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118-404: The Elizabethan Settlement of 1559, which set the tone for English religious policy until the rise of Laudianism, was theologically a mixture of Lutheranism , some pre- council of Trent Catholic doctrines, and some minor elements from Calvinism . The doctrine of predestination was to be handled with care at a parish level in order to offset despair and the ensuing disobedience, the seventeenth of

236-510: A Book of Homilies was issued outlining the church's reformed theology in greater detail. The settlement failed to end religious disputes. While most people conformed, a minority of recusants remained loyal Catholics. Within the Church of England, a Calvinist consensus developed among leading churchmen. Calvinists split between conformists and Puritans , who wanted to abolish what they considered papist abuses and replace episcopacy with

354-691: A Congregationalist or Presbyterian form of Church Polity. The Constitutions and Canons Ecclesiasticall were passed by the 1640 Convocation and they included as Canon VI, a pledge to uphold episcopacy and the current Anglican hierarchy. During the First English Civil War Priests and bishops who had gathered in Convocation to draft the canons of 1640, within months, were unable to enforce them. By December 1640 thirteen bishops had been impeached, with another dozen having followed them by December 1641. Within eight weeks of

472-532: A presbyterian church government. After Elizabeth's death, a high church , Arminian party gained power in the reign of Charles I and challenged the Puritans. The English Civil War (1642–1651) and the overthrow of the monarchy allowed the Puritans to pursue their reform agenda, including dismantling the Elizabethan Settlement. The Restoration in 1660 reestablished both the monarchy and

590-560: A sacrificial offering. The lay peers joined the bishops in their opposition and succeeded in amending the bill considerably. The ordinal and prayer book provisions were removed and the Mass left unchanged, with the exception of allowing communion under both kinds . The pope's authority was removed, but rather than granting the Queen the title of supreme head of the church, it merely said she could adopt it herself. This bill would have returned

708-658: A "Church government in exile", providing Catholics in England with advice and instructions. In 1568, the English College at Douai was founded to provide a Catholic education to young Englishmen and, eventually, to train a new leadership for a restored Catholic Church in England. Other leading Marian churchmen remained in England to serve as private chaplains to Catholic nobles and gentry. Many became leaders of an underground Catholic Church. Catholics were forced to choose between attending Protestant services to comply with

826-558: A Protestant liturgy. The Council hoped that by separating them at least the Supremacy bill would pass. Under this bill, the Pope's jurisdiction in England was once again abolished, and Elizabeth was to be supreme governor of the Church of England instead of supreme head. All clergy and royal office-holders would be required to swear an Oath of Supremacy . The alternative title was less offensive to Catholic members of Parliament, but this

944-526: A code of discipline for the clergy called the Advertisements , and the most popular and effective Protestant preachers were suspended for non-compliance. William Laud William Laud ( LAWD ; 7 October 1573 – 10 January 1645) was a bishop in the Church of England . Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Charles I in 1633, Laud was a key advocate of Charles I's religious reforms ; he

1062-521: A conservative policy but was pushed in a radical direction by a Protestant faction in the House of Commons. This theory has been challenged by Christopher Haigh, who argues that Elizabeth wanted radical reform but was pushed in a conservative direction by the House of Lords. Haigh argues that the Act of Uniformity "produced an ambiguous Book of Common Prayer: a liturgical compromise which allowed priests to perform

1180-529: A crime. Prayer books and surplices were torn up; communion tables were relocated and altar rails were burned by the Puritans. The re-establishment of the Anglican Church, would not occur until the Restoration in 1660 when William Juxon , who gave King Charles I his last rites, was made Archbishop of Canterbury. Elizabethan settlement The Elizabethan Religious Settlement

1298-483: A division between the chancel and the rest of the church. Many parishes were slow to comply with the injunctions. Many did so out of sympathy with traditional Catholic religion, while others waited to see if this religious settlement was permanent before taking expensive action. Churchwarden accounts indicate that half of all parishes kept Catholic vestments and Mass equipment for at least a decade. Gradually, however, parishes complied as bishops exerted pressure. Most of

