particular, furs from Canada, tobacco, and cotton grown in Virginia and sugar in the islands of the Caribbean and Brazil. Due to the massive depletion of indigenous labor, plantation owners had to look elsewhere for manpower for these labour-intensive crops. They turned to the centuries-old slave trade of west Africa and began transporting Africans across

2496-595: A maximum range of about 100 yards (91 m) but were inaccurate at ranges beyond half that distance. Some colonists also carried pikes, while Indigenous warriors either carried arms supplied by the colonists or were armed with weapons such as primitive tomahawks and bows. A small number of colonists had training in the operation of cannon and other types of artillery, which were the only effective weapons for attacking significant stone or wooden defenses. English colonists were generally organized into militia companies, and their colonies had no regular military presence beyond

2652-582: A peace with the New Englanders. Governor Dudley organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire (of which he was also governor). In negotiations there and at Casco Bay , the Abenakis objected to British assertions that the French had ceded to Britain the territory of eastern Maine and New Brunswick , but they agreed to a confirmation of boundaries at the Kennebec River and

2808-586: A period of political instability , the Romanovs came to power in 1613 and the expansion-colonization process of Russia continued. While western Europe colonized the New World, Russia expanded overland – to the east, north and south. This continued for centuries; by the end of the 19th century, the Russian Empire reached from the Black Sea to the Pacific Ocean, and for some time included colonies in

2964-667: A raiding expedition by Moore that became known as the Apalachee massacre of 1704. Many of the survivors of these raids were relocated to the Savannah River where they were confined to reservations. Raids continued in the following years consisting of large Indigenous forces, sometimes including a small number of white men; this included major expeditions directed at Pensacola in 1707 and Mobile in 1709. The Muscogee (Creek), Yamasee , and Chickasaw were armed and led by English colonists, and they dominated these conflicts at

3120-582: A relative of the chief Proprietor, giving him the status of Landgrave with the right to claim 48,000 acres (190 km) of land in a certain region. John Wyche was appointed as the Secretary to the Province and served in this role in the colony for a short period of six months before he received another appointment in Hamburg . Some of the documents relate to Wyche's activity in the colony. His successor to

3276-467: A renewed attempt on Quebec in 1711. The plan for 1711 again called for land and sea-based attacks, but its execution was a disaster. A fleet of 15 ships of the line and transports carrying 5,000 troops led by Admiral Hovenden Walker arrived at Boston in June, doubling the town's population and greatly straining the colony's ability to provide necessary provisions. The expedition sailed for Quebec at

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3432-410: A small number in some of the communities of Newfoundland. The French colonists were also organized into militias, but they also had a standing defense force called the troupes de la marine . This force consisted of some experienced officers and was manned by recruits sent over from France, numbering between 500 and 1,200. They were spread throughout the territories of New France, with concentrations in

3588-400: A unique system of governance reflecting the geographic challenges of the area as well as the personality of the lord proprietor. The colonies of Maryland and New York, based on English law and administration practices, were run effectively. However, other colonies such as Carolina were mismanaged. The colonies of West and East Jersey, as well as Pennsylvania, were distinct in their diversion from

3744-586: Is considered to be the Lord Proprietor of the Isle of Man . This usage is generally left ignored. European colonial era The historical phenomenon of colonization is one that stretches around the globe and across time. Ancient and medieval colonialism was practiced by the Phoenicians , Greeks , Romans , Turks , Han Chinese , and Arabs . Colonialism in the modern sense began with

3900-598: The de facto ruler of Mughal Bengal , opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the armies of the East India Company, led by Robert Clive , defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British had acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first Governor of Bengal in 1757. This

4056-603: The 1711 Battle of Bloody Creek and raids along the Maine frontier. The remainder of Acadia (present-day eastern Maine and New Brunswick ) remained disputed territory between New England and New France. The French in New France's heartland of Canada opposed attacking the Province of New York . They were reluctant to arouse the Iroquois , whom they feared more than they did the British colonists and with whom they had made

4212-684: The Alaska (1732–1867) and a short-lived unofficial colony in Africa (1889) in present-day Djibouti . The acquisition of new territories, especially in the Caucasus, had an invigorating effect on the rest of Russia. According to two Russian historians: The first stage to 1650 was an expansion eastward from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Geographical expeditions mapped much of Siberia. The second stage from 1785 to 1830 looked south to

4368-743: The Boston Massacre . A standing army was formed by the United Colonies , and independence was declared by the Second Continental Congress on 4 July 1776. A new nation was born, the United States of America , and all royal officials were expelled. On their own the Patriots captured a British Invasion army and France recognized the new nation, formed a military alliance, declared war on Britain, and left

4524-619: The Dutch , the English —who set up a trading post in the west-coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to

4680-885: The East India Companies and the Hudson's Bay Company . Imperial Russia had no state-sponsored expeditions or colonization in the Americas, but did charter the first Russian joint-stock commercial enterprise, the Russian America Company , which did sponsor those activities in its territories. In May 1498, the Portuguese set foot in Kozhikode in Kerala , making them the first Europeans to sail to India. Rivalry among reigning European powers saw

4836-587: The French Revolution in this slave society. Although independence was declared in 1804, it was not until 1825 that it was formally recognized by King Charles X of France . The gradual decline of Spain as an imperial power throughout the 17th century was hastened by the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), as a result of which it lost its European imperial possessions. The death knell for

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4992-563: The Great Famine of 1876–78 , in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died and the Indian famine of 1899–1900 , in which 1.25 to 10 million people died. The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. Despite persistent diseases and famines, however, the population of

5148-587: The Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. New York merchants were opposed to attacking New France because it would interrupt the lucrative Indigenous fur trade , much of which came through New France. The Iroquois maintained their neutrality throughout the conflict, despite Peter Schuyler 's efforts to interest them in the war. (Schuyler was Albany 's commissioner of Indians.) Francis Nicholson and Samuel Vetch organized an ambitious assault against New France in 1709, with some financial and logistical support from

