Qin , known in historiography as the Later Qin ( simplified Chinese : 后秦 ; traditional Chinese : 後秦 ; pinyin : Hòuqín ; 384–417) or Yao Qin ( 姚秦 ), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Yao clan of Qiang ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms period in northern China. As the only Qiang-led state among the Sixteen Kingdoms, it was most known for its propagation of Buddhism under its second ruler, Yao Xing , who sponsored the Madhyamakin monk, Kumārajīva to translate Sanskrit Buddhist text into Chinese.
75-722: All rulers of the Later Qin declared themselves emperors , but for a substantial part of Yao Xing's reign, he used the title Heavenly King . Historiographers gave the state the prefix of "Later" to distinguish it with the Former Qin and Western Qin as it was founded during the Former Qin's collapse after the Battle of Fei River and went on to conquer the Former Qin's power base in the Guanzhong . With Chang'an as its capital,
150-659: A constitutional monarchy . Puyi , who had reigned as the Xuantong Emperor, abdicated on 12 February 1912, ending the Qing dynasty as well as the imperial tradition altogether, after more than 2100 years. Yuan Shikai , former President of the Republic of China , attempted to restore dynastic rule with himself as the Hongxian Emperor, however he abdicated the throne on 22 March 1916 after only 83 days. Puyi
225-634: A dynasty usually consolidated the empire through comparative autocracy —examples include Qin Shi Huang, emperors Gaozu and Guangwu of Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang, Kublai Khan of the Yuan, and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing. The usual method for widespread geographic power consolidation was to involve the whole family. From generation to generation, the bonds weakened between the branches of family established as local rulers in different areas. After
300-448: A male emperor). The given names of all the emperor's deceased male ancestors were forbidden from being written, and were avoided ( 避諱 ) by the use of synonyms, homophones, or leaving out the final stroke of the taboo character. This linguistic feature can sometimes be used to date historical texts, by noting which words in parallel texts are altered. The emperor was never to be addressed as you . Instead, one used Bixia ( 陛下 'bottom of
375-572: A marriage alliance with the Northern Wei to protect itself. Internally, Yao Xing also laid the seeds for a succession crisis. He appointed his eldest son, Yao Hong as Crown Prince, but only after much hesitation. He showed more favour to his other son, Yao Bi , who he gave military power and assigned to guard the borders while Yao Hong oversaw matters in Chang'an. Yao Bi attempted to take the throne on three occasions, all which ended in failure. He
450-459: A new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the rulers before him. He called himself "Shi Huangdi", or the 'First Emperor'. Before this, Huang ( 皇 'august', 'sovereign' ) was most commonly seen as a reverential epithet for a deceased ancestor, and Di ( 帝 , OC : * tˤeks ) was an apical ancestor, originally referring to the deified ancestors of the Shang kings. In
525-549: A significant role in the power structure, as emperors often relied on a few of them as confidants, which gave them access to many court documents. In a few places, eunuchs wielded vast power; one of the most powerful eunuchs in Chinese history was Wei Zhongxian during the Ming. Occasionally, other nobles seized power as regents. The actual area ruled by the emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during
600-844: A steppe-forest, but it has been transformed by human activity and is mostly agricultural. In Chinese mythology , the giant Kua Fu drained the Yellow River and the Wei River to quench his burning thirst as he pursued the Sun. The valley of the Wei was one of the early cradles of Chinese civilization, along which the capitals of the Zhou , Qin , Han , and Tang dynasties were situated. The area of Dingxi around its headwaters in Gansu has numerous Stone Age sites from various early cultures. The Wei Valley
675-582: A strong central monarch. Following a brutal succession crisis and relocation of the royal capital, the power of the Zhou kings ( 王 ; wàng ) waned, and during the Eastern Zhou period, the regional lords overshadowed the king and began to usurp that title for themselves. In 221 BC, after the King of Qin completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of the Warring States period , he adopted