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1416-529: A male heir, Henry applied to the pope for an annulment of his marriage. When his request was denied, Henry separated the Church of England from the Catholic Church and claimed that he, rather than the pope, was its supreme head on earth. Under Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI , the Church of England became more explicitly Protestant , projecting a "restrained" Calvinism , in the words of historian Christopher Haigh . During Edward's reign,

1534-765: A proclamation on 27 December prohibited all forms other than the Latin Mass and the English Litany . It was obvious to most that these were temporary measures. Her government's goal was to resurrect the Edwardian reforms, reinstating the Royal Injunctions of 1547 , the 1552 Book of Common Prayer , and the Forty-two Articles of Religion of 1553. Elizabeth gave her first indication of changes to come at Mass on Christmas Day 1558. Prior to

1652-472: A statute in 1636 instructing all clergy to wear short hair, many Puritans rebelled to show their contempt for his authority and began to grow their hair even longer their portraits ) These conflicts exacerbated the deep polarization within the Church of England , to the extent that Anglicans and Puritans could no longer be united in one church, which ultimaty led to the Great Ejection . Following

1770-408: A visual level. Upon his translation to the bishopric of Durham in 1617, Richard Neile had the communion table transformed into an altar at the east end of the cathedral and supported Laud (then under his patronage) in a similar action at the dioceses of Gloucester . In the 1630s, Laud declared that "the altar is the greatest place of God's residence upon earth, greater than the pulpit for there it

1888-441: A while, it was possible to sustain an attenuated Catholicism within the parish framework, by counterfeiting the mass, teaching the seven sacraments, preserving images of saints, reciting the rosary, observing feasts, fasts, and customs". Over time, however, this "survivalist Catholicism" was undermined by pressures to conform, giving way to an underground Catholicism completely separate from the Church of England. Gradually, England

2006-399: Is Hoc est corpus meum , This is my body; but in the other it is at most but Hoc est verbum meum , This is my word." In November 1633, by act of Privy Council King Charles I established the precedent that all parochial churches should follow the by then general cathedral practice of placing communion tables altar-wise at the east end of chancels . The visual emphasis that this placed on

2124-590: Is evidence she preferred the more ceremonial 1549 prayer book . The Queen's principal secretary was Sir William Cecil , a moderate Protestant. Her Privy Council was filled with former Edwardian politicians, and only Protestants preached at Court . To avoid alarming foreign Catholic observers, Elizabeth initially maintained that nothing in religion had changed. A proclamation forbade any "breach, alteration, or change of any order or usage presently established within this our realm". Nevertheless, Protestants were emboldened to practice illegal forms of worship, and

2242-613: Is in the Latin generaliter , which means not usually, but universally and Article 31 says "Christ once made is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for all the sins of the whole world, both original and actual" Building on this, Laudianism is based in the universality and objectivity of God's grace through the Sacraments, the universal atonement and the free will of all men to obtain salvation in Christ's Church through

2360-487: Is significant since one of the main points of Calvinism is the replacement of the teaching that salvation necessarily came from the Church through the Sacraments, but rather instead came through the individual, and Unconditional election of God, which could not be forfeited . However Roman Catholic practices condemned in the 39 Articles like, the Intercession of saints , Eucharistic adoration , and prayers for

2478-472: Is the name given to the religious and political arrangements made for England during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603). The settlement, implemented from 1559 to 1563, marked the end of the English Reformation . It permanently shaped the Church of England's doctrine and liturgy , laying the foundation for the unique identity of Anglicanism . When Elizabeth inherited the throne, England

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2596-418: The congregations themselves. One reason was that bishops held a variety of non-religious roles which impacted all levels of society; they acted as state censors, who were able to ban sermons and writings, while ordinary people could be tried by church courts for crimes including blasphemy , heresy , fornication and other 'sins of the flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes. As members of

2714-634: The Grand Remonstrance of 1641, called for his imprisonment. Laud was imprisoned in the Tower of London , where he remained throughout the early stages of the English Civil War . Apart from a few personal enemies like William Prynne (and possibly Archbishop Williams), Parliament showed little eagerness to proceed against Laud; given his age (68 in 1641), most members would probably have preferred to leave him to die of natural causes. In