5304-535: The Indian subcontinent , which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941. Like the other European colonists, the French began their colonization via commercial activities, starting with the establishment of a factory in Surat in 1668. The French started to settle down in India in 1673, beginning with the purchase of land at Chandernagore from the Mughal Governor of Bengal, followed by

5460-620: The Moghul rule and dynasty itself in less than a century. The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structure (See Zamindar ) in the Bengal Presidency . By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian subcontinent , which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh . Their policy

5616-555: The New World , as named by Amerigo Vespucci in 1503, opened another colonial chapter, beginning with the colonization of the Caribbean in 1493 with Hispaniola (later to become Haiti and the Dominican Republic ). The Portuguese and Spanish Empires were the first global empires because they were the first to stretch across different continents (discounting Eurasian empires and those with land in Africa along

5772-525: The Northeast Coast Campaign . They killed or captured more than 300 settlers. There were also a series of raids deep into New England by French and Indigenous forces aimed at securing captives. There was an active trade in captives, as families and communities struggled to raise ransoms to reclaim them. In February 1704, Jean-Baptiste Hertel de Rouville led 250 Abenaki and Caughnawaga Indians (mostly Mohawk) and 50 French Canadians in

5928-532: The Scramble for Africa regulated by the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. The conference effectively divided Africa among the European powers. Vast regions of Africa came under the sway of Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy and Spain. Gilmartin argues that these three waves of colonialism were linked to capitalism . The first wave of European expansion involved exploring

6084-583: The Seven Years' War . Massachusetts and New Hampshire were on the front line of the war, yet the New England colonies suffered less economic damage than other areas. Some of the costs of the war were offset by the importance of Boston as a center of shipbuilding and trade, combined with a financial windfall caused by the crown's military spending on the 1711 Quebec expedition. Spanish Florida never really recovered its economy or population from

6240-673: The Third Indian War . In France it was known as the Second Intercolonial War . The war broke out in 1701 and was primarily a conflict between French, Spanish and English colonists for control of the North American continent while the War of the Spanish Succession was being fought in Europe. Each side was allied with various Indigenous communities. It was fought on four fronts: The Treaty of Utrecht ended

6396-576: The Thirteen Colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United States and other colonies such as Newfoundland and Rupert's Land in what is now Canada. However, the English, French and Dutch were no more averse to making a profit than the Spanish and Portuguese, and whilst their areas of settlement in the Americas proved to be devoid of the precious metals found by the Spanish, trade in other commodities and products that could be sold at

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6552-639: The first European settlement in the tropics , and thereafter a site of Jewish exile during the height of the Spanish Inquisition in the 1490s; the Portuguese soon also brought slaves from the West African coast. Because of the economics of plantations , especially sugar , European colonial expansion and slavery would remain linked into the 1800s. The use of exile to penal colonies would also continue. The European "discovery" of

6708-497: The " Age of Discovery ", led by the Portuguese , who became increasingly expansionist following the conquest of Ceuta in 1415, aiming to control navigation through the Strait of Gibraltar , spread Christianity , amass wealth and plunder, and suppress predation on Portuguese populations by Barbary pirates as part of a longstanding African slave trade ; at that point a minor trade, one the Portuguese would soon reverse and surpass . Around 1450, based on North African fishing boats,

6864-411: The 1732 founding of the Province of Georgia , which was granted on territory that Spain had originally claimed, as was also the case with Carolina. James Moore took military action against the Tuscaroras of North Carolina in the Tuscarora War which began in 1711, and many of them fled north as refugees to join their linguistic cousins the Iroquois. The economic costs of the war were high in some of

7020-430: The 1870s (circa opening of Suez Canal and Second Industrial Revolution ) and the outbreak of World War I in 1914 are often characterized as the " New Imperialism ". The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed "empire for empire's sake," aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions, and the emergence in colonizing countries of doctrines of racial superiority which denied

7176-488: The 18th century. The economic effects of the war were severe in Newfoundland, with the fishing fleets significantly reduced. The British fishing fleet began to recover immediately after the peace was finalized, and they attempted to prevent Spanish ships from fishing in Newfoundland waters, as they previously had. However, many Spanish ships were simply reflagged with English straw owners to evade British controls. The British capture of Acadia had long-term consequences for

7332-434: The 19th century, the Second Industrial Revolution led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism , when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the Scramble for Africa , in which Belgium, Germany, and Italy were also participants. There were deadly battles between colonizing states and revolutions from colonized areas shaping areas of control and establishing independent nations. During

7488-424: The 20th century, the colonies of the defeated central powers in World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates , but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest. Some commentators identify three waves of European colonialism. The two main countries in the first wave of European colonialism were Portugal and Spain . The Portuguese started

7644-435: The Abenakis nor the Mi'kmaq were recognized in the Treaty of Utrecht, and the 1713 Portsmouth treaty was interpreted differently by them than by the New England signatories, so the Mi'kmaq and Abenakis resisted these incursions into their lands. This conflict was increased by French intriguers such as Sébastien Rale , and eventually they developed into Father Rale's War (1722–1727). British relations were also difficult with

7800-416: The Acadians and Mi'kmaq living there. Britain's hold on Nova Scotia was initially quite tenuous, a situation on which French and Mi'kmaq resistance leaders capitalized. British relations with the Mi'kmaq after the war developed in the context of British expansion in Nova Scotia and also along the Maine coast, where New Englanders began moving into Abenaki lands, often in violation of previous treaties. Neither

7956-420: The Adventures and All Such as Shall Settle or Plant There- 1664 This document outlines the distribution of power in New Jersey by the Lords Proprietors. The document includes the role Governor of the province, the right for the Governor to choose six counsellors, the role of the Chief of Secretary, the role of the Surveyor General and the colonists’ duty as subjects of the King of England. 5. A Declaration of

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8112-425: The Atlantic on a massive scale – historians estimate that the Atlantic slave trade brought between 10 and 12 million black African slaves to the New World. The islands of the Caribbean soon came to be populated by slaves of African descent, ruled over by a white minority of plantation owners interested in making a fortune and then returning to their home country to spend it. From its very outset, Western colonialism

