Latgawa are Native American people who lived in the Rogue Valley of interior southwest Oregon . In their own language "Latgawa" /latʰka:wàʔ/ means "those living in the uplands," though they were also known as the Walumskni by the neighboring Klamath tribe.
108-508: They are close relatives of the Takelma (Dagelma) ("(Those) Along the River"), which were also known as Lowland or River Takelma . The Latgawa were often called Upland Takelma . The Latgawa were located in the upper Rogue River valley eastward to the former Table Rock Indian Reservation and Bear Creek and in the neighborhood of Jacksonville, Oregon . Together with other tribes along
216-544: A bartering medium. Konomihu produced buckskin leggings, robes and skirts that were painted with black, red and white patterns and adorned with dentalia and abalone beads. Okwanuchu crafted tubular wooden pipes similar in design to those made by Wintu. Raccoon and fox pelts were used for protection against the harsh mountain winters. Moccasins were kept waterproof and soft with oils derived from either deer, fish, cougars or bears. Charles Wilkes described Shasta made weaponry in 1845: "Their bows and arrows are beautifully made:
324-609: A button from 20 yards (18 m) distant. At this demonstration was an elder Shasta man who was a father-in-law to Michel Laframboise . Shortly after this peaceable dialogue and trade Emmons ordered the party to depart for "Destruction river" (the Upper Sacramento River) exiting Shasta lands for those of the Okwanuchu and later the Wintu. The irregular contact with European descendants became far more frequent by
432-553: A fort located in this vicinity until 1858, when Fort Gaston was established in modern Hoopa . The terms drafted by McKee for an agreement were not particularly favored by the Shasta or American settlers. The reservation was placed in Scott Valley although the majority of the valley was to remain in colonist possession. The location of the Shasta reservation was apparently accepted, albeit grudgingly, by most American colonists of
540-474: A group of Takelma of the Rogue Valley , getting injured and losing several companions. They considered the Shasta to be acceptable targets to attack for revenge. A Shasta man was found and shot to death by Gay and Bailey. They also attempted to murder the Shasta youth that had joined the cattle herders but he escaped. While officer Ewing Young was furious at the murder, the majority of the party condoned
648-415: A long dentalia shell or ornate feathers, while ear piercings held an assembled group of dentalia. Warfare was principally performed in asymmetrical small raids. Leaders of these attacks were determined by raiding party members. An armed group was organized usually to redress aggression and violence against village members. Prisoners gained in raids were not often killed and instead were allowed to live as
756-423: A rectangular, plank structure large enough to hold 100 people, but archaeologists in the region have typically found remains of much smaller dwellings. During the warmer months of summer Takelma lived in residences made of brush or forwent them altogether. SOHS - The Takelma Indians of Southwestern Oregon Shasta people The Shastan peoples are a group of linguistically related Indigenous peoples from
864-512: A rule head coverings were made from elk hide, sometimes placed in several layers thick. Notably Shasta women could join in both preparations for an upcoming attack and as active participants in the battle itself. Dixon recorded in such instances women would be armed with obsidian knives and attempt to disarm or destroy the weapons of enemy combatants. Armed warriors came largely from the Klamath River and Ahotireitsu Shasta in conflicts with
972-439: A slave. Slavery was reportedly not widespread among the Shasta and wasn't seen as a favorable practice. Dixon stated that "persons owning slaves were said to be, in a way, looked down upon." Shasta warriors wore protective adornments when headed into a conflict. Stick armor was preferred over the alternative elkhide. Materials for stick armor were largely sourced from serviceberry trees and woven together tightly with twine. As
1080-533: A third group of people that was named Shatasla. Maloney argued that Shatasla was an archaic variant of Shasta, something Garth later conjectured as well. This interpretation has been contested by other scholars based on linguistic and historical evidence. Previous to Maloney's assertion, Frederick Hodge in 1910 noted the word Shatalsa as being related to word Sahaptin. This older etymology was defended by Stern against Maloney's interpretation, in addition to recently being accepted by Clark as well. The Shasta were
1188-516: A variety of preserved foodstuffs, animal pelts, and obsidian blades. Merchandise found desirable by the Shasta included Tan Oak acorns , Yurok produced redwood canoes, a gamut of baskets of varying designs, seaweed, dentalia and abalone beads. The Karuk also were the primary source of dentalia for the Konomihu as well. Baskets and hats used by the Shasta were acquired primarily with these Klamath River nations. The delimitation of territory with
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#17327732628461296-426: A villager had too many guests for their house, permission would be secured to use the okwá'ŭmma instead. Okwá'ŭmma were owned by a prominent individual, often the headman, and constructed with communal labor. They were uncommon buildings, as along the Klamath River perhaps only three existed. Male relatives of the owner inherited the structure, if only female relatives remained it was burnt down. Dwellings utilized by
1404-426: A water source. Their villages often had only either one or two families. Larger villages had more families and additional buildings used by the community. The California Gold Rush drew in an influx of outsiders into California in the late 1840s eager to gain mineral wealth. For the Shasta, this was a devastating process as their lands soon had thousands of miners operating along various waterways. Conflicts arose as
1512-405: A winter house started with excavating a pit. Common dimensions rectangular or oval shaped excavation were 16.3 feet (5.0 m) by 19.8 feet (6.0 m), with a depth of 3.3 feet (1.0 m). Once the area was cleared load bearing wooden poles were placed in the excavated corners. Additional wooden supports and posts placed throughout the structure. After the pit walls were covered with cedar-bark,
