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48-657: The Latin New Car Assessment Programme ( Latin NCAP ) is an automobile safety assessment programme for Latin America and the Caribbean . Founded in 2010, it offers independent information to consumers about the safety levels of new cars in the market. Latin NCAP tests are based in international renowned methodologies, with vehicles awarded a safety rating between 0 and 5 stars, indicating the protection

96-502: A wireless power system similar to that used in RFID tag reading which solves the problem of limited battery life. This also increases the frequency of data transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight, which can be important in motorsport applications. If the sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems, they are subject to mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted on

144-423: A catalyst for encouraging significant safety improvements to new car design. In the world, there are nine New Car Assessment Programs. Eight out of the nine test programs makes their vehicle safety ratings with a count of stars included in the range (1 to 5 stars). One test program, IIHS, makes a four level rating: Good, Acceptable, Marginal and Poor. The differences between those various test programs include

192-887: A driver display which can show tire pressure at any wheel, plus warnings for both high and low pressure. It has been standard on Corvettes ever since. The Firestone recall in the late 1990s (which was linked to more than 100 deaths from rollovers following tire tread-separation), pushed the United States Congress to legislate the TREAD Act . The Act mandated the use of a suitable TPMS technology in all light motor vehicles (under 10,000 lb (4,500 kg)), to help alert drivers of under-inflation events. This act affects all light motor vehicles sold after September 1, 2007. Phase-in started in October 2005 at 20%, and reached 100% for models produced after September 2007. In

240-538: A gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 4,536 kg (10,000 lbs.) or less, except those vehicles with dual wheels on an axle. The final rule requires that the driver be given a warning when tire pressure is 25 percent or more below the vehicle manufacturer's recommended cold tire inflation pressure (placard pressure) for one to four tires. TPMS became obligatory for every vehicle under 3.5t sold after 2013. Later in 2015, every vehicle had to have TPMS regardless of its size. In 2011, Hyundai Mobis successfully developed

288-678: A hazardous state of the tires. This functionality first appeared in luxury vehicles in Europe in the 1980s, while mass-market adoption followed the USA passing the 2000 TREAD Act after the Firestone and Ford tire controversy . Mandates for TPMS technology in new cars have continued to proliferate in the 21st century in Russia, the EU, Japan, South Korea and many other Asian countries. From November 2014 TPMS

336-549: A pending partial-revision to the Korea Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (KMVSS), specifying that "TPMS shall be installed to passenger vehicles and vehicles of GVW 3.5 tons or less, ... [effective] on January 1, 2013 for new models and on June 30, 2014 for existing models". Japan is expected to adopt European Union legislation approximately one year after European Union implementation. Further countries to make TPMS mandatory include Russia, Indonesia,

384-534: A pneumatic tire is closely connected to its inflation pressure. Key factors like braking distance and lateral stability require the inflation pressures to be adjusted and kept as specified by the vehicle manufacturer. Extreme under-inflation can even lead to thermal and mechanical overload caused by overheating and subsequent, sudden destruction of the tire itself. Additionally, fuel efficiency and tire wear are severely affected by under-inflation. Tires do not only leak air if punctured, they also leak air naturally, and over

432-454: A potential threat to safety which was soon followed by the enactment of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 138 on attaching TPMS for every vehicle by September 2007, phased in from 2005. The standard is to warn drivers of significant under-inflation of tires and the resulting safety problems of low tire pressure. This standard requires TPMS to be installed in all new passenger cars, multipurpose passenger vehicles, trucks, and buses that have

480-633: A standard feature on the Peugeot 607 . The following year (2000), Renault launched the Laguna II , the first high volume mid-size passenger vehicle in the world to be equipped with TPM as a standard feature. In the United States, TPM was introduced by General Motors for the 1991 model year for the Corvette in conjunction with Goodyear run-flat tires . The system uses sensors in the wheels and

528-404: A time, which is important for commercial vehicles. Many aftermarket dTPMS units do not require specialized tools to program or reset, making them much simpler to use. The first generation of TPMS sensors that are integral with the valve stem can suffer from corrosion. Metallic valve caps can become seized to their valve stems due to galvanic corrosion and efforts to remove these caps can break

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576-405: A year, even a typical new, properly mounted tire can lose from 20 to 60 kPa (3 to 9 psi ), roughly 10% or even more of its initial pressure. The significant advantages of TPMS are summarized as follows: Further statistics include: The French Sécurité Routière, a road safety organization, estimates that 9% of all road accidents involving fatalities are attributable to tire under-inflation, and