8268-504: The Board of Proprietors of East Jersey. This board exercised government control, which eventually led to many conflicts within the colony. In 1702, East and West Jersey surrendered the right to government to the English Crown under Queen Anne following the Glorious Revolution . In the Province of New Jersey , there were two proprietary lordships: Lords Proprietary of East Jersey: Lords Proprietary of West Jersey: The British monarch , in his or her capacity as Sovereign Lord of Mann ,

8424-520: The British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore , the Dutch port in Travancore , and the Portuguese colonies of Goa , Daman , and Diu . The English East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India. Gradually the company's increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty-free trade in Bengal in 1717. The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah ,

8580-478: The Carolina back country. The English colonists had advance warning of the expedition and organized a defense at the head of the Flint River , where they routed the Spanish-led force , and captured or killed some 500 Spanish-led Indigenous peoples. Carolina's Governor Moore received notification concerning the hostilities, and he organized and led a force against Spanish Florida. 500 English colonial soldiers and militia and 300 Indigenous peoples captured and burned

8736-416: The Crown paid compensation for the Carteret loss . Two documents remain with the Lords Proprietors' original seal kept intact. In the 1690s, the Lords Proprietors were keen to implement their plan for a colonial aristocracy (an attempt to stabilize Carolina politics). One document is a grant or patent issued by the Lords Proprietors of South Carolina in 1699. It was issued to an Englishman named John Wyche,

8892-420: The East Asian seaboard, where Japan joined the European powers' scramble for territory. The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) mediated the imperial competition among Britain, France, and Germany, defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of colonial claims and codifying the imposition of direct rule , accomplished usually through armed force. In Germany, rising pan-Germanism

9048-400: The East India Company's troops with British Army soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar , was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line was abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown , which began to administer most of India as

9204-407: The English at St. John's and in Conception Bay (see Carbonear Island ). During King William's War , d'Iberville had destroyed most of the English communities in 1696–97, and the island again became a battleground in 1702. In August of that year, an English fleet under the command of Commodore John Leake descended on the outlying French communities but made no attempts on Plaisance. During

9360-523: The English colonies was about 250,000, with Virginia and New England dominating. The colonists were concentrated along the coast, with small settlements inland, sometimes reaching as far as the Appalachian Mountains . Colonists knew little of the interior of the continent to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes . This area was dominated by numerous historic Indigenous communities, although French and English traders had penetrated it. Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established

9516-417: The English colonists, but they simultaneously sent warnings to the French about the expedition, effectively playing both sides of the conflict. Newfoundland's coast was dotted with small French and English communities, with some fishing stations occupied seasonally by fishermen from Europe. Both sides had fortified their principal towns, the French at Plaisance on the western side of the Avalon Peninsula ,

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9672-413: The French colony of Saint-Domingue , established Haïti as a free, black republic , the first of its kind. Haiti became the second independent nation that was a former European colony in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. Africans and people of African ancestry freed themselves from slavery and colonization by taking advantage of the conflict among whites over how to implement the reforms of

9828-399: The French presence on the Atlantic to Cape Breton Island . French were resettled there from Newfoundland, creating the colony of Île-Royale, and France constructed the Fortress of Louisbourg in the following years. This presence plus the rights to use the Newfoundland shore resulted in continued friction between French and British fishing interests, which was not fully resolved until late in

9984-485: The French while making it clear that France could not expand its control beyond these areas. The beginning of the Portuguese occupation of India can be traced back to the arrival of Vasco da Gama near Calicut on 20 May 1498. Soon after this, other explorers, traders and missionaries followed. By 1515, the Portuguese were the strongest naval power in the Indian Ocean and the Malabar Coast was dominated by them. The policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between

10140-405: The Iberian kingdoms of Castile and Portugal along a north-south meridian, 370 leagues west of Cape Verde . According to this international agreement, the larger part of the Americas and the Pacific Ocean were open to Spanish exploration and colonization, while Africa, the Indian Ocean , and most of Asia were assigned to Portugal. The boundaries specified by the Treaty of Tordesillas were put to

10296-576: The Iroquois and agreed that commerce with Indigenous peoples farther inland would be open to all nations. It retained all of the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, including Cape Breton Island , and retained fishing rights in the area, including rights to dry fish on the northern shore of Newfoundland. By the later years of the war, many Abenakis had tired of the conflict despite French pressures to continue raids against New England targets. The peace of Utrecht, however, had ignored Indigenous interests, and some Abenaki expressed willingness to negotiate

10452-422: The Islamic Ottoman Empire , itself gaining territories and colonies in Eastern Europe. The first foothold outside of Europe was gained with the conquest of Ceuta in 1415. During the 15th century, Portuguese sailors discovered the Atlantic islands of Madeira , Azores , and Cape Verde , which were duly populated, and pressed progressively further along the west African coast until Bartolomeu Dias demonstrated it

10608-602: The Jesuits still stand, such as the Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau and the Santisima Trinidad de Paraná in Paraguay , the latter an example of the Jesuit Reductions . The Dominican and Franciscan buildings of California's missions and New Mexico's missions stand restored, such as Mission Santa Barbara in Santa Barbara, California and San Francisco de Asis Mission Church in Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico . As characteristically happens in any colonialism, European or not, previous or subsequent, both Spain and Portugal profited handsomely from their newfound overseas colonies:

10764-403: The Mediterranean), covering vast territories around the globe. Between 1580 and 1640, the Portuguese and Spanish empires were both ruled by the Spanish monarchs in personal union . During the late 16th and 17th centuries, England , France , and the Dutch Republic also established their own overseas empires, in direct competition with one another. The end of the 18th and mid 19th century saw

10920-431: The Mississippi watershed and then leveraging those relationships to push the English colonists off the continent, or at least limit them to coastal areas. In pursuit of this grand strategy, he rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi (which had first been found by La Salle in 1670) and established Fort Maurepas in 1699. From this base and Fort Louis de la Mobile (founded in 1702), he began to establish relationships with