1620-547: Is either dam or race work." As the population of non-natives rose in the north genocide of the indigenous was considered. Miners argued that natives along the Klamath River and its tributaries impeded access to gold deposits. They were deemed "the only obstacle to complete success in those mines." The Sacramento Daily Union argued that "the Indians must soon be removed by the Government Agents, or be exterminated by
1728-649: Is not known what the autonym of the Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta was. However it is known that the Shasta likely referred to them as " tax·a·ʔáycu ", the Hupa called them " Yɨdahčɨn " or "those from upcountry (away from the stream)", while the Karok called them " Kà·sahʔára·ra " or "person of ka·sah". The Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta largely lived in the Salmon River basin despite the scholarly appellation, though they did reside on
1836-689: Is true for most native groups in California . In the 1990s some Shasta stated upwards of 10,000 Shastan peoples lived in the 1840s. Alfred L. Kroeber put the 1770 population of the Shasta proper as 2,000 and the New River, Konomihu, and Okwanuchu groups, along with the Chimariko , as 1,000. Using population information on a nearby culture, Sherburne F. Cook largely agreed with Kroeber and concluded there were about 2,210 Shasta proper and another 1,000 related peoples. Subsequently, however Cook raised
1944-644: The Californian Ranchos as they maintained their territorial autonomy and protected position against European descendants. Sometime around the 1820s the Modoc and Klamath adopted horses from the Sahaptin peoples to the north. With their new equestrian rides they began to attack the Shasta, Achomawi and Atsugewi for property, food stores and slaves to be sold at the Dalles. The Shasta actively fought against
2052-642: The Chinook Jargon word for an American, "Boston," the Shasta word for whites is "pastin." The Shasta were isolated from the Spanish to the south and their Californian colonies. When the Mexican War of Independence erupted Mexican officials assumed control of the Spanish settlements and missions by forming the Alta California territory. This didn't change matters for the natives north of
2160-634: The English language . On the reservations, the Takelma lived with Native Americans from different cultures; and their intermarriage with people of other cultures, both on and off the reservation, worked against the transmission of Takelman language and culture to Takelman descendants. The Takelma spent many years in exile before anthropologists began to interview them and record information about their language and lifeways. Linguists Edward Sapir and John Peabody Harrington worked with Takelma descendants. In
2268-770: The Klamath Mountains . They traditionally inhabited portions of several regional waterways, including the Klamath , Salmon , Sacramento and McCloud rivers. Shastan lands presently form portions of the Siskiyou , Klamath and Jackson counties . Scholars have generally divided the Shastan peoples into four languages, although arguments in favor of more or fewer existing have been made. Speakers of Shasta proper-Kahosadi, Konomihu , Okwanuchu , and Tlohomtah’hoi "New River" Shasta resided in settlements typically near
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#17327732628462376-537: The Oregon White Oak . After leaching the acorns of tannins the nuts were turned into a dough. Black Oak meal was preferred compared to the slimier and less popular White Oak meal for both consumption and trade. Canyon Oak acorns were often buried and allowed to turn black before being cooked. Often nuts from Sugar pines were steamed, dried, and stored for future consumption. Pitch from the Ponderosa pine
2484-560: The Rogue River . The name Takelma means "(Those) Along the River". Much less is known about the lifeways of the Takelma than about their neighbors in other parts of Oregon and northern California . Their homeland was settled by Euroamericans late in the history of the American Frontier, because the surrounding mountainous country protected it. But once colonization began, it proceeded rapidly. The discovery of gold spurred
2592-439: The Rogue Valley . Alfred Kroeber would in turn claim that Shasta territories extended as far north as modern Trail, Oregon . Based on a review on accounts by Takelma and Shasta informants and the journal of Ogden, Gray has determined and proposed a revised cultural boundary. During the early 19th century the southern Bear Creek valley was used by both the Shasta and Takelma peoples as Sapir had speculated. The higher portions of
2700-594: The Shasta River and Scott River , along with the Bear Creek in the Rogue Valley . Four bands of Shasta existed with variations in custom and differing dialects. Each band had names derived from nearby waterways. In this way people from Shasta River or Ahotidae were the " Ahotireitsu ", those from the Upper Rogue Valley or Ikiruk were the " Ikirukatsu ", and inhabitants of Scott River or Iraui were
2808-645: The " Irauitsu ". Shasta families located directly along the Klamath River were referred to by the Ikirukatsu as " Wasudigwatsu " after their particular words for the Klamath River and gulch. The Irauistu knew them as " Wiruwhikwatsu " and the Ahotireitsu called them " Wiruwhitsu ", terms derived from "down river" and "up river" respectively. Shasta settlements often only contained a single family. In larger villages headmen held sway. The responsibilities of this position were varied. They were expected "to exhort
2916-589: The 1840s. Military forces of the United States conquered Alta California during the Mexican–American War . American control was initially limited to areas that had been administered by the Mexican government. The California Territory was established in 1849 although much of the claimed land still remained in indigenous hands. The California State Legislature organized Shasta County in 1850. Once it