750-416: A sufficient period of time, their loyalty could no longer be assured, and the taxes they collected sapped the imperial coffers. This led to situations like the reign of Emperor Wu of Han , who disenfranchised and annihilated the nobilities of virtually all imperial relatives whose forebears had been enfeoffed by his own ancestor, Gaozu. Apart from a few very energetic monarchs, the emperor usually delegated
825-462: Is likely the earliest center of Chinese civilization, and also the location of China's first major irrigation works. Some Chinese historians now believe the Wei is the ancient Jiang River that gave its name to the families of Shennong and the Yan emperor , two Chinese legendary heroes credited with the early development of agriculture there. As "China's natural gateway" to the west, the headwaters of
SECTION 10
#1732765751272900-511: The Battle of Feiqiao , Later Qin won a decisive victory by crushing the main Former Qin force. No longer posing a threat, Yao Xing soon captured and executed Fu Deng, while the last ruler of Former Qin was killed in battle by Western Qin forces in 394. Yao Xing thus unified the Guanzhong, establishing Later Qin as a regional power. While he initially inherited his father's title of Emperor, he changed it to Heavenly King in 399. Under Yao Xing,
975-769: The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) , who later ruled the Qing dynasty as the Manchus , and the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty. The orthodox historical view sees these as dynasties as sinicized polities as they adopted Han culture, claimed the Mandate of Heaven , and performed the traditional imperial obligations such as annual sacrifices to Heaven for rain and prosperity. The revisionist New Qing History school, however, argues that
1050-602: The Luo River , Jing River , Niutou River , Feng River and the Chishui River . In a direct line, it travels due east for 700 km (430 mi) before draining into the Yellow River at Tongguan County near the tri-provincial boundary between Shaanxi, Shanxi and Henan provinces , with a series of major cities along its course including Tianshui , Baoji , Xianyang , Xi'an and Weinan . The source of
1125-602: The Maijishan Grottoes beginning under his reign, and records claim that around nine-tenths of the population in Later Qin practiced Buddhism. Upon reaching its peak, the Later Qin quickly declined due to pressure from its own vassals and the Eastern Jin. Yao Xing ceded twelves commaderies around the Han river at the request of Jin's paramount authority, Liu Yu , in exchange for peace, while giving up his holdings in
1200-474: The Qin dynasty to the Qing dynasty , there were a total 557 individuals who at one point or another claimed the title of Emperor, including several simultaneous claimants at various times. Some, such as Li Zicheng , Huang Chao , and Yuan Shu , declared themselves the emperors, Son of Heaven and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of and overthrow the existing emperor. Among
1275-568: The Southern Song dynasty , political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments; nonetheless, the political fiction that there was but one ruler was maintained. The title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties,
1350-777: The Three Kingdoms , and at what point the Song dynasty ceased to be the legitimate dynasty in favor of the Yuan dynasty . The Qing view, reported to Europe by the Jesuits, was that there had been 150 emperors from the First Emperor to the Kangxi Emperor . Adding the eight uncontroversial emperors that followed the Kangxi Emperor would give a grand total of 158 emperors from the First Emperor to Puyi. By one count, from
1425-719: The Western Yan near Former Qin's capital, Chang'an in 384. Yao Chang initially aided Fu Jian against the Western Yan, but during the course of the war, he feared punishment following a serious defeat and fled to the horse pastures north of the Wei River . At the same time, many of the local Han Chinese and tribal gentry clans had lost faith in the Former Qin and saw Yao Chang as a suitable successor. They gathered thousands of Qiang families and led them to join him. After some hesitation, he agreed to lead their coalition, taking
1500-528: The Yellow River and very important in the early development of Chinese civilization . In ancient times, such as in the Records of the Grand Historian , the river was called Wei Shui ( 渭水 ; Wèishuǐ ; 'Wei water'). The total length of the Wei River is 818 km (508 mi), covering a drainage area of 135,000 km (52,000 sq mi). Some of the major tributaries include