11076-431: The New England colonists stayed in their forts and would not come out. In October 1710, 3,600 British and colonial forces led by Francis Nicholson finally captured Port Royal after a siege of one week. This ended official French control of the peninsular portion of Acadia (present-day mainland Nova Scotia ), although resistance continued until the end of the war. Resistance by the Wabanaki Confederation continued in

11232-523: The Portuguese encountered ancient and well populated societies, and established a seaborne empire consisting of armed coastal trading posts along their trade routes (such as Goa , Malacca and Macau ), so they had relatively little cultural impact on the societies they engaged. In the Western Hemisphere, the European colonization involved the emigration of large numbers of settlers, soldiers and administrators intent on owning land and exploiting

11388-731: The Roman Catholic colonists of New Spain and the Protestant English colonists along the coast. To the north, the conflict held a strong economic component in addition to territorial disputes. Newfoundland was the site of a British colony at St. John's and a French colony at Plaisance , with both sides also holding a number of smaller permanent settlements. The island also had many seasonal settlements used by fishermen from Europe. These colonists numbered fewer than 2,000 English and 1,000 French permanent settlers (and many more seasonal visitors), who competed with one another for

11544-468: The Secretary position was John Wilmot. After a revolt against the Lords Proprietors in 1719, the colony came under royal control. This change in power was formalized by an Act of the English parliament in 1729 called "An Agreement with Seven of the Lords Proprietors of Carolina, for the Surrender of their Title and Interest in that Province". The documents include information about Wyche's land-claims and

11700-543: The South Carolina assembly sent a petition to England and requested the proprietors to be replaced with Crown administration. King George I appointed royal governors for North and South Carolina and converted the colony's status to that of a royal colony (Britain ruled the colony but allowed the people self-government). In 1729, the Crown bought out seven of the eight of the Lords Proprietors for £22,500, approximately

11856-796: The Spanish Empire in the Americas was Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1808. With the installation of his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, the main tie between the metropole and its colonies in the Americas, the Spanish monarchy, had been cut, leading the colonists to question their continued subordination to a declining and distant country. With an eye on the events of the American Revolution forty years earlier, revolutionary leaders began bloody wars of independence against Spain, whose armies were ultimately unable to maintain control. By 1831, Spain had been ejected from

12012-525: The Spanish from gold and silver from mines such as Potosí and Zacatecas in New Spain , the Portuguese from the huge markups they enjoyed as trade intermediaries, particularly during the Nanban Japan trade period. The influx of precious metals to the Spanish monarchy's coffers allowed it to finance costly religious wars in Europe which ultimately proved its economic undoing: the supply of metals

12168-764: The True Intent and Meaning of us the Lords Proprietors, and Explanation of There Concessions Made to the Adventures and Planters of New Caesarea or New Jersey- 1672 This declaration outlines the rules for the General Assembly and the Governor. 6. His Royal Highness's Grant to the Lords Proprietors, Sir George Carteret, 29 July 1674 This document from King Charles II of England reiterates Sir George Carteret's claim to his land in America as laid out by

12324-523: The United States and Canada, or islands in the Caribbean, such as Aruba , Martinique , and Barbados , that had been abandoned by the Spanish in favor of the mainland and larger islands. Whereas Spanish colonialism was based on the religious conversion and exploitation of local populations via encomiendas (many Spaniards emigrated to the Americas to elevate their social status, and were not interested in manual labor), Northern European colonialism

12480-573: The acquisition of Pondicherry from the Sultan of Bijapur the next year. Both became the centers of the maritime commercial activities that the French conducted in India. The French also had trading posts in Mahe, Karikal and Yanaon . Similar to the situation in Tahiti and Martinique , the French colonial administrative area was insular, but, in India, the French authority was isolated on the peripheries of

12636-460: The amount that they had spent on the colony. The eighth proprietor, John Carteret, Lord Granville , refused to sell and retained title to the lands and quitrents in the northern third of North Carolina. When the Crown purchased the proprietors' interests in 1729 the successors of the eight proprietors proved to be: Some of the 1729 interests had been acquired not by inheritance but by purchase. The Carteret interest continued until independence, when

12792-560: The apparently primitive (as perceived by Old World standards) indigenous peoples of the Americas . The result was that the colonization of the New World was catastrophic: native peoples were no match for European technology, ruthlessness, or their diseases which decimated the indigenous population . Spanish treatment of the indigenous populations caused a fierce debate, the Valladolid Controversy , over whether Indians possessed souls and if so, whether they were entitled to

12948-803: The areas between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea . The key areas were Armenia and Georgia , with some better penetration of the Ottoman Empire, and Persia . By 1829, Russia controlled all of the Caucasus as shown in the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829. The third era, 1850 to 1860, was a brief interlude jumping to the East Coast, annexing the region from the Amur River to Manchuria . The fourth era, 1865 to 1885 incorporated Turkestan, and

13104-671: The attention of Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The entrance of these three powers into the Caribbean and North America perpetuated European colonialism in these regions. The second wave of European colonialism commenced with Britain's involvement in Asia in support of the British East India Company ; other countries such as France, Portugal and the Netherlands also had involvement in European expansion in Asia. The third wave ("New Imperialism") consisted of

13260-522: The attorney general, property in the New World. 2. A Declaration and Proposals of the Lord Proprietor of Carolina, 25 August – 4 September 1663 This charter issued by King Charles II of England proposed the formation of the Lords Proprietors and gave the lands of Carolina to the eight proprietors: the Earl of Clarendon, Duke of Albemarle, Lord Craven, Lord Berkeley, Lord Ashley, Sir George Carteret, William Berkeley and Sir John Colleton. This declaration gave