3024-458: The 2010 census, 16 people claimed Takelma ancestry, 5 of them full-blooded. The Takelman people lived as foragers , a term that many anthropologists consider more exact than hunter-gatherers . They collected plant foods and insects, fished and hunted. The Takelma cultivated only one crop, a native tobacco ( Nicotiana biglovii ). The Takelma lived in small bands of related men and their families. Interior southwest Oregon has pronounced seasons, and
3132-650: The Karuk. The Konomihu likewise largely imported their baskets from abroad. Baskets made by Shasta were generally a composite of plant materials gathered from the Ponderosa pine, California hazelnut , several species of Willow , Bear grass , and the Five-fingered fern . Their designs took influences from the nearby Hupa , Karuk and Yurok peoples. Pigments were made by the Shasta for the beautification of baskets and other personal possessions. Red and black dyes were
3240-497: The Konomihu varied according to season like the Shasta. During the salmon runs of spring and summer huts created from plant brush were used. These were abandoned in the autumn in favor of bark houses while deer were hunted. These winter houses were markedly different from the Shasta, Karuk and Yurok. While partially underground their houses were built in 15 to 18 foot wide circles with sloped conical roofs. An important item for Shasta households were baskets which principally came from
3348-619: The Latgawa resisted encroachment on their lands and became embroiled in the bloody Rogue River Wars of the 1850s. Rogue Valley Indians were killed or captured, but some escaped. The U.S. Army exiled the remaining Takelma and Latgawa to the Grand Ronde Reservation many miles to the north, where they arrived both overland and by sea. An 1853 treaty established the Table Rock Reservation in order to throw open
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3456-434: The Modoc. These clashes have been speculated to have been the most violent for the Shasta by scholars. While disputes and raids occurred with the Wintu, they were apparently not as destructive as warfare with the Modoc. Attacks on Wintu and Modoc villages included torching the settlement. This was not practiced in raids between Shasta villages. The Shasta were located at the crossroads of several major cultural regions. This
3564-473: The Okwanuchu had 60 square miles (160 km ), and the Konomihu only occupied 20 square miles (52 km ). The Shasta called the Konomihu " Iwáppi ", related to the term used for the Karuk. The Konomihu referred to themselves as " Ḱunummíhiwu ". They inhabited portions of the north and south forks of the Salmon River, in addition to part of the combined waterway. Seventeen settlements are recorded to have existed within Konomihu territory. Political authority
3672-833: The Rogue River, they were grouped as the Rogue River Tribe , but after the Rogue River Wars in 1856, bands of the Rogue River were split between the Siletz Indian Reservation or the Grand Ronde Indian Reservation far to the north of the tribe's traditional lands. The Latgawa were one of two peoples who spoke the Takelma language . The Takelma lived mainly on the east side of the Klamath and Coast Mountains in
3780-864: The Shasta River hadn't yet been exploited it was considered by miners to contain rich gold deposits. In the winter of 1850 advertisements appeared in the Daily Alta California promoting the mineral potential of the Klamath River basin. These notices appealed for Americans to venture north where opportunities for acquiring wealth abound. In addition to maintaining extensive mining operations, whites began to cut forests down for sale in Sacramento. A thousand acres of Shasta river had been prospected to varying amounts by April 1851. Scott River became touted as having "the richest mines in all California." Contemporaries described an influx of miners into
3888-653: The Shasta and Klamath rivers in October a confrontation erupted in which miners killed six Shasta. The Indian Superintendency gave a report to Congress in November 1848. It was an overview on native population figures in the recently gained Pacific Coast and Southwest. Congress was advised to fund and hire new Indian agents in these new territories. A report presented to Congress in 1850 by William Carey Jones surmised information he gathered on land title in California. Jones concluded that Spanish and Mexican law didn't recognize
3996-677: The Shasta and Scott Valleys in particular. It was concluded that only the Scott could support a reservation and the agricultural work necessary to feed the Shasta. This assessment was due to the scarcity of agriculturally viable land in the Klamath Mountains. More promising areas did exist nearby but they were in Oregon. The Shasta wanted to retain the entirety of Scott Valley for their designated reservation. American colonists from Scott Bar and Shasta Butte City contended for possession of
4104-603: The Shasta and these ethnicities formed the southern terminus "of that great and distinctive culture [...] common to all peoples of the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska." Additional members of this grouping included the Tolowa further to the west and the Takelma located to the north. The Karuk culture was held in a favorable regard by most Shasta, particularly for their manufactured items. Shasta merchants would bring stockpiles of trade goods in demand down river, which included
4212-718: The Shasta have some linguistic affiliations. Kroeber placed the Achomawi and Atsugewi with the northeastern Modoc and Klamath into the "Northeast" cultural group. They received cultural influences from the Columbia Plateau and Columbia River Sahaptins , far more than the Shasta did. Coming from the Shasta word for "down the river" the Karuk were known as " Iwampi ". Along with the Yurok, both nations inspired many facets of Shasta society and were their principal trading partners. These peoples were particularly similar to
4320-488: The Shasta homelands. The following known interaction with whites wasn't peaceable as Ogden's visit had been. A group of Willamette Valley colonists traversed Shasta territories in the autumn of 1837. With them were several hundred cattle purchased from Alta California Governor Alvarado . Driving their herd north along the Siskiyou Trail, they encountered several Shasta settlements. The Shasta were welcoming to