624-567: Is similar to Euro NCAP 2014. The frontal crash test of Latin NCAP is similar to the frontal crash test of Euro NCAP. In the U.S., an NCAP which provides vehicle safety ratings is run by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration . Tire-pressure monitoring system A tire-pressure monitoring system ( TPMS ) monitors the air pressure inside the pneumatic tires on vehicles. A TPMS reports real-time tire-pressure information to

672-610: The Euro NCAP protocols, with the scoring tweaked to the local conditions. In Europe, vehicle safety ratings are provided by Euro NCAP . Euro NCAP provides motoring consumers with a realistic and independent assessment of the safety performance of some of the most popular cars sold in Europe. Established in 1997 and now backed by seven European Governments, the European Commission and motoring and consumer organisations in every EU country, Euro NCAP has rapidly become

720-435: The 2010 child occupant protocol, was used by Latin NCAP's sister programme Global NCAP until early 2022. In 2014, the child occupant protection evaluation was updated to use more modern Q-series dummies in the dynamic test and to include an installation check for the available child seats in the major markets. This resulted in some models being eligible for the maximum five star rating for child occupant protection. 2016 saw

768-539: The EU, various iTPMS have been type-approved according to UN Regulation R64. Examples for this are most of the VW group models, but also numerous Honda, Volvo, Opel, Ford, Mazda, PSA, FIAT and Renault models. iTPMS are quickly gaining market shares in the EU and are expected to become the dominating TPMS technology in the near future. iTPMS are regarded as less accurate by some due to their nature—given that simple ambient temperature variations can lead to pressure variations of

816-534: The German DEKRA , a product safety organization, estimated that 41% of accidents with physical injuries are linked to tire problems. The European Union reports that an average under-inflation of 40 kPa produces an increase of fuel consumption of 2% and a decrease of tire life of 25%. The European Union concludes that tire under-inflation today is responsible for over 20 million liters of unnecessarily-burned fuel, dumping over 2 million tonnes of CO 2 into

864-549: The Philippines, Israel, Malaysia and Turkey. After the TREAD Act was passed, many companies responded to the market opportunity by releasing TPMS products using battery-powered radio transmitter wheel modules. The introduction of run-flat tires and emergency spare tires by several tire and vehicle manufacturers has provided motivation to make at least some basic TPMS mandatory when using run-flat tires. With run-flat tires,

912-592: The United States, as of 2008 and the European Union, as of November 1, 2012, all new passenger car models ( M1 ) released must be equipped with a TPMS. From November 1, 2014, all new passenger cars sold in the European Union must be equipped with a TPMS. For N1 vehicles , TPMS are not mandatory, but if a TPMS is fitted, it must comply with the regulation. On July 13, 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs announced

960-507: The atmosphere, and for 200 million tires being prematurely wasted worldwide. In 2018, a field study on TPMS and tire inflation pressure was published on the UN ECE Working Party on Brakes and Running Gear (GRRF) homepage. It covered 1,470 randomly selected vehicles in three EU countries with dTPMS, iTPMS and without TPMS. Main findings are that TPMS fitment reliably prevents severe and dangerous underinflation and hence yields

1008-589: The cars offer to adult and child occupants. The programme started as a joint initiative and in 2014 it was established as an association under a legal entity framework. Latin NCAP started meeting and 2009 and its first frontal impact results were published in 2010. Ratings were assigned to adult (blue) and child (green) occupants on a scale of zero to five stars based on performance in a Euro NCAP 64 km/h frontal offset deformable barrier impact test. The results showed that many popular compacts showed high risk of life-threatening injury because of structural failure and

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1056-479: The desired effects for traffic safety, fuel consumption and emissions. The study also showed that there is no difference in effectiveness between dTPMS and iTPMS and that the TPMS reset function does not present a safety risk. Because each tire transmits a unique identifier, vehicles may be easily tracked using existing sensors along the roadway. This concern could be addressed by encrypting the radio communications from

1104-437: The driver once the tires are checked and all pressures adjusted correctly. The reset is normally done either by a physical button or in a menu of the on-board computer. iTPMS are, compared to dTPMS, more sensitive to the influences of different tires and external influences like road surfaces and driving speed or style. The reset procedure, followed by an automatic learning phase of typically 20 to 60 minutes of driving under which

1152-586: The driver will most likely not notice that a tire is running flat, hence the so-called "run-flat warning systems" were introduced. These are most often first generation, purely roll-radius based iTPMS, which ensure that run-flat tires are not used beyond their limitations, usually 80 km/h (50 mph) and 80 km (50 miles) driving distance. The iTPMS market has progressed as well. Indirect TPMS are able to detect under-inflation through combined use of roll radius and spectrum analysis and hence four-wheel monitoring has become feasible. With this breakthrough, meeting