13416-707: The basic rights of mankind. Bartolomé de Las Casas , author of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies , championed the cause of the native peoples, and was opposed by Sepúlveda , who claimed Amerindians were "natural slaves". The Roman Catholic Church played a large role in Spanish and Portuguese overseas activities. The Dominicans , Jesuits , and Franciscans , notably Francis Xavier in Asia and Junípero Serra in North America, were particularly active in this endeavour. Many buildings erected by

13572-424: The bay. The only incident of note was a French attack on the outpost of Fort Albany in 1709. The Hudson's Bay Company was unhappy that Ryswick had not returned its territories, and it successfully lobbied for their return in the negotiations that ended this war. The colonial military technology used in North America was not as developed as in Europe. Only a few colonial settlements had stone fortifications at

13728-423: The borders separating the French and English colonies. They were concerned about boundaries and governing authority in the northern and southwestern frontiers of the English colonies , which stretched from the Province of Carolina in the south to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the north, with additional colonial settlements or trading outposts on Newfoundland and at Hudson Bay . The total population of

13884-521: The clause in Adam's will excluding his authority from the New World. This challenge initially took the form of piratical attacks (such as those by Francis Drake ) on Spanish treasure fleets or coastal settlements. Later the Northern European countries began establishing settlements of their own, primarily in areas that were outside of Spanish interests, such as what is now the eastern seaboard of

14040-637: The colonists defended themselves against attacks by the Yamasee Indians and pirates . During these times of conflict, the colonists received little or no help from the proprietors. The elite group of settlers in Carolina, former West Indians known as the Goose Creek Men, grew increasingly frustrated with the Lords Proprietors because they meddled in politics but failed to defend the colony against Spanish and Native American attacks. In 1719,

14196-602: The colony by 1700 compared with only 1,500 in the Spanish colony of Florida. Carolina attracted English settlers, French Protestants ( Huguenots ) and other colonists from Barbados and the West Indies . The first government in Carolina began in Albemarle County in 1664, when William Sayle was appointed as the governor. Proprietary authority was weaker near the Virginia border. The Lords Proprietors established

14352-575: The commerce provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht. They attempted to prevent English trade with remote Indigenous communities, and they erected Fort Niagara in Iroquois territory. French settlements continued to grow on the Gulf Coast, with the settlement of New Orleans in 1718 and other (unsuccessful) attempts to expand into Spanish-controlled Texas and Florida . French trading networks penetrated

14508-683: The continent along the waterways feeding the Gulf of Mexico, renewing conflicts with both the British and the Spanish. Trading networks established in the Mississippi River watershed, including the Ohio River valley, also brought the French into more contact with British trading networks and colonial settlements that crossed the Appalachian Mountains. Conflicting claims over that territory eventually led to war in 1754, when

14664-455: The death of King Charles II concerning who should succeed him to the Spanish throne, it was initially restricted to a few powers in Europe, but it widened in May 1702 when England declared war on Spain and France. Both the British and French wanted to keep their American colonies neutral, but they did not reach an agreement. The American colonists had their own tensions which had been growing along

14820-495: The effects of the war, and it was ceded to Britain in the 1763 Treaty of Paris following the Seven Years' War. Indigenous peoples who had been resettled along the Atlantic coast chafed under British rule, as did those allied to the British in this war. This discontentment flared into the 1715 Yamasee War that posed a major threat to South Carolina's viability. The loss of population in the Spanish territories contributed to

14976-507: The end of July, but a number of its ships foundered on the rocky shores near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence in the fog. More than 700 troops were lost, and Walker called off the expedition. In the meantime, Nicholson had departed for Montreal overland but had only reached Lake George when word reached him of Walker's disaster, and he also turned back. In this expedition, the Iroquois provided several hundred warriors to fight with

15132-554: The entry of the Dutch , English , French , Danish and others. The kingdoms of India were gradually taken over by the Europeans and indirectly controlled by puppet rulers. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I accorded a charter , forming the East India Company to trade with India and eastern Asia. The English landed in India in Surat in 1612. By the 19th century, they had assumed direct and indirect control over most of India. After

15288-549: The establishment of government-run trading posts in their territory. The Treaty of Portsmouth was ratified on July 13, 1713, by eight representatives of some of the communities of the Wabanaki Confederacy; however, it included language asserting British sovereignty over their territory. Over the next year, other Abenaki tribal leaders also signed the treaty, but no Mi'kmaq ever signed it or any other treaty until 1726. The loss of Newfoundland and Acadia restricted

15444-472: The expedition describes a war council in which the expedition decided against making an attack. Father Sébastien Rale was widely suspected of inciting the Norridgewock community against the New Englanders, and Massachusetts Governor Joseph Dudley put a price on his head. In the winter of 1705, Massachusetts dispatched 275 militiamen under the command of Colonel Winthrop Hilton to seize Rale and sack

15600-586: The expedition was going to fail. After this failure, Nicholson and Schuyler traveled to London accompanied by King Hendrick and other sachems to arouse interest in the North American frontier war. The Indigenous delegation caused a sensation in London, and Queen Anne granted them an audience. Nicholson and Schuyler were successful in their endeavor: the queen gave support for Nicholson's successful capture of Port Royal in 1710. With that success under his belt, Nicholson again returned to England and gained support for

15756-611: The expense of the Choctaw , Timucua, and Apalachee. Throughout the war, New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy thwarted New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine . In 1703, Michel Leneuf de la Vallière de Beaubassin commanded a few French Canadians and 500 Indigenous peoples of the Wabanaki Confederacy, and they led attacks against New England settlements from Wells to Falmouth ( Portland, Maine ) in

15912-490: The first direct contact between Europeans and the peoples inhabiting present day countries such as Mozambique , Madagascar , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Indonesia , East Timor (1512), China, and finally Japan. In the opposite direction, the Portuguese colonized the huge territory that eventually became Brasil, and the Spanish conquistadors established the vast Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru , and later of Río de la Plata (Argentina) and New Granada (Colombia). In Asia,