2832-636: The House of Lords as Lords Spiritual , and the Lords in general were opposed to change. In February, the House of Commons passed a Reformation Bill that would restore royal supremacy , the Edwardine Ordinal , and a slightly revised 1552 prayer book. It was not popular with the clergy, and the Convocation of Canterbury reacted by affirming papal supremacy , transubstantiation and the Mass as

2950-656: The House of Lords , bishops often blocked legislation opposed by the Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the Clergy Act 1640 was a major step on the road to war, since it meant Charles could no longer prevent passage of legislation that he opposed. Their removal temporarily ended censorship, and especially in London led to an explosion in the printing of pamphlets, books and sermons, many advocating radical religious and political ideas, like doing away with Bishops in favor of

3068-918: The Real Presence and the Eucharist aligned with Lutheran practice and deemphasized the Calvinist practice of having the pulpit at the centre, which emphasized preaching . Laud was concerned with conformity in the Church and the Puritans who did not follow the services as written in the Liturgy found in the Book of Common Prayer were labeled Nonconformists . The 1630s saw deepening polarization of religious opinion influenced by reactions to tracts, sermons and lobbying. The religious changes Laud and King Charles tried to implement in Scotland culminating with

3186-652: The Reformed churches of south Germany and Switzerland led by theologians such as John Calvin , Heinrich Bullinger and others. In England, however, Protestants were forced to operate within a church structure unchanged since medieval times with the same threefold orders of bishop, priest and deacon along with church courts that continued to use medieval canon law . In addition, the liturgy remained "more elaborate and more reminiscent of older liturgical forms" and "took no account of developments in Protestant thinking after

3304-533: The Ridolfi plot –a Catholic conspiracy to overthrow Elizabeth and place Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne–further alarmed the English government. By 1574, Catholic recusants had organised an underground Catholic Church, distinct from the Church of England. However, it had two major weaknesses: membership loss as church papists conformed fully to the Church of England, and a shortage of priests. The latter problem

3422-555: The Thirty-Nine Articles sets out a doctrine of predestination to life, in Christ , as one of the founding principles of the English Church and omits reference to reprobation . “Furthermore we must receive God’s promises in such wise as they be generally set forth in holy Scripture; and in our doings that will of God is to be followed, which we have expressly declared to us in the word of God.” The word generally

3540-472: The chancel oriented east to west . The injunctions ordered the "holy table" to be carried into the chancel during communion services but at all other times to be placed where the altar would have stood. When not in use, it was to be oriented north to south, the same as an altar. These provisions offended many Protestants, and in practice, the Injunctions were often ignored by church leaders. The Queen

3658-402: The episcopate , thus radically shifting the power-base in favour of the emerging movement. Charles I took these personnel changes even further when Laud was promised the archbishopric of Canterbury . As bishop of London, he had been controlling the printing presses since 1628 and prohibiting discussion of predestination. The York primacy had been filled with a succession of Laudians since

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3776-600: The first four ecumenical councils , it tried to steer a middle way between Reformed and Lutheran doctrines while rejecting Anabaptist thinking. The Thirty-nine Articles were not intended as a complete statement of the Christian faith but of the position of the Church of England in relation to the Catholic Church and dissident Protestants. In 1571, Convocation finalised the Thirty-nine Articles. It

3894-449: The personal rule of Charles I began in 1629 and Laud shortly became a key part of it, in alliance with Thomas Wentworth . Historian Mark Perry argues that by 1626 in private consultations with the king and Buckingham, and in his public role in the House of Lords, Laud was a highly effective parliamentarian and a key adviser and policy-maker. Laud distrusted parliamentary bargaining, and was always determined to resist all encroachments upon

4012-504: The state opening of Parliament . She was greeted by Abbot Feckenham and the other monks bearing candles in procession . Signaling her disapproval of what she considered Catholic superstition, Elizabeth told the monks, "Away with those torches, for we see very well". When the Queen's first Parliament opened in January 1559, its chief goal was the difficult task of reaching a religious settlement. Twenty bishops (all Catholics) sat in