1575-549: The "Mandate of Heaven". There has been only one lawful queen regnant in Chinese history, Wu Zetian , who briefly replaced the Tang dynasty with her own Wu Zhou dynasty . Many women, however, did become de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager . Prominent examples include Empress Dowager Lü of the Han, Empress Liu of the Song , and Empress Dowager Cixi of the Qing. As the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his subjects were to show
SECTION 20
#17327657512721650-597: The 3rd century BC, the two titles had not previously been used together. The emperor of China, like the Zhou kings before him, and the Shang kings before them, was most commonly referred to as Tianzi ( 天子 'Son of Heaven'), who was divinely appointed to rule. The appellation Huangdi carried similar shades of meaning. Alternate English translations of the word include "The August Ancestor", "The Holy Ruler", or "The Divine Lord". On that account, some modern scholars translate
1725-753: The Hexi to the Southern Liang. In 407, he received Southern Yan and Western Shu's submissions, but lost Chouchi's allegicance to Jin. Worst of all, however, was the rebellion of the Xiongnu general, Helian Bobo , in the Ordos. Bobo established the Helian Xia , and for many years, led a war against Later Qin that drained their resources and killed many key generals. In 409, the Western Qin was revived in
1800-536: The Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the " Mandate of Heaven ". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven" and held a mandate to rule over everyone else in the world; but only as long as he served the people well. If the quality of rule became questionable because of repeated natural disasters such as flood or famine, or for other reasons, then rebellion
1875-567: The Later Qin also controlled Henan and vassalised the Western Qin, the four Liangs ( Later , Southern , Northern and Western ), Southern Yan , Qiao Shu , Chouchi and various tribes of the Ordos region. The Yao clan was from Nan’an Commandery (南安郡; southeast of present-day Longxi County , Gansu ) and claimed descent from the Shaodang Qiang . Their chieftain, Yao Kehui (姚柯回), assisted Cao Wei during their conquest of Shu Han , and
1950-525: The Later Qin greatly expanded their borders, occupying areas in the Ordos , Longxi and Hedong regions. Most notably, in 399, they capitalized on Eastern Jin’s internal turmoil to capture Luoyang and several commanderies north of the Han and Huai rivers. In 400, they conquered Western Qin, and in 401, they forced the Later Liang into submission after besieging their capital. Fearing Later Qin’s presence,
2025-517: The Longxi, further reducing Later Qin's territory. When Liu Yu led an expedition to conquer Southern Yan in 409, Yao Xing was powerless to stop him, leading to Southern Yan's demise in 410. He responded with an invasion of Jing province in conjunction with Western Shu and the Jin rebel, Lu Xun , but was defeated. Both Western Shu and Lu Xun were later vanquished by Jin, and Later Qin entered itself into
2100-648: The Wei River proper — formed by confluence of the Qingyuan River with two small tributaries to its northwest — is less than 110 km (68 mi) from the Yellow River at Lanzhou , but due to the sharp north turn the Yellow River takes in Lanzhou to form the Ordos Loop , the Wei and the Yellow River do not meet for more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) further along the Yellow River's course. After being joined by numerous other tributaries just east of
2175-706: The Wei River are also notable in the development of the Northern Silk Road . The Chinese segment of the Northern Silk Road connected Chang'an (then the capital of China ) to the west via Baoji , Tianshui at the Wei's headwaters, Lanzhou , Dunhuang , and the Wushao Ling Mountain , before looping north of the Taklamakan on its way to Kashgar and the routes into Parthia . The Wei River Bridge (Weihe Qiao 渭河桥) featured in
2250-470: The Wei River starts in the mountainous region in southern Weiyuan County (literally meaning "Wei's source"), Gansu province , with the westernmost headwater of its mainstem Qingyuan River (清源河) less than 1.6 km (0.99 mi) away from a headwater of Manba River, a main tributary of the Tao River , which is the second-largest tributary of the Yellow River (behind the Wei River itself). The head of
2325-596: The Weiyuan County town center , the Wei River turns slightly southeast until it reaches Wushan County , continuing east for 20 km (12 mi) before turning slightly southeast again at Gangu County and curves north of Tianshui , the second-largest city of Gansu. After picking up the Ji River (耤河, the urban river of Tianshui) east of the city, the Wei River enters the Mount Long and emerges to become
Later Qin - Misplaced Pages Continue