4428-541: The Shasta proper. These were the Okwanuchu of the upper Sacramento and McCloud rivers, and the Salmon River based Konomihu and Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta. There is little recorded information on the Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta, Konomihu and Okwanuchu. Merriam concluded that "any extended discussion of their culture, customs, beliefs, and ceremonies is out of the question..." Each group had particularly small territories. The Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta held 45 square miles (120 km ),
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4536-405: The Shasta territories led to many confrontations with other California Natives keen on gaining animal meat and pelts. Strategies to procure and later store these foodstuffs shared similarities with adjoining cultures. Undergrowth in forests was removed with controlled fires to promote advantageous plant species that were often food sources. Fishing runs began in the spring and continued throughout
4644-407: The Shasta who relished them. Once the bulb was husked ipos roots were consumed raw or dried in sunlight and later stored. Shastan cuisine had many meals that included dried ipos. Guests were often given small servings of serviceberries and dried ipos while the main meal was cooked. One particularly popular dish was powdered ipos root mixed into manzanita cider. Another consumed flowering plant species
4752-402: The Shasta. Fires were created and maintained at weirs to enable efficient night fishing. Fishing net designs were nearly identical to those created by Karuk and Yurok. Catfish and crawfish were caught with bait tied to lines. Once stuck on the line, the prey would be captured with a thin basket. California mule deer were hunted according to one of several strategies employed by the Shasta. In
4860-401: The Shasta. For example, a Shasta informant reported that "How could you settle anything with them? They didn't have any money." There was an amount of commercial transactions between the Shasta and the Klamath but these were apparently rare occurrences. Spier reported that Shasta manufactured beads were exchanged for animal pelts and blankets. Outside of trading with the Modoc, this was some of
4968-579: The Siletz Reservation and the Grand Ronde Indian Reservation , which now exists as Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon . And many died on the reservations from disease, despair and inadequate diet. Indian agents taught the surviving Takelma farming skills and discouraged them from speaking their own language, believing that their best chance for productive lives depended on their learning useful skills and
5076-621: The Takelma and other southern Oregon Indians would have been exterminated rather than relocated. In 1856, the U.S. government forcibly relocated the Takelma who survived the Rogue Indian Wars to the Coast Indian Reservation (today the Siletz Reservation ) on the rainy northern Oregon coast, an environment much different from the dry oak and chaparral country that they knew. Many died on the way to
5184-415: The Takelma diet was carbohydrates, since fish and game provided abundant fat and protein. To get the carbohydrates and vitamins needed for good health, the Takelma collected a variety of plant foods. However, consistent with optimal foraging theory , which suggests that humans, like other creatures, decide what foods to eat depending on what gives the greatest nutritional value for the work expended to get it,
5292-445: The Takelma strategically focused on two plant foods: acorns and camas, also known as camassia . They harvested acorns from the two species of oaks in their Rogue Valley territory, Oregon white oak and California black oak . When these foods were not available, or for variety in their diet, Takelma women also gathered and processed the seeds of native grasses and tarweed ( Madia elegans ), dug roots and collected small fruits. During
5400-529: The Takelma to the north has been a matter of controversy between scholars. Shasta informants told Roland B. Dixon that they previously occupied the Bear Creek Valley southward and eastward of the Table Rocks . He was additionally given Shasta place names of this area. This information was forwarded to Edward Sapir who suggested that the Shasta and Takelma both utilized this disputed region of
5508-477: The Takelma with an excellent, protein-rich diet for much of the year, if the salmon runs were good. The salmon diet was supplemented, or replaced in years of poor salmon runs, by game such as deer, elk, beaver, bear, antelope, and bighorn sheep. (The last two species are now locally extinct.) Smaller mammals, such as squirrels, rabbits and gophers, might be snared by either men or women. Yellowjacket larvae and grasshoppers also provided calories. The limiting factor in
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#17327732628465616-464: The Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta group has not been adopted by other scholars. What information has been preserved about the Okwanuchu amounts to little. The origin of the word Okwanuchu is unknown. They were called " ye·tatwa " and " Ikusadewi " by the Achomawi. Intermarriage between Okwanuchu and Achomawi speakers was apparently common. Estimates for historic Shasta, Okwanuchu, New River Shasta, and Konomihu population figures have substantially varied, as
5724-568: The Trinity and Klamath rivers. In the Shasta heartland along the banks of the Salmon, Scott and upper Klamath gold was found during the following two years. Incoming miners founded the towns of Scott Bar and Yreka near these newer sources. The Shasta weren't seen favorably by incoming miners, being considered to have "inherited a spirit of warfare, and delight in [...] perilous incidents of daring thefts or bold fighting. This image of native aggression
5832-442: The ancient Takelma adapted to these seasons by spending spring, summer, and early fall months collecting and storing food for the winter season. The Rogue River, around which their villages nucleated, provided them with salmon and other fish. Ancient salmon runs were reputedly large. The intensive and coordinated labor involved in large-scale capture of salmon with nets and spears by men, and their cleaning and drying by women, provided