1200-424: The driver, using either a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure warning light. TPMS can be divided into two different types – direct (dTPMS) and indirect (iTPMS). TPMS are installed either when the vehicle is made or after the vehicle is put to use. The goal of a TPMS is avoiding traffic accidents, poor fuel economy, and increased tire wear due to under-inflated tires through early recognition of

1248-445: The first major update to Latin NCAP assessment protocols. Both star ratings were now made yellow. Besides minor changes to the frontal impact, adult protection would include a 50 km/h mobile deformable barrier side impact which would make up half of the scoring, and the available seatbelt reminder point would be split into two, one for the driver and front passenger and one for rear occupants. Additionally, scoring three stars required

1296-457: The full seatbelt reminder point for front occupants, in addition scoring four stars required a test and a high sales volume of electronic stability control , and five stars required standard fitment of a side head protection device for the driver and front passenger, and a pole test to verify its performance. Child occupant protection would include a dynamic assessment in the side impact, credit for i-Size seating positions and greater importance to

1344-430: The heavy-duty market specifying some goals that were needed in this market. The SAE has tried to disseminate best practices since legal regulations for heavy vehicles has been lagging. The first country to have TPMS mandatory was the United States of America. In the early 2000s, numerous traffic accidents such as rollovers and tire blowouts occurred due to insufficient air pressure level. NHTSA regarded flat tires as

1392-632: The iTPMS learns and stores the reference parameters before it becomes fully active, cancels out many, but not all of these. As iTPMS do not involve any additional hardware, spare parts, electronic/toxic waste, or service (beyond the regular reset), they are regarded as easy to handle and customer friendly. As mentioned however, the sensors must be reset every time changes are done to the tire setup, and some consumers do not wish to have this added responsibility. Since factory installation of TPMS became mandatory in November 2014 for all new passenger vehicles in

1440-672: The influence tire pressure has on vehicle safety and efficiency, tire-pressure monitoring (TPM) was adopted by the European market as an optional feature for luxury passenger vehicles in the 1980s. The first passenger vehicle to adopt TPM was the Porsche 959 in 1986, using a hollow spoke wheel system developed by PSK. In 1996 Renault used the Michelin PAX system for the Scenic and in 1999 PSA Peugeot Citroën decided to adopt TPM as

1488-486: The inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery change and the RF link must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire, which increases the energy need. A direct TPMS sensor consists of the following main functions requiring only a few external components — e.g. battery, housing, PCB — to get the sensor module that is mounted to the valve stem inside the tire: Most originally fitted dTPMS have

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1536-521: The lack of airbags . Many popular cars scored one star out of five, even some with airbags, like the JAC J3 . The Geely CK was the worst performer, scoring no stars at all. In 2013, the Latin NCAP adult occupant protection assessment protocols were updated. Capping was introduced, which meant that a car whose dummy readings indicated poor protection to a critical body region would lose all points for

1584-428: The legal requirements is possible also with iTPMS. Indirect TPMS (iTPMS) systems do not use physical pressure sensors; they measure air pressures using software-based systems, which by evaluating and combining existing sensor signals such as wheel speeds, accelerometers, and driveline data to estimate and monitor the tire pressure without physical pressure sensors in the wheels. First-generation iTPMS systems are based on

1632-651: The local one or which do not penalize flammability, fire toxicity, lifecycle toxicity, true climate impact, water impact, worker and population impact, biodiversity impact, weak cybersecurity, or heavy or pedestrian-unfriendly vehicles are banned. Despite becoming increasingly more strict, it still has not reached the level of the latest Euro NCAP . It is now very close to the 2014 Euro NCAP protocol (sometimes above it). Automobile safety rating In Australia, vehicle safety ratings are provided by ANCAP whose procedures are similar to Euro NCAP. ANCAP took in 1999 some part of Euro NCAP procedures. In 2018, ANCAP adopted

1680-737: The old robotised R13H test for electronic stability control, a moose test with a trained driver would be included. A full test takes about 2 weeks. The results are grouped into 4 increasingly demanding classes: Since 2020, it is mandatory to show a safety label with all display vehicles in Malaysia. The printed information does not show the presence of anti-lock braking system , electronic stability control , tire-pressure monitoring system , hill-holder , intelligent speed assistance, crash eCall, presence eCall, drunk driving, fatigue, or distraction warning and anti-theft and lack of keyless technology as features. It does not seem that NCAPs less strict than

1728-404: The presence of three-point belts in all seating positions. 2020 saw the combination of the adult and child protection rating into a single rating, determined by the worst performance out of four categories: adult occupant protection, child occupant protection, vulnerable road users and safety assist. Adult protection would include front and side impact and whiplash, and a pole test would be part of