2400-570: The Western Qiang (西羌大都督). Although Yizhong was one of Shi Hu's most trusted officials, he and many other military generals colluded to overthrow his successor, Shi Shi by supporting Shi Zun after his death in 349. As Later Zhao descended into civil war, Yizhong tried to return west to the Guanzhong with his army, but was defeated by the Di general, Fu Hong , whose family founded the Former Qin dynasty in 351. Thus, Yizhong remained behind to aid
2475-631: The capital for aspiring students. At the same time, he was also an avid believer in Buddhism and heavily promoted the religion in his state. In 401, he welcomed the Kuchean monk, Kumarajiva to his court, where he was highly honoured and became one of the most important translators of Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese. It was also under the Later Qin in 399 when the monk Faxian departed from Chang'an for India to acquire Buddhist texts. Yao Xing built various temples and pagodas, with construction of
2550-433: The chance to attack Later Qin. To deal with the threats, Yao Hong entrusted military affairs to his great-uncle, Yao Shao who had much initial success, but the chaos soon caught the attention of Liu Yu. He began an expedition to conquer Later Qin, and by late 417, Yao Shao had died while Jin forces entered the Guanzhong and reached Chang'an. In the end, Yao Hong surrendered and was sent to the Jin capital, Jiankang , where he
2625-498: The civil bureaucracy wielded more power than the emperor himself. The emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, was always hereditary, usually by agnatic primogeniture . As a result, many emperors ascended the throne while still children. During minority reigns , the Empress Dowager , the emperor's mother, would usually possess significant political power, along with the male members of her birth family . In fact,
2700-517: The commander, Shi Hu . After Shi Hu seized power in 333, he followed Yizhong's advice of relocating the powerful Di and Qiang families in the Guanzhong to live around the capital, Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xingtai , Hebei ). Yizhong and his family were relocated to Shetou (灄頭; southeast of present-day Zaoqiang County , Hebei ), where he supervised the Qiang tribes as the Grand Commander of
2775-571: The culturally appropriate rituals of formally declaring a new dynasty and taking on the Chinese title of Huangdi , in addition to the titles of their respective people, especially in the case of the Yuan dynasty. Thus, Kublai Khan was simultaneously khagan of the Mongols and emperor of China. In 1911, the title of Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet was created to rule alongside the emperor, as part of an attempt to turn China into
2850-831: The design of the 5000-yuan note of the first series of the renminbi , dated 1953, and shows a train passing over the bridge. Construction of the Sanmenxia Dam in 1960 caused extensive sedimentation problems in the lower reaches of the Wei river. The construction of the Baojixia diversion works in 1972 and the creation of the Baojixia Irrigation District, with 128,000 hectares (490 sq mi) of cropland under irrigation have resulted in reduced flows. In September 2003 extensive rainfall led to flooding that caused over 30 fatalities, and temporarily displaced over 300,000 people. Ecological aspects of
2925-593: The eldest son born to the Empress consort ( 嫡长子 ; 嫡長子 ) succeeded to the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes,
3000-646: The emperor was also limited by the imperial bureaucracy , which was staffed by scholar-officials , and eunuchs during some dynasties. An emperor was also constrained by filial obligations to his ancestors' policies and dynastic traditions, such as those first detailed in the Ming-era Huang-Ming Zuxun ( Ancestral Instructions ). During the Western Zhou dynasty ( c. 1046 BC – 771 BC), Chinese vassal rulers with power over their particular fiefdoms served
3075-588: The emperor was referred to in the third person simply as Huangdi Bixia ( 皇帝陛下 'His Majesty the Emperor') or Dangjin Huangshang ( 当今皇上 ; 當今皇上 'present emperor above'). Under the Qing, the emperor was usually styled 'His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty, Son of Heaven , Lord of Ten Thousand Years ', though this varied considerably. In historical texts, the present emperor
Later Qin - Misplaced Pages Continue
3150-451: The emperor was the " Son of Heaven ", an autocrat with the divine mandate right to rule all under Heaven . Emperors were worshiped posthumously under an imperial cult . The lineage of emperors descended from a paternal family line constituted a dynasty , and succession in most cases theoretically followed agnatic primogeniture . The emperor of China was an absolute monarch . During the Han dynasty , Confucianism gained sanction as