16068-583: The first era of decolonization , when most of the European colonies in the Americas, notably those of Spain, New France , and the Thirteen Colonies , gained their independence from their metropole . The Kingdom of Great Britain (uniting Scotland and England), France, Portugal, and the Dutch turned their attention to the Old World, particularly South Africa and South Asia, particularly Southeast Asia , where coastal enclaves had already been established. In

16224-529: The fisheries of the Grand Banks , which were also harvested by fishermen from Acadia (then encompassing all of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) and Massachusetts. The borders and boundaries remained uncertain between Acadia and New England despite battles along the border throughout King William's War . New France defined the border of Acadia as the Kennebec River in southern Maine . There were Catholic missions at Norridgewock and Penobscot and

16380-504: The fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government. During this period, Europe's powers added nearly 8,880,000 square miles (23,000,000 km ) to their overseas colonial possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the Western powers as late as the 1880s, Africa became the primary target of the "new" imperialist expansion (known as the Scramble for Africa ), although conquest took place also in other areas – notably south-east Asia and

16536-470: The former independent country which is now part of Yemen . European colonization of both Eastern and Western Hemispheres has its roots in Portuguese exploration. There were financial and religious motives behind this exploration. By finding the source of the lucrative spice trade , the Portuguese could reap its profits for themselves. They would also be able to probe the existence of the fabled Christian kingdom of Prester John , with an eye to encircling

16692-481: The interior, establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw , a large community whose enemies included the English-allied Chickasaw . All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of infectious diseases such as smallpox , endemic among early explorers and traders. The Native Americans had no immunity and suffered high mortality. The arrival of French colonists in

16848-477: The lands still did not mention the lord proprietor's governing rights which led to continued confusion with colonial officials in New York. Two of New Jersey's governors during the area's time as a proprietary colony were arrested and imprisoned in New York for governing without the authority to do so. Berkeley sold his half of New Jersey to Edward Byllynge and John Fenwick. In 1676, Carteret and Fenwick negotiated

17004-618: The latter by Admiral Walker in the aftermath of the disaster at the mouth of the St. Lawrence. In 1712, Britain and France declared an armistice, and a final peace agreement was signed the following year. Under terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht , Britain gained Acadia (which they renamed Nova Scotia ), sovereignty over Newfoundland , the Hudson Bay region, and the Caribbean island of St. Kitts . France recognized British suzerainty over

17160-618: The local Choctaw, Chickasaw, Natchez people , and other communities. English colonial traders and explorers from Carolina had established a substantial trading network across the southeastern part of the continent that extended all the way to the Mississippi. Its leaders had little respect for the Spanish in Florida, but they understood the threat posed by the French arrival on the coast. Both Carolina governor Joseph Blake and his successor James Moore articulated visions of expansion to

17316-553: The long age of European colonization with the conquest of Ceuta, Morocco in 1415, and the conquest and discovery of other African territories and islands, this would also start the movement known as the Age of Discoveries. The Spanish and Portuguese launched the colonization of the Americas , basing their territorial claims on the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494. This treaty demarcated the respective spheres of influence of Spain and Portugal. The expansion achieved by Spain and Portugal caught

17472-532: The mainland of the Americas, leaving a collection of independent republics that stretched from Chile and Argentina in the south to Mexico in the north. Spain's colonial possessions were reduced to Cuba , Puerto Rico , the Philippines, and a number of small islands in the Pacific, all of which she was to lose to the United States in the 1898 Spanish–American War or sell to Germany shortly thereafter. Brazil

17628-404: The major population centers. Spanish Florida was defended by a few hundred regular troops; Spanish policy was to pacify the Indigenous peoples in their territory and not to provide them with weapons. Florida held an estimated 8,000 Indigenous peoples before the war, but this was reduced to 200 after English colonist raids made early in the war. Prominent French and English colonists understood at

17784-677: The military system necessary to support and defend the colonies outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they have not favored destinations for the immigration of surplus populations. Queen Anne%27s War British victory over French in Canada. Spanish Empire in the Americas remains intact. [REDACTED]   France [REDACTED] Spain loyal to Philip V [REDACTED]   England (before 1707) [REDACTED]   Great Britain (after 1707) Queen Anne's War (1702–1713)

17940-545: The minister, John Williams, who tried for years without success to ransom his daughter Eunice. She became fully assimilated, marrying a Mohawk man. Likewise in August 1704, there was a raid in Marlborough (in the part of town to later become Westborough ), from which captives were also taken to Caughnawaga. There was an active slave trade of the captive colonists during these years, and communities raised funds to ransom their citizens from Indigenous captivity. For instance

18096-634: The most common way to settle areas with British subjects. The land was licensed or granted to a proprietor who held expanse power. The powers were commonly written into the land charters by using the "Bishop of Durham clause," which recreated the powers and responsibilities once given to the County Palatine of Durham in England. That clause gave the lord proprietor the power to create courts and laws, establish governing bodies and churches, and appoint all governing officials. Each proprietary colony had

18252-622: The nominally conquered Acadians. They resisted repeated British demands to swear oaths to the British crown, and eventually this sparked an exodus by the Acadians to Île-Royale and Île-Saint-Jean (present-day Prince Edward Island ). By the 1740s, French leaders such as Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre orchestrated a guerrilla war with their Mi'kmaq allies against British attempts to expand Protestant settlements in peninsular Nova Scotia. Friction also persisted between France and Britain over Acadia's borders. The boundaries were unclear as laid out by

18408-540: The northern approaches to India, sparking British fears of a threat to India in the Great Game . During the five decades following 1770, Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal lost many of their possessions in the Americas. After the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763, Britain had emerged as the world's dominant power but found itself mired in debt and struggling to finance the Navy and Army necessary to maintain

18564-559: The original patents. Definition Headright system- Each settler received a single headright (grant of land) for himself or herself. Quitrents- a fixed rent payable to a feudal superior in commutation of services In 1664, the English gained control of New Jersey from the Dutch. King Charles II granted the country to his brother, the Duke of York, who in turn sold the colony to two of his friends, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret (who were both already Lords Proprietors of Carolina). The area