5940-409: The autumn at mineral licks deer were forced by controlled burning of oak leaves into gaps between the flames where hunters would wait. Shasta also chased deer into nooses that were tied to trees. Alternatively dogs were trained to chase deer into creeks. Hidden until their prey was in the water, Shasta hunters would then kill the deer with arrows. There were a number of societal conventions related to
6048-479: The colonization period with their cultures and languages more intact. Conflicts between the settlers and the indigenous peoples of both coastal and interior southwest Oregon escalated and became known as the Rogue River Wars . Nathan Douthit examined peaceful encounters between the whites and southern Oregon Indians, encounters he describes as "middle-ground" interactions, undertaken by "cultural intermediaries." Douthit argues that without such "middle-ground" contact,
6156-476: The cooked grasshoppers were collected and dried. When grasshoppers were served with particular grass seeds the insects were pounded into a fine powder. Visitors to Shasta Valley would join Ahotireitsu during periods of abundant insect populations to collect their own food stores. Acorns were a valuable foodstuff in Shasta cuisine. Local sources of the nut included the Canyon Oak , California Black Oak and
6264-705: The east in the Pit River basin. Not much has been recorded on interactions the Shasta had with them. It is known that the Shasta were the principal source of dentalia for both peoples. There was some direct contact with the Atsugewi though it was probably minimal. Atsugewi informants agreed that they traditionally had many shared cultural traits with the Shasta especially their similar "religion, mythology, social organization, political organization, puberty customs, and paucity of ceremonial." The Madhesi band of Achomawi were known to have had occasional disputes. Villages in
6372-592: The entire Bear Creek and Rogue Valley to white settlement. In the end, from 1855 to 1856, a final Indian War raged from one end of the Rogue Valley to the other. The natives were again forced to move from Table Rock to the Grande Ronde and Siletz reservations. Takelma people The Takelma (also Dagelma ) are a Native American people who originally lived in the Rogue Valley of interior southwestern Oregon . Most of their villages were sited along
6480-915: The establishment of US Army post at or near the confluence of the Trinity and Klamath Rivers. He felt it was necessary to maintain peaceable relations between the colonists and various natives peoples in the Klamath Basin. The government was suggested to model its native policies in Northern California after those of employed by the Hudson's Bay Company in the Columbia Department. Select individuals would be given material patronage which would assist them in gaining prominence among their local settlements. This in turn would simplify interactions with various native cultures as power gradually centralized under amendable leadership. There wasn't
6588-458: The figure to 5,900 total Shasta, inclusive of the smaller related cultures. Kroeber estimated the population of the Shasta proper in 1910 as 100. The Shastan peoples had a diet based around locally available food sources. Many plant and animal species that existed in Shasta territories were located in adjacent areas. These food sources were commonly gathered and used by the Shasta and other regional cultures. The large populations of game animals in
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#17327732628466696-531: The fire pit, with openings in the roof to allow for ventilation. Takelma homes bore structural similarities to the semi-subterranean homes of the Klamath and Modoc peoples to the east, who spoke languages in the Plateau Penutian family, and to those of the Shasta to the south, who spoke various Shastan languages (which may be part of the hypothetical Hokan family). One historical account describes
6804-412: The first white settlement of the region in 1852. The Takelma who survived were sent to reservations in 1856. Settlers and natives lived in the region together for less than four years. Because Takelma territory included the most agriculturally attractive part of the Rogue Valley, particularly along the Rogue River itself, their valuable land was preferentially seized and settled by Euroamerican settlers in
6912-515: The forks of the New River . There were at least five reported settlements inhabited by Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta according to information gained from particular informants. Residents of the New River forks were proposed by Merriam to speak a distinct language from the Salmon River inhabitants. Dixon criticized the idea and presented evidence for the linguistic unity of the cultural group. Merriam's conclusion of there being two differing languages between
7020-540: The former are of yew and about three feet long; they are flat, and an inch and a half to two inches wide: these are backed very neatly with sinew, and painted. The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long; some of them were made of a close-grained wood, a species of spiraea, while others were of reed; they were feathered for a length of from five to eight inches, and the barbed heads were beautifully wrought from obsidian... Their quivers are made of deer, raccoon, or wild-cat skin; these skins are generally whole, being left open at
7128-447: The four Shasta bands had individual headmen as well. While only the Ikirukatsu were reported to have had hereditary succession to the position it is thought the other three bands had some form of hereditarian succession as well. While each of the four band headmen were considered equal, in particularly trying disputes the Ikirukatsu headman would negotiate an end to the issue. Three related groups of Shastan speakers resided adjacent to
7236-420: The invaders although they didn't gain sizable numbers of horses. The first recorded encounter with European descendants for the Shasta came in 1826. A Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) expedition under Peter Skene Ogden departed from Fort Vancouver to trap beavers in the Klamath Mountains. Arriving from the east, Ogden's party was favorably received by Shasta. Ogden was disappointed by the small number of beaver in