3225-472: The emperor's orders were to be obeyed immediately. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility and members of the Imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members. In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different dynasties . Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle , emperors founding
3300-471: The emperor, while still living, often designated a crown prince ( 太子 ). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor , after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death. Unlike, for example,
3375-436: The emperors were known with a temple name given after their death. Most emperors were also given a posthumous name which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzu Ren 圣祖仁皇帝 ; 聖祖仁皇帝 for the Kangxi Emperor). The passing of an emperor was referred to as Jiabeng ( 驾崩 ; 駕崩 'collapse of the imperial chariot') and an emperor that had just died was referred to as Daixing Huangdi ( 大行皇帝 'the emperor of
3450-400: The great journey'). The imperial family was made up of the emperor and the empress ( 皇后 ) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation ( 国母 ; 國母 ). In addition, the emperor would typically have several other consorts and concubines ( 嫔妃 ; 嬪妃 ), ranked by importance into a harem , in which the Empress was supreme. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical composition of
3525-526: The greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs. At times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, she was the de facto ruler. The emperor's children, the princes ( 皇子 ) and princesses ( 公主 ), were often referred to by their order of birth—e.g. Eldest Prince or Third Princess. Princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, and held equal status with other court officials ( 子 ). The emperor
3600-441: The harem. During the Qing dynasty, for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress , one Imperial Noble Consort , two Noble Consort , four Consort and six Concubine , plus an unlimited number of Noble Lady , First Class Attendant and Second Class Attendant . Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the empress dowager ( 皇太后 ) usually received
3675-411: The interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex and that elements of these dynasties differed from and altered "native Chinese" traditions concerning imperial rule. Wei River The Wei River ( Chinese : 渭 河 ; pinyin : Wèi Hé ; Wade–Giles : Wei Ho ) is a major river in west-central China's Gansu and Shaanxi provinces. It is the largest tributary of
3750-518: The last emperor, Shi Zhi , in his war against Ran Min . After Shi Zhi's death in 351, Yizhong advised his sons to move south to join the Eastern Jin dynasty . His son, Yao Xiang succeeded him in 352 and fulfilled his promise. He partook in the early Jin northern expeditions as a general, but due to suspicion from his superior, Yin Hao , he later rebelled in 354. He led his army through northern China in hopes of returning to his ancestral home in Longxi , fighting against Former Qin and Jin forces along
3825-425: The majority of decision making to the civil bureaucracy (chiefly the chancellery and the Central Secretariat ), the military, and in some periods the censorate . Paranoid emperors, like Emperor Wu of Han and the Ming's Hongwu Emperor , would cycle through high government officials rapidly, or simply leave top-ranking posts vacant, such that no one could threaten their power. During other reigns, certain officials in
SECTION 50
#17327657512723900-419: The most famous emperors were Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty , emperors Gaozu , Han Wudi as well as Guangwu of the Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang of the Tang, the Hongwu Emperor and Yongle Emperor of the Ming, and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing. The emperor's words were considered sacred edicts ( 圣旨 ; 聖旨 ), and his written proclamations were called 'directives from above' ( 上谕 ; 上諭 ). In theory,
3975-465: The official political theory. The absolute authority of the emperor came with a variety of governing duties and moral obligations; failure to uphold these was thought to remove the dynasty's Mandate of Heaven and to justify its overthrow. In practice, emperors sometimes avoided the strict rules of succession and dynasties' purported "failures" were detailed in official histories written by their successful replacements or even later dynasties. The power of