4130-631: The 1549 prayer book to the words in the 1552 book. When communicants received the bread, they would hear the words, "The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life [1549]. Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving" [1552]. This combination could be interpreted as an affirmation of an objective real presence to those who believed in it, while others could interpret it to mean memorialism . In his " Puritan Choir " thesis, historian J. E. Neale argues that Elizabeth wanted to pursue

4248-465: The 1552 prayer book as the official liturgy. It encountered more opposition in the Lords than the Supremacy Act, passing by only three votes. Even this was possible only through political intrigue. Bishops Watson of Lincoln and White of Winchester were imprisoned in the Tower . Bishop Goldwell of St Asaph was never summoned to Parliament , and the elderly Bishop Tunstall of Durham

4366-457: The Chapel services to privilege prayer over preaching, since King Charles's views were the opposite of his father's. In July 1628 Laud was translated from Bath and Wells to become Bishop of London , in moves that followed on from the death of Andrewes. After this breakthrough in church politics, it becomes meaningful to define "Laudians" or "Lauders" as his followers. On the political stage,

4484-465: The Church of England was limited to biblical texts and music sung during worship in the early church. Examples of permissible music included metrical psalms and liturgical texts such as the Te Deum . Although most people were able to sing, worship was dominated by choral liturgies, especially in the cathedrals. During this time, motets were replaced by anthems , and William Byrd 's Great Service

4602-584: The Church of England communion with Catholic regalia, standing in the Catholic position, and using words capable of Catholic interpretation". This made it easier for priests to "counterfeit" the Mass without risking arrest. Another historian, Diarmaid MacCulloch , also finds Neale's thesis flawed. At the same time, he calls the idea that the prayer book modifications were concessions to Catholics "absurd", writing that "these little verbal and visual adjustments" would never satisfy Catholic clergy and laity after

4720-404: The Church of England preached justification by faith alone as a central teaching, in contrast to the Catholic teaching that the contrite person could cooperate with God towards their salvation by performing good works . The doctrines of purgatory , prayer for the dead and the intercession of saints were also rejected during this time. The Mass , the central act of Catholic worship,

4838-517: The Church to its position at the death of Henry VIII rather than to that when Edward VI died. It was a defeat for the Queen's legislative programme, so she withheld royal assent . Following the Queen's failure to grant approval to the previous bill, Parliament reconvened in April 1559. At this point, the Privy Council introduced two new bills, one concerning royal supremacy and the other about

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4956-626: The Daily Office was encouraged and the "Beauty of Holiness" in aesthetics was emphasized against the low church practice of the Calvinists. The services were referred to as high and dry. Subjective means of determining ones state with God or ones vocation were rejected in favor of objective means, and Enthusiasm was not to be trusted. The political theology of Laudianism was the Divine right of kings and that power flows from God down to

5074-647: The Earl of Strafford. Laud was buried in the chapel of St John's College, Oxford , his alma mater . Laud is remembered in the Church of England and the Episcopal Church of the United States with a commemoration on 10 January. His collected works in seven volumes were published between 1847 and 1860 in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology . The English diplomat Sir Thomas Roe , told

5192-469: The Eucharist were sacraments instituted by Christ other rites such as ordination had a sacramental character. The settlement of 1559 had given Protestants control of the Church of England, but matters were different at the parish level, where Catholic priests and traditional laity held large majorities. The bishops struggled for decades to impose the prayer book and Injunctions on reluctant parishes. "For

5310-783: The King in Yorkshire upon his release). Toward the end of his life, Charles I admitted that he had put too much trust in Laud, and allowed his "peevish humours" and obsession with points of ritual to inflame divisions within the Church: he warned his son not to rely on anyone else's judgment in such matters. Laud, on his side, could not forgive the king for allowing Strafford's execution and dismissed his royal master as "a mild and gracious Prince, that knows not how to be, or be made, great". The Long Parliament of 1640 accused Laud of treason and, in