18720-525: The people he encountered there were Indians with red skin. This is why Native Americans have been called Indians or red-Indians. In truth, Columbus had arrived on a continent that was new to the Europeans, the Americas . After Columbus' first trips, competing Spanish and Portuguese claims to new territories and sea routes were solved with the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in two areas of trade and exploration, between

18876-775: The petition of the Cyril family for an endorsement of their rights under the 1699 grant (a claim that the Privy Council in London disallowed). The grant was originally written in Latin and is embossed on vellum with the Great Seal of the Proprietors attached. This seal and document is one of two such 17th century documents to survive with the seal intact. 1. Sir Robert Heath's Patent 5 Charles I, 30 October 1629 In this patent King Charles I of England gave Sir Robert Hearth,

19032-419: The population as a result of disease and the last war, but they still posed a potent threat to outlying settlements. The Hudson Bay territories (also known as Prince Rupert's Land ) were not significantly fought over in this war. They had been a scene of much dispute by competing French and English companies starting in the 1680s, but the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick left France in control of all but one outpost on

19188-400: The proprietors the power to protect their colony, the right to settle the colony, freedom of religion and one hundred acres of land for each man. 3. Charter of Carolina- 24 March 1663 This charter outlined how the eight proprietors should rule Carolina. It gave the land to the proprietors, allowed for patronage, gave the proprietors absolute power in the colony, gave the colony's government

19344-490: The queen. The plan involved an overland assault on Montreal via Lake Champlain and a sea-based assault by naval forces against Quebec . The land expedition reached the southern end of Lake Champlain, but it was called off when the promised naval support never materialized for the attack on Quebec. (Those forces were diverted to support Portugal .) The Iroquois had made vague promises of support for this effort, but successfully delayed sending support until it seemed clear that

19500-431: The right to make laws, authorized the authority to make ordinances, gave instructions to defend the colony against enemies, outlined trade regulations, gave the proprietors building rights in the colony, allowed for an army and allowed the practice of religion conformed to the Church of England. 4. The Concession and Agreement of the Lords Proprietors of the Province of New Caesarea, or New Jersey, to and With All and Every

19656-455: The south and west at the expense of French and Spanish interests. Iberville had approached the Spanish in January 1702 before the war broke out in Europe, recommending that the Apalachee warriors be armed and sent against the English colonists and their allies. The Spanish organized an expedition under Francisco Romo de Uriza; it left Pensacola, Florida in August for the trading centers of

19812-403: The south threatened existing trade links that Carolina colonists had established into the interior, creating tension among all three powers. France and Spain, allies in this conflict, had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years' War . Conflicting territorial claims between Carolina and Florida south of the Savannah River were overlaid by animosity over religious divisions between

19968-444: The southern English colonies, including those that saw little military activity. Virginia , Maryland , and Pennsylvania to a lesser extent, were hit hard by the cost of shipping their export products (primarily tobacco ) to European markets, and they also suffered because of several particularly bad harvests. South Carolina accumulated a significant debt burden to finance military operations. The French did not fully comply with

20124-554: The start of the war, such as St. Augustine, Florida , Boston , Quebec City , and St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador , although Port Royal's fortifications were completed early in the war. Some villages and settlements were protected by wooden palisades , but many had little more than fortified wooden houses with gun ports through which defenders could fire, and overhanging second floors from which they might fire down on attackers trying to break in below. Europeans and colonists were typically armed with smooth-bore muskets that had

20280-559: The superpower without any major ally. The American War of Independence continued until 1783 when the Treaty of Paris was signed. Britain recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by the British possessions to the North, Florida to the South, and the Mississippi River to the west. The Haitian Revolution , a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in

20436-532: The test in 1521 when Ferdinand Magellan and his Spanish sailors (among other Europeans), sailing for the Spanish Crown became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean, reaching Guam and the Philippines, parts of which the Portuguese had already explored, sailing from the Indian Ocean. The two by now global empires, which had set out from opposing directions, had finally met on the other side of

20592-456: The town of St. Augustine, Florida in the Siege of St. Augustine (1702) . The English were unable to take the main fortress and withdrew when a Spanish fleet arrived from Havana . In 1706, Carolina successfully repulsed an attack on Charles Town by a combined Spanish and French amphibious force sent from Havana. The Apalachee and Timucua of Spanish Florida were virtually wiped out in

20748-416: The traditional monarchial system, which ruled most colonies of the time because of the large number of Quakers in those areas who shared many views with the lords proprietary. Effective governance of proprietary colonies relied on the appointment of a governor. The lord proprietor made the governor the head of the province's military, judicial, and administrative functions. This was typically conducted using

20904-486: The treaty, which even the French had never formally described. France insisted that only the Acadian peninsula was included in the treaty (modern Nova Scotia except Cape Breton Island) and that they retained the rights to modern New Brunswick . The disputes over Acadia flared into open conflict during King George's War in the 1740s and were not resolved until the British conquest of all French North American territories in

21060-405: The turn of the 18th century that control of the Mississippi River would have a significant role in future development and trade, and each developed visionary plans to thwart the other's activities. French Canadian explorer Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville had developed a "Project sur la Caroline" in the aftermath of the previous war which called for establishing relationships with Indigenous peoples in

21216-519: The village. The priest was warned in time, however, and escaped into the woods with his papers, but the militia burned the village and church. French and Wabanaki Confederacy continued making raids in northern Massachusetts in 1705, against which the New England colonists were unable to mount an effective defense. The raids happened too quickly for defensive forces to organize, and reprisal raids usually found tribal camps and settlements empty. There

21372-483: The war in 1713, following a preliminary peace in 1712. France ceded the territories of Hudson Bay , Acadia, and Newfoundland to Britain while retaining Cape Breton Island and other islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Some terms were ambiguous in the treaty, and the concerns of various Indigenous communities were not included, thereby setting the stage for future conflicts. When war broke out in Europe in 1701 following