4050-401: The original Chinese first-person singular pronoun arrogated by Qin Shi Huang, functioning as an equivalent to the royal we . In front of subjects, the emperor may also refer to themselves self-deprecatingly as Guaren ( 寡人 'the morally-deficient one') or Gu ( 孤 'lonely one'). In contrast to the Western convention of using a regnal or personal name (e.g. George V) to refer to a sovereign,
4125-486: The other Hexi states, Southern Liang , Northern Liang and Western Liang , followed suit. Despite success in the west, Yao Xing was dissuaded from expanding east after a heavy defeat to the Northern Wei at the Battle of Chaibi in 402. The Later Liang surrendered their territory in 403, and in 405, Chouchi also submitted, bringing Later Qin to its peak. Yao Xing upheld Confucianism by inviting famous Confucian scholars to teach in Chang'an and allowing easy access to
4200-445: The principal river in the Guanzhong Basin . It drains into the Yellow River south of the boundary between Dali County and Tongguan County , just as the Yellow River bends sharply east to enter the North China Plain . The Wei River valley has a continental climate, with hot summers and cool, dry winters. It sits between the arid steppes and deserts to the north and the forests of the Qingling mountains. Its natural vegetation would be
4275-454: The restoration of monarchy. Traditional political theory holds that there can only be one legitimate Son of Heaven at any given time. However, identifying the "legitimate" emperor during times of division is not always uncontroversial, and therefore the exact number of legitimate emperors depends on where one stands on a number of succession disputes. The two most notable such controversies are whether Cao Wei or Shu Han had legitimacy during
4350-462: The steps'), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty" and originally referring to his attendents, Huangshang ( 皇上 'imperial highness', Shengshang ( 圣上 ; 聖上 'holy highness') or Tianzi ( 天子 'Son of Heaven'). The emperor was also alluded to indirectly through reference to the imperial dragon symbology . Servants often addressed the emperor as Wansuiye ( 万岁爷 ; 萬歲爺 'lord of ten thousand years '). The emperor referred to himself as zhen ( 朕 ),
4425-416: The throne to him, but after he refused, had him killed instead. Chang’an eventually fell to Western Yan forces, who soon left to return to their homeland in the east. In 386, Yao Chang occupied the city, where he elevated himself to Emperor of (Later) Qin. Despite Fu Jian’s death, there were still pockets of Former Qin and semi-independent forces in the Guanzhong region. A distant cousin of Fu Jian, Fu Deng ,
4500-445: The title as " thearch ". On occasion, the father of the ascended emperor was still alive. Such an emperor was titled as the Taishang Huang ('grand imperial sire'). The practice was initiated by Qin Shi Huang, who gave the title as a posthumous name to his own father, as was already common for monarchs of any stratum of power. Liu Bang , who established the Han dynasty , was the first to become emperor while his father yet lived. It
4575-572: The title of Everlasting King of Qin and proclaiming a new reign era in 384. To distinguish between the two states, historiographers refer to the Fu clan's state as Former Qin and Yao Chang's state as Later Qin. Initially, Yao Chang avoided going straight for Chang’an, which was hotly contested between Fu Jian and Western Yan forces. He submitted to the stronger Western Yan, and after several battles with Former Qin forces, he ambushed and captured Fu Jian, who left Chang'an with his army in search of food. Yao Chang tried to force Fu Jian into formally abdicating
SECTION 60
#17327657512724650-446: The utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the imperial throne, one was expected to kowtow before the emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even for the emperor's own mother, who instead was to use Huangdi ( 皇帝 ), or simply Er ( 儿 ; 兒 'son', for
4725-449: The vast majority of female rulers throughout Chinese Imperial history came to power by ruling as regents on behalf of their sons; prominent examples include Empress Lü Zhi of the Han, as well as the empress dowagers Cixi and Ci'an during the Qing, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. Where Empresses Dowager were too weak to assume power, or her family too strongly opposed, court officials often seized control. Court eunuchs had
4800-422: The way. However, in 357, he was killed in an ambush by Former Qin forces, prompting his brother, Yao Chang to surrender with their army. Yao Chang became a general during the reign of Fu Jian and participated in various campaigns, but was not present at the disastrous Battle of Fei River in 383. After the battle, two branches of the Murong - Xianbei rebelled, forming the Later Yan in northeastern China and