5428-638: The King, not from the people up to the King. Those who followed it were called Cavaliers and it later became the Tory movement. Unconditional election was the unifying feature of the Continental Reformed Churches, and the Puritans of all types. The rejection and suppression of this view of election led to deep friction within the Church of England between the Anglican and Puritan parties. In addition, Archbishop Laud disagreed with

5546-627: The Lutheran rulers of northern Europe by veering too far into the Reformed camp. "It was worthwhile for Elizabeth's government to throw the Lutherans a few theological scraps, and the change also chimed with the Queen's personal inclination to Lutheran views on eucharistic presence." Historians Patrick Collinson and Peter Lake argue that until 1630 the Church of England was shaped by a "Calvinist consensus". During this time, Calvinist clergy held

5664-538: The Mass to their parishioners. Others refused to conform. Large numbers of deans , archdeacons , cathedral canons , and academics (mostly from Oxford but also from Cambridge) lost their positions. In the early years, some 300 Catholics fled, especially to the University of Louvain . From there they wrote and published a large body of Catholic polemical work to counter Protestantism, particularly Thomas Harding , Richard Smyth , and William Allen . They also acted as

5782-488: The Pope. It also deleted the Black Rubric , which in the 1552 book explained that kneeling for communion did not imply Eucharistic adoration . The Ornaments Rubric was added as one of the concessions to traditionalists in order to gain passage in the Lords. The rubric provided instructions for clerical vestments , stating that until the Queen ordered otherwise ministers were to "use such ornaments as were in use by

5900-778: The Prayer Book of 1637 which was produced under Laud for Scotland led to the formation of the Puritan Covenanters and the start of the Bishops' Wars After the 1640s, King Charles and any of the Cavaliers who supported him, found themselves under attack from the Roundheads . More books were published by Puritans attacking the Divine right of Kings, the most well known of which is Lex, Rex . Furthermore attacks on

6018-523: The Reformation in Geneva was tainted by association. In the summer of 1559, the government conducted a royal visitation of the dioceses. The visitation was conducted according to injunctions based on the Royal Injunctions of 1547 . These new royal injunctions were meant to fill in the details of the settlement and were to be enforced nationwide by six groups of clerical and lay commissioners. All of

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6136-581: The Reverend John Lothropp and the Reverend Zechariah Symmes . Laud's desire to impose uniformity on the Church of England was driven by a belief that this was his office's duty, but his methods seemed persecution to those of differing views. Thus, they had the unintended consequence of garnering support for the most implacable opponents of the Anglican compromise. In 1637, Histriomastix's author, William Prynne ,

6254-533: The Sacraments as means of grace thus, various Reformed theories of predestination were rejected, and predestination was based on God's promise to the Church as the Ark of Salvation in Ecclesiastical Election . Salvation was conditioned on entering the Church through Baptism and remaining in the church and not departing from it, as well as being nourished and strengthened by Communion . This

6372-473: The absentee Thomas Stanley of Sodor and Man ) lost their posts. Most of their replacements were not consecrated until December 1559 or early 1560. Elizabeth chose Matthew Parker to replace Pole as Archbishop of Canterbury. Parker was a prominent scholar and had served as chaplain to Elizabeth's mother, Anne Boleyn . Also, like Elizabeth, Parker was a Nicodemite —someone who stayed in England during Mary's reign and outwardly conformed to Catholicism. Most of

6490-469: The arrival of the seminary priests brought a change in government policy toward recusants. Before 1574, most laymen were not made to take the Oath of Supremacy and the 12 d fine for missing a service was poorly enforced. Afterwards, efforts to identify recusants and force them to conform increased. In 1581, a new law made it treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled with Rome and the fine for recusancy

6608-453: The authority of Parliament in the second year of the reign of King Edward VI". Edward's second regnal year ran from 28 January 1548 to 27 January 1549. During this time, priests said Mass in Latin wearing traditional Catholic vestments. Few thought this was the rubric's meaning, however. Since the Act of Uniformity 1549 which approved the first prayer book was passed in January, it is likely that