7344-550: The large amount of travelling necessary to create treaties with every native group. This meant they were operating independent of each other. McKee was assigned the task of creating treaties with natives of Northern California. He and his entourage created agreements with natives in Humboldt Bay and the lower Klamath River. Later in September 1851 he arrived in Shasta territory. McKee toured the Shasta territories; inspecting
7452-622: The late 1980s, Agnes Baker Pilgrim , granddaughter of Takelma chief George Harney, emerged as the most significant spokesperson for the Takelma. "In 1994, on the banks of the Applegate , the Takelma people performed a Sacred Salmon Ceremony for the first time in a century and a half ... Another endeavor, the Takelma Intertribal Project, starting in 2000, has worked to restore edible, medicinal, and basketry plants through traditional techniques of burning and pruning." In
7560-505: The local Neil and Emigrant Creeks, in addition to the northern Siskiyou slopes close to Siskiyou Summit were Shasta areas. Regardless of their conflicts over the Bear Creek Valley, the Takelma were active trading partners with the Shasta and were a major source of dentalia. Known as the " Ipaxanai " from the Shasta word for "lake", the Modoc were traditionally held in low regard and were seen as without much material wealth by
7668-426: The manufactured goods created by the other nation. Ahotireitsu Shasta considered clothing made by Wintu fashionable and made hats from Indian hemp after their style. Upper Sacramento Valley and McCloud Wintu admired the smooth headgear used by the Shasta. These twine hats were copied by the Wintu, who used material from Woodwardia ferns in their reproductions more often than among their own designs. Originating from
7776-479: The mid-19th century. Almost without exception, these newcomers had little or no interest in learning about their indigenous neighbors, and they considered them a dangerous nuisance. They recorded little about the Takelma, beyond documenting their own perspective on conflicts. Native Americans living near the Takelma but on more marginal and rugged land, such as the Shastan and Rogue River Athabascan peoples, survived
7884-537: The middle Rogue River area around Grants Pass, Oregon ; and the Latgawa in the upper Rogue River area around Applegate , Jacksonville , Talent , Medford , Eagle Point , Butte Falls , Shady Cove , Trail , and extending beyond Prospect and Union up to Crater Lake . The Latgawa relied on hunting, gathering, and fishing for their subsistence. Latgawa dwellings were small brush shelters for warm months and constructed of sugar pine boards for cold months. They adorned their garments with Dentalium shell , and skin art
7992-494: The most commonly used and come from acorns and alder bark respectively. Ropes, cordage and manufactured goods such as mats, nets and clothing were largely derived from Indian hemp . During the winter snowshoes were often necessary to traverse their homeland. These were made primarily from deer hide with the fur left on. Dentalium shells were an important possession for the Shasta. Principally they were used for ornamentation through being sown into clothing, in addition to usage as
8100-587: The mountainous region and shifted the party north to the Rogue Valley across the Siskiyous. Shasta guides accompanied them until shortly before modern Talent . The HBC continued to send expeditions southward through the Klamath Mountains to harvest beaver populations in Alta California. These groups of fur trappers and their families traveled along the Siskiyou Trail which traversed portions of
8208-655: The murder. Bailey and Gay faced no punishment for their actions and the party continued toward the Willamette Valley. Several years later a portion of the United States Exploring Expedition under the command of Lieutenant George F. Emmons (1838–1842) visited the Klamath Mountains. Emmons had been given instructions by Charles Wilkes to explore the headwaters of the Klamath, Sacramento, and Umpqua rivers. The assembled men had departed from Fort Vancouver to Fort Umpqua during
8316-488: The nearby Klamath likely did. Scholars have largely accepted Dixon's etymology for Shasta. Renfro questions its validity however as Ogden used a variation of the term before Sustika was likely prominent. In 1814, near the Willamette Trading Post a meeting occurred between North West Company officer Alexander Henry and an assembled Sahaptin congregation of Cayuse and Walla Walla , in addition to
8424-491: The nearby uplands and mountains, following game and harvesting plant foods as the snow melted from higher elevations. By autumn, hunters and gatherers regrouped with village elders and others along the lower-elevation streams to intercept the fall salmon run and prepare for another winter. With the arrival of the European settlers in the 1850s, the Latgawa and Takelma began to have their homeland stolen. Like their neighbors,
8532-501: The northern region. "The tide of emigration to Scott's River [...] flows due north, sweeping everything in its way..." Redick McKee visited the Scott River in October 1851. He reported that "squatter' tents and cabins may be seen on almost every little patch or strip where the soil promises a reward to cultivation." Additionally he noted the Scott River was under heavy modification by miners. "Every yard almost for three or four miles
8640-608: The numerically largest of the Shastan speakers. Their territories spread from around modern Ashland in the north, Jenny Creek and Mount Shasta to the east, southward to the Scott Mountains , and westward to modern Seiad Valley and the Salmon and Marble Mountains . This area had four important waterways, each of which had a distinct group of resident Shasta. These were the Klamath River and two of its tributaries,
8748-403: The occasional skirmish there was some commercial and cultural exchanges between the peoples. The Wintu were an active source of Tan oak acorns and abalone beads. The Shasta were the primary distributors of dentalia to the Wintu, along with some obsidian and buckskin. A drink made by both the Shasta and the Wintu was a cider created from Manzanita berries. Members of both cultures were inspired by