4875-409: Was briefly restored for 12 days during a coup in 1917 but was overthrown again shortly after. Although permitted to remain in the palace, he absconded to the Japanese concession in Tianjin in 1924. In 1934 he was installed as emperor of Manchukuo , a Japanese puppet state. In 1945, he was captured by the Red Army as a prisoner of war, where he was held in the Siberian city of Chita . In 1950, he
4950-511: Was acclaimed the new Emperor of (Former) Qin and waged war against Yao Chang. Yao Chang lost several battles to Fu Deng early on, but brought the conflict to a stalemate with a crucial victory at the Battle of Dajie in 389. From this point on, Fu Deng was unable to launch a major campaign, and Yao Chang soon gained the advantage by subjugating local warlords. In 394, Yao Chang died and was succeeded by his son, Yao Xing . Hearing news of Yao Chang's death, Fu Deng led his army to attack Later Qin. At
5025-467: Was almost universally referred to as Shang ( 上 ). Generally, emperors also ruled with an era name ( 年号 ; 年號 ). Since the adoption of era names by Emperor Wu of Han and up until the Ming dynasty , the sovereign conventionally changed the era name semi-regularly during his reign. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties,
5100-414: Was always elevated above all others despite any chronological or generational superiority. Recent scholarship is wary of applying present-day ethnic categories to historical situations. Most Chinese emperors have been considered members of the Han ethnicity , but there were also many Chinese emperors who were of non-Han ethnic origins. The most successful of these were the Khitans of the Liao dynasty ,
5175-516: Was considered those made by the official dynastic histories ; the compilation of a history of the preceding dynasty was considered one of the hallmarks of legitimacy, along with symbols such as the Nine Ding or the Heirloom Seal of the Realm . As with the First Emperor, it remained very common to grant posthumous titles to the ancestors of the victors. The Yuan and Qing dynasties were founded by successful invaders of different ethnic groups. As part of their rule over China, they also went through
5250-415: Was executed. Members of the Yao clan who surrendered to Jin were exterminated, while the others who fled to Northern Wei survived. Emperor of China Throughout Chinese history , " Emperor " ( Chinese : 皇帝 ; pinyin : Huángdì ) was the superlative title held by the monarchs who ruled various imperial dynasties or Chinese empires . In traditional Chinese political theory,
5325-415: Was extradited to China and imprisoned in Fushun War Criminals Management Centre . He would be formally pardoned and released in 1959, working in a repair shop and as a researcher of literature and history until his death in 1967. The current head of the House of Aisin-Gioro and hypothetical claimant to the throne is Jin Yuzhang . He has worked for various local councils on China, and has no interest in
5400-483: Was forgiven after the first two attempts and was finally forced to commit suicide after the third in 416. However, Yao Hong still had other younger brothers and cousins who held military command and ambitions to seize power. After Yao Xing died in 416, Yao Hong was immediately met with rebellions by his dukes. There were also revolts by the Xiongnu and Qiang tribes, and the Helian Xia, Chouchi and Western Qin all took
5475-474: Was justified. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties. This principle made it possible even for peasants to found new dynasties, as happened with the Han and Ming dynasties, and for the establishment of conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of
5550-640: Was later appointed Commander of the Western Qiang for his merits. His son, Yao Yizhong succeeded him, and during the Disaster of Yongjia that befell the Western Jin dynasty , he occupied Yumei (榆眉; east of present-day Qianyang County , Shaanxi ) and welcomed refugees under his wing. Yizhong later submitted to the Han-Zhao dynasty , and then the Later Zhao dynasty , where he associated himself with
5625-407: Was said he granted the title during his father's life because he would not be done obeisance to by his own father, a commoner. Owing to political fragmentation, over the centuries, it has not been uncommon to have numerous claimants to the title of "Son of Heaven". The Chinese political concept of the Mandate of Heaven essentially legitimized those claimants who emerged victorious. The proper list
#271728