6726-900: The best bishoprics and deaneries . Historians John Coffey and Paul C. H. Lim write that the Elizabethan Church "was widely regarded as a Reformed church, but it was anomalous in retaining certain features of late medieval Catholicism", such as cathedrals , church choirs , a formal liturgy contained in the prayer book, traditional clerical vestments and episcopal polity . To enforce her religious policies, Queen Elizabeth needed bishops willing to cooperate. Seven bishops, including Cardinal Pole , Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury , died in 1558 and needed to be replaced. The remaining bishops were all Catholics appointed during Mary's reign, and Elizabeth's advisers hoped they could be persuaded to continue serving. Ultimately, all but two bishops (the undistinguished Anthony Kitchin of Llandaff and

6844-437: The bishop and two justices of the peace . In some instances, the injunctions contradicted the 1559 prayer book. While the prayer book directed the use of ordinary bread for communion, the Injunctions required traditional wafers to be used. There were also conflicting directions for the placement of the communion tables that were to replace stone altars . According to the prayer book, the table should be placed permanently in

6962-549: The bishops to introduce further change. The bishops were placed in the difficult position of enforcing conformity while supporting reform. This was particularly evident between 1565 and 1567 during the Vestments controversy over the refusal of some clergy to wear the clerical dress required by the Royal Injunctions. For many Protestants, clerical vestments symbolised a continued belief in a priestly order separate from

7080-579: The bishops, John Williams , who was convicted of various offences in Star Chamber . Contrary to Laud's expectation, Williams refused to resign as Bishop of Lincoln , and the Lords forced his release, after which Williams supported the impeachment of both Strafford (Wentworth) and Laud. Williams specifically urged the king not to commute Strafford's death sentence, and he was executed in 1641, months before Charles I promoted Williams to Archbishop of York (only to be re-imprisoned by Parliament and then join

7198-432: The college. He graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1594, Master of Arts in 1598 and Doctor of Divinity in 1608. When Laud was going through his exercises as a candidate for the degree of Bachelor in Divinity, in 1604, he contended "that there could be no true churches without diocesan episcopacy". For this the young aspirant was sharply and publicly rebuked by Holland, who presided on the occasion; and who severely reprehended

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7316-403: The congregation, and could be interpreted by Catholics as affirmation of traditional doctrines. Bishop Jewel called the surplice a "vestige of error". In general, the bishops considered clerical dress adiaphora and tried to find compromise, but the Queen believed that the church—and herself as supreme governor—had authority to determine rites and ceremonies. In the end, Archbishop Parker issued

7434-402: The dead were rejected, as were the Roman doctrines concerning the Sacrifice of the Mass. Laudianism was as opposed to the "Papists" as the Puritans. The Sacraments are emphasized as means of Grace open to all who confess their sins and truly repent, and Baptism and Communion were raised over the preaching of sermons. Personal holiness and the necessity of good works are emphasized and taught, and

7552-403: The death of Calvinist Matthews in 1628 and from 1632 it was occupied by Neile , the one-time mentor of William Laud. In 1628, the Duke of Buckingham was made Chancellor of Cambridge University and all predestinarian teaching was subsequently banned. This was supported by a royal proclamation which effectively outlawed Calvinism on a national level. There was also a break with Calvinism on

7670-543: The duke, a change that became clear around December 1624. Laud ascended rapidly to a position of influence in the period 1626 to 1628, advancing not alone but with a group of like-minded clerics who obtained bishoprics. In 1626 he was translated from St David's to be Bishop of Bath and Wells and in September that year he took the court position of Dean of the Chapel Royal , vacant by the death of Lancelot Andrewes . A few years later, in 1633, he became Archbishop of Canterbury, when George Abbot died. He immediately changed

7788-445: The early 1550s". According to historian Diarmaid MacCulloch, the conflicts over the Elizabethan Settlement stem from the "tension between Catholic structure and Protestant theology". There were objections over the prayer book, including certain formulas and responses, the sign of the cross in baptism , the surplice and use of a wedding ring in marriage. Throughout her reign, the Queen successfully blocked attempts by Parliament and