8856-476: The only trading done between the Klamath and the Indigenous peoples of California . Both the Modoc and their Klamath relatives gained horses in the 1820s. This greatly enhanced their military capabilities which began a period of attacks on their southern and western neighbors. Both the Ahotireitsu and Klamath River Shasta bands were targets of Modoc slave raiding. The Achomawi and Atsugewi speakers resided to
8964-457: The outsiders despite difficulties in communication. Philip Leget Edwards recorded that the cattle drivers were "at their mercy, but they have offered no injury to ourselves or property." A Shasta boy estimated by Edwards to be the age of ten accompanied the settlers for some time. As the group continued north some of the cattle men began to discuss killing natives of the area. William J. Bailey and George K. Gay had previously had fought against
9072-584: The outsiders did not respect the Shasta or their homeland. Introduction to new diseases and fighting against invading Americans rapidly reduced the number of Shasta. The Shasta residents of Bear Creek were active in Rogue River Wars and assisted the Takelma until they were forcibly removed to the Grande Ronde and Siletz Reservations in Oregon . In the late 1850s the Shastan peoples of California were forcibly removed from their territories and also sent to
9180-407: The ownership of the deer. For example, whoever killed the prey had right to its pelt and hind legs. Other reported conventions regulated the divisions of meat in a fair manner and when Shasta were allowed to hunt. Additional nutritional sources included several smaller animal species. Mussels were collected from the Klamath River by women and children that dived for the organisms. During the autumn
9288-459: The people to live in peace, do good, have kind hearts, and be industrious." A common requirement to hold the position was that the individual had to be materially wealthy. This came from the expectation for them to use their property in negotiations to settle disputes between members of their village or with other settlements. In raids on enemies the headman did not participate but negotiated with enemy headmen to establish peaceable relations. Each of
9396-500: The right of natives to owning their homelands. After the admission of California as an American state the topic of relations with its indigenous peoples was raised in the Senate once more. Charles Fremont presented legislation that promoted the forced seizure of their lands for resale to American colonists. He however felt that the natives had legal right to their own territories and had to be compensated for their territorial losses. This
9504-417: The river shrunk in size, leaving exposed populations of mussels along the river banks. Once gathered in a sufficient quantity the mussels were steamed in earthen ovens. Then the shells were opened and the meat dried with sunlight for future use. Grasshoppers and crickets were consumed by both the Ahotireitsu and Ikirukatsu Shasta. Parcels of grasslands were set ablaze by Shasta men. After the fires had died down
9612-693: The same two distant reservations. By the early years of the 20th century perhaps only 100 Shasta individual existed. Some Shasta descendants still reside at the Grand Ronde and Siletz Reservations, while others are in Siskiyou county at the Quartz Valley Indian Reservation or Yreka . Many former members of the Shasta tribe have also been inducted into the Karuk and Alturas tribes. Preceding contact with European descendants
9720-492: The sugar-pine or cedar wooden roof was finally put into place. The okwá'ŭmma ("big house") was a structure maintained in populous Shasta villages. A pit up to 26.3 feet (8.0 m) wide, 39 feet (12 m) wide and 6.6 feet (2.0 m) deep was dug, with a building process similar to winter dwellings employed. Their functionality was primarily for assemblies, such as seasonal religious ceremonies and dances. Dixon incorrectly reported that okwá'ŭmma were used as sweat houses. If
9828-551: The summer and autumn. The White Deerskin dance by the Karuk determined the appropriate time for the Shasta to eat fish. Held sometime in July, the dance was an important event for Shasta to witness and known as "kuwarik". Prior to the event Coho salmon could be caught and dried, but not consumed. Rainbow trout had to be released before the Karuk dance. Not doing so was seen as particularly egregious and made one liable to be killed. Spears were reportedly uncommon for use in fishing among
9936-408: The summer of 1841. During September and October they traveled through Shasta territories by generally following the Siskiyou Trail. On 1 October the party crossed the Klamath River. The explorers visited a Shasta village where inhabitants gave them salmon and sold several yew bows and arrows in exchange for trade goods. Inhabitants of the village demonstrated their archery skills by repeatedly shooting
10044-411: The sword of the whites." Violence and murder against natives were often promoted as the only way to end their "thieving and other annoying propensities." Violence began to erupt across the Klamath River in the summer of 1850. In August it was reported that miners had killed fifty to sixty Hupa and burnt down three of their villages around the juncture of the Klamath and Trinity rivers. At the junction of
10152-422: The tail end." Body decoration and modification were common practices among the Shasta. For example, they employed dyes of red, yellow, blue, black and white in their artwork. These dyes were created from plant matter and natural clay deposits. Reportedly body painting was largely used by shamans and those preparing for warfare. The latter group generally used white and black colors during their war preparations. Red
10260-408: The term Shasta likely wasn't used by the Shastan peoples themselves. Among the Shasta proper they called themselves "Kahosadi" or "plain speakers". Variations of Shasta used by whites include Chasta, Shasty, Tsashtl, Sasti, and Saste. Dixon noted that the Shastan peoples didn't use "Shasta" as a place name and likely wasn't a word at all in their languages. In interviews with Shasta informants Dixon