1776-710: The principle that under-inflated tires have a slightly smaller diameter (and hence higher angular velocity) than a correctly inflated one. These differences are measurable through the wheel speed sensors of ABS/ESC systems. Second generation iTPMS can also detect simultaneous under-inflation in up to all four tires using spectrum analysis of individual wheels, which can be realized in software using advanced signal processing techniques. iTPMS systems are sometimes referred to by other names, such as Ford's ‘Deflation Detection System (DDS)’ or Honda's ‘Deflation Warning System (DWS)’. iTPMS cannot measure or display absolute pressure values; they are relative by nature and have to be reset by

1824-589: The range of tests and test configurations, the final rating computation, and the specification of models available in different markets. Since 2010, Latin NCAP has been rating new cars for Latin America and the Caribbean with procedures similar to the ones used by Euro NCAP. Latin NCAP results cannot be compared to Euro NCAP results: Euro NCAP has 5 ratings: Frontal off-set, side, pole, whiplash and pedestrian tests, while Latin NCAP has 2: frontal off-set crash test and side impact test. Latin NCAP 2020-2022

1872-461: The same magnitude as the legal detection thresholds— but many vehicle manufacturers and customers value the ease of use. Direct TPMS (dTPMS) directly measures tire pressure using hardware sensors. In each wheel, most often on the inside of the valve, there is a battery-driven pressure sensor which transfers pressure information to a central control unit which reports it to the vehicle's onboard computer. Some units also measure and alert temperatures of

1920-519: The scoring instead of a special requirement. Points would be awarded for urban automatic emergency braking systems. Vulnerable road user protection would include pedestrian impact tests including adult and child headforms and upper and lower legforms, and automatic emergency braking for pedestrians. Safety assist would include a number of safety assistance technologies including but not limited to seatbelt reminders, interurban automatic emergency braking, blind spot warnings and lane assistance. In addition to

1968-422: The sensor mounted on the inside of the rim and the batteries are not exchangeable. A discharged battery means that the tire must be dismounted in order to replace it, so long battery life is desirable. To save energy and prolong battery life, many dTPMS sensors do not transmit information when parked (which eliminates spare tire monitoring) or apply a more power expensive two-way communication which enables wake-up of

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2016-466: The sensor. For OEM auto dTPMS units to work properly, they need to recognize the sensor positions and must ignore the signals from other vehicles. Aftermarket dTPMS units not only transmit while vehicles are moving or parked, but also provide users with some advanced monitoring options including data logging, remote monitoring options and more. They are available for all types of vehicles, from motorcycles to heavy equipment, and can monitor up to 64 tires at

2064-529: The sensors but such privacy provisions were not stipulated by the NHTSA. U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration regulations only apply to vehicles under 10,000 pounds. For heavy-duty vehicles (Classes 7 and 8, gross vehicle weight greater than 26,000 pounds), most of the above-mentioned systems don't work well, requiring the development of other systems. The US Department of Transportation has commissioned several studies to find systems that work on

2112-437: The stem, destroying the sensor. A similar fate may befall aftermarket brass valve cores installed in their stems by an unwary technician, replacing the original specialized nickel-coated cores. Seizure to the valve stem can complicate the repair of a tire leak, possibly requiring replacement of the sensor. There is controversy regarding the compatibility of after-market tire sealants with dTPMS that employ sensors mounted inside

2160-447: The test. Provisions were included for manufacturers to present knee mapping data to have penalties removed. A point was included in the assessment for having intelligent seatbelt reminders for the driver and front passenger. The requirements for the maximum five star rating were updated to include a basic ECE Regulation 95 side impact, anti-lock brakes, and scoring the complete available point for seatbelt reminders. This protocol, along with

2208-478: The tire as well. These systems can identify under-inflation for each individual tire. Although the systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and aftermarket) can display realtime, individual tire pressures whether the vehicle is moving or parked. There are many different solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile environments. The majority are powered by batteries, which limit their useful life. Some sensors utilise

2256-435: The tire. Some manufacturers of sealants assert that their products are indeed compatible, but others warned that the "sealant may come in contact with the sensor in a way that renders the sensor temporarily inoperable until it is properly cleaned, inspected and re-installed by a tire care professional". Such doubts are also reported by others. Use of such sealants may void the TPMS sensor warranty. The dynamic behavior of

2304-484: Was mandatory for new vehicles in the European Union; in a survey carried out between November 2016 and August 2017, 54% of passenger cars in Sweden, Germany, and Spain were found not to have TPMS, a figure believed to be an under-estimate. Aftermarket valve cap -based dTPMS systems, which require a smartphone and an app or portable display unit, are also available for bicycles, automobiles, and trailers . Due to

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