21528-419: The winter of 1705, Plaisance's French governor Daniel d'Auger de Subercase retaliated, leading a combined French and Mi'kmaq expedition that destroyed several English settlements and unsuccessfully besieged Fort William at St. John's . The French and their Indigenous allies continued to harass the English throughout the summer and did damages to the English establishments claimed at £188,000. The English sent

21684-642: The world to find new revenue and perpetuating European feudalism . The second wave focused on developing the mercantile capitalism system and the manufacturing industry in Europe. The last wave of European colonialism solidified all capitalistic endeavours by providing new markets and raw materials. As a result of these waves of European colonial expansion, only thirteen present-day independent countries escaped formal colonization by European powers: Afghanistan , Bhutan , Iran , Japan , Liberia , Mongolia , Nepal , China , North Korea , Saudi Arabia , South Korea , Thailand , and Turkey as well as North Yemen ,

21840-453: The world. The conflicts that arose between both powers were finally solved with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, which defined the areas of Spanish and Portuguese influence in Asia, establishing the anti-meridian, or line of demarcation on the other side of the world. During the 16th century the Portuguese continued to press both eastwards and westwards into the Oceans. Towards Asia they made

21996-426: Was a lull in the raiding while leaders from New France and New England negotiated the exchange of prisoners, with only limited success. Raids by Indigenous peoples persisted until the end of the war, sometimes with French participation. In May 1707, Governor Dudley organized an expedition to take Port Royal led by John March . However, 1,600 men failed to take the fort by siege , and a follow-up expedition in August

22152-713: Was also repulsed. In response, the French developed an ambitious plan to raid most of the New Hampshire settlements on the Piscataqua River . However, much of the Indigenous support needed never materialized, and the Massachusetts town of Haverhill was raided instead. In 1709, New France governor Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil reported that two-thirds of the fields north of Boston were untended because of French and Indigenous raids. French–Indigenous war parties were returning without prisoners because

22308-427: Was appointed by the Lords Proprietors and was allowed to select his own Council, which constituted the upper branch of the Legislature. The new colony attracted many settlers because Berkeley and Sir George Carteret sold the land to the colonists at low prices and allowed them political and religious freedoms. The Dutch re-conquered the area in 1673 but then surrendered to the English in 1674. The new documents governing

22464-405: Was bolstered by those emigrating for religious reasons (for example, the Mayflower voyage). The motive for emigration was not to become an aristocrat or to spread one's faith but to start a new society afresh, structured according to the colonist's wishes. The most populous emigration of the 17th century was that of the English, who after a series of wars with the Dutch and French came to dominate

22620-448: Was combined with British victories over the French at Madras , Wandiwash and Pondicherry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years' War , reduced French influence in India. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II ; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish

22776-411: Was coupled to imperialism in the Alldeutsche Verband ("Pangermanic League"), which argued that Britain's world power position gave the British unfair advantages on international markets, thus limiting Germany's economic growth and threatening its security. Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially

22932-445: Was followed by the Spanish exploration of the Americas , further exploration along the coasts of Africa , and explorations of West Asia (also known as the Middle East ), South Asia , and East Asia . The conquest of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castile , from 1402 to 1496, has been described as the first instance of European settler colonialism in Africa. In 1462, the previously uninhabited Cape Verde archipelago became

23088-537: Was left in charge of Brazil and in 1822 he declared independence from Portugal and himself the Emperor of Brazil. Unlike Spain's former colonies which had abandoned the monarchy in favor of republicanism, Brazil, therefore, retained its links with its monarchy, the House of Braganza . Vasco da Gama 's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa , Daman , Diu and Bombay . The next to arrive were

23244-849: Was named " Province of Carolina " or land of Charles. Sir Robert's attempts at settlement failed and in 1645, during the English Civil War , he was stripped of all of his possessions as a Royalist supporter of the King. In 1663, eight members of the English nobility received a charter from King Charles II to establish the colony of Carolina. The eight Lords Proprietors were: The Lords Proprietors were anxious to secure Carolina against Spanish attacks from San Agustín in Florida, and to do so, they needed to attract more colonists. The Lords Proprietors offered English settlers inducements consisting of religious toleration, political representation in an assembly that had power over public taxes, exemption from quitrents , and large grants of land. The Lords allowed settlers of any religion except atheists. The Lords also had

23400-422: Was named "New Jersey" after Carteret's home island of Jersey in the English Channel. The grant, unique among other proprietary grants in the Americas, did not explicitly give the lord proprietors the power of government in the colony. Nonetheless, Berkeley and Carteret, established a constitution and gave freemen the right to elect an Assembly. A tax could not be levied without the Assembly's approval. The Governor

23556-423: Was not infinite and the large inflow caused inflation and debt, and subsequently affected the rest of Europe. It was not long before the exclusivity of Iberian claims to the Americas was challenged by other up and coming European powers, primarily the Netherlands, France and England: the view taken by the rulers of these nations is epitomized by the quotation attributed to Francis I of France demanding to be shown

23712-459: Was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country and treasure was brought back in special convoys ), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade monopolies to joint-stock companies such as

23868-415: Was possible to sail around Africa by rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, paving the way for Vasco da Gama to reach India in 1498. Portuguese successes led to Spanish financing of a mission by Christopher Columbus in 1492 to explore an alternative route to Asia, by sailing west. When Columbus eventually made landfall in the Caribbean Antilles he believed he had reached the coast of India, and that

24024-403: Was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule , taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. The first major movement against the British Company's high-handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of

24180-404: Was the only country in Latin America to gain its independence without bloodshed. The invasion of Portugal by Napoleon in 1808 had forced King João VI to escape to Brazil and establish his court in Rio de Janeiro. For thirteen years, Portugal was ruled from Brazil (the only instance of such a reversal of roles between colony and metropole) until his return to Portugal in 1821. His son, Dom Pedro ,

24336-406: Was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought in North America involving the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Spain; it took place during the reign of Anne, Queen of Great Britain . In the United States, it is regarded as a standalone conflict under this name. Elsewhere it is usually viewed as the American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession . It is also known as

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