10368-534: The valley as well. Federal officials consulted with them for what they desired in a treaty with the Shasta. They called for the removal of all Shasta to a reservation placed on the headwaters of the Shasta River. George Gibbs was a member of McKee's delegation and left a record of its activities. There was a repeating cycle of violence and reprisals then ongoing in northern California. Local American militias were reported to be excessively violent in "revenging outrages" supposedly committed by natives. Gibbs argued for
10476-537: The vicinity of modern Big Bend were liable to be raided by Shasta warriors. Bands of Wintu located around modern McCloud, California and in the Upper Sacramento Valley had the majority of interactions with the Shasta. While clashes did occur with Wintu speakers, it wasn't nearly as common as conflict with the Modoc. These conflicts earned the Shasta the Wintun name of "yuki" or "enemy". Despite
10584-430: The winter months, the Takelma lived in semi-subterranean homes dug partly into the insulating earth with superstructures built of vertically placed sugar pine planks. Poorer people also lived in pole-and-bark dwellings, well banked with earth and dry leaves for insulation. Typically the planks rested on two 6-foot-tall vertical shafts that supported a horizontal central pole. Beds of cat-tail mats were placed adjacent to
10692-545: Was Fritillaria recurva . Commonly called "chwau", the bulbs were prepared by either roasting or boiling. Shasta architecture appears to have largely been derived from the downriver Hupa, Karuk and Yurok peoples. Permanent houses were constructed by the Shasta for the winter. These dwellings were built in the same locations annually, commonly near a creek. Klamath River Shasta winter villages commonly had only 3 families, while Dixon has suggested that both Irauitsu and Ahotireitsu villages usually had more families. The beginning of
10800-570: Was applied by shamans upon their buckskins in geometric patterns. Permanent tattooing was performed by elder women who used small obsidian flakes. Tattoos for women were generally several vertical marks on the chin that occasionally were prolonged to the edges of the mouth. Women without chin tattoos were seen as unattractive and targets of ridicule. For men tattoos had an important functionality in bartering and exchanges. Applied in lines on their hands or arms, these lines were used to measure dentalia and beads. Septum piercings were made to hold either
10908-640: Was far from a universal opinion in the Senate as some legislators felt California Indigenous had no legal right to their own homelands. In September the Senate passed two bills that formulated Federal policy with Californian Natives. Three commissioners were authorized to draft treaties with California Natives. Redick McKee , O. M. Wozencraft , and George W. Barbour were appointed and began negotiations in 1851. However, they collectively lacked expertise and familiarity with either California natives or how their societies utilized their territories. The Commissioners eventually divided California into three areas to cover
11016-752: Was firmly in control by American colonists it was speculated to become an important region for its agricultural and mineral potential. In 1852 Siskiyou County was formed from the northern portions of Shasta County. This new American division contained the Shasta homelands of California. The lure of achieving material wealth created the California Gold Rush and drew in outsiders by the hundreds of thousands. The newly arriving miners and colonists had little respect for California Natives and frequently spread violence against indigenous peoples. Miners progressively went north from Sutter's Mill in search of more gold. During 1850 discoveries of gold were made on
11124-410: Was informed of a prominent man of Scott Valley that lived up until the 1850s with the name of Susti or Sustika. This was the probable origin of the term according to Dixon, an interpretation that Kroeber agreed with. Merriam reviewed information from Albert Samuel Gatschet and fur trader Peter Skene Ogden , concluding that while the Shastan peoples didn't refer to themselves as Shasta traditionally;
11232-506: Was more fragmented than the Shasta, reportedly there being no form of appointed or hereditary village headmen. Most knowledge of Konomihu interactions with neighboring peoples has been lost. It is known that despite occasional disputes with the Irauitsu Shasta, intermarriage was common. The Irauitsu appear to have been important trading partners as well. In return for their buckskin garments the Konomihu received abalone beads. It
11340-430: Was pounded into a fine dust and consumed or used as chewing gum. Many fruits were harvested once ripe and often dried. This included Chokecherries , Whiteleaf manzanita berries , Pacific blackberries , San Diego raspberries , and Blue elderberries . Flower bulbs were gathered seasonally to supplement other food stores. Camas roots were commonly collected. Members of the calochortus genus were known as "ipos" to
11448-410: Was practiced regularly. They also bore cultural traits from California, and valued obsidian and Shasta basket hats. During the winters, extended family bands resided in semi-permanent villages at lower elevations often situated at the meeting of major streams, where the spring steelhead runs would provide a welcome supply of fish. From late spring through early fall, they typically spent much time in
11556-660: Was reflected in their neighbors, each with distinct material and cultural conditions. To the southwest on the lower Klamath River were the Karuk , Yurok and Hupa . Past the southern borders of Shasta territory resided the Wintu . They were the northernmost extension of a central Californian culture focused on the Russian River Pomo and the Patwin . To the east and southeast were the Achomawi and Atsugewi , with whom
11664-517: Was repeatedly mentioned in contemporary newspapers. The Shasta and other natives in the north were apparently found to be "more warlike than those of any other section of the State, and bear the most implacable hatred towards all pale faces." By August 1850 there were over 2,000 miners prospecting on Klamath and Salmon rivers. Over a hundred miles of the Klamath River had been searched for gold deposits and portions were occupied by mining operations. While
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