7906-404: The election, settling matters in Laud's favour. Laud became Dean of Gloucester in 1616. At Gloucester Cathedral he began ceremonial innovations with the communion table . By local custom, the table stood in the middle of the choir , as was then usual in a parish church, rather than at the east end as was typical of cathedrals. Laud believed he had the king's blessing to renovate and improve

8024-416: The end of the reign. The Buckingham household employed John Percy ( alias Fisher), a Jesuit , as chaplain, and the king wished to counter well-founded rumours that Percy was making Catholic converts there. In a three-day series of private debates with Percy in 1622, Laud was introduced to argue the Protestant case on the final day; pamphlets followed. He then displaced John Preston as religious adviser to

8142-422: The end, the Queen and the bishops reached an unspoken compromise. She kept her crucifix and candles and dropped her plans to restore roods. In 1560, Bishop Grindal was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London. A year later, the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts, but the rood beams were to remain on which the royal arms were to be displayed. The Queen still believed there should be

8260-428: The episcopacy increased as both issues were linked, because in the 17th century 'true religion' and 'good government' were seen as mutually dependent. In general, Laudian Royalists supported a Church of England governed by bishops , appointed by, and answerable to, the king, while most Parliamentarians were Puritans and believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church , appointed by their congregations, or to

8378-413: The future Primate of All England as "one who sought to sow discord among brethren, and between the Church of England and the Reformed Churches abroad". While he was an undergraduate, Laud's tutor was John Buckeridge , who became president of St John's College in 1605. Laud was ordained deacon on 4 January 1601 and priest on 5 April the same year. On 4 May 1603, he was one of the university proctors for

8496-483: The king, disregarding special interests, and, particularly, legalistic prevarications. There were opponents at court: Richard Weston, 1st Earl of Portland , Francis Cottington, 1st Baron Cottington and Queen Henrietta Maria . Cottington observed that Laud could not keep his temper in Council meetings, and by 1637 Laud found he could not follow Wentworth in imagining their push for rigid policies would succeed. Laud

8614-409: The law or refusing to attend. Those who refused to attend Church of England services were called recusants . Most Catholics, however, were "church papists "—Catholics who outwardly conformed to the established church while maintaining their Catholic faith in secret. Wealthy church papists attended their parish church but had Mass at home or hired two chaplains, one to perform the prayer book service and

8732-474: The leading clergymen were Protestants and former exiles ( Robert Horne , Thomas Becon , Thomas Bentham , John Jewel, Edwin Sandys, and Richard Davies ), and they interpreted the injunctions in the most Protestant way possible. According to the injunctions, church images that were superstitiously abused were condemned as idolatry, but the commissioners mandated the destruction of all pictures and images. Across

8850-867: The least sign of consent to such wicked and abominable rites." By the late 1560s, recusancy was becoming more common. In 1569, the Revolt of the Northern Earls attempted to overthrow England's Protestant regime. The rebellion was defeated, but it contributed to a perception that Catholicism was treason. This perception was seemingly confirmed when Elizabeth was excommunicated by Pope Pius V in February 1570. The papal bull Regnans in Excelsis released Elizabeth's Catholic subjects from any obligation to obey her. Subsequently, two Catholics, John Felton and John Story , were executed for treason. The discovery of

8968-471: The liturgical services of the church. Some modifications were made to appeal to Catholics and Lutherans , including giving individuals greater latitude concerning belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and permission to use traditional priestly vestments . In 1571, the Convocations of Canterbury and York adopted the Thirty-Nine Articles as a confessional statement for the church, and

9086-407: The loss of "the Latin mass, monasteries, chantries, shrines, gilds and a compulsory celibate priesthood". He argues the modifications were most likely meant to appease domestic and foreign Lutheran Protestants who opposed the memorialist view originating from reformed Zurich . In 1559, Elizabeth was still unsure of the theological orientation of her Protestant subjects, and she did not want to offend

9204-647: The matter of vestments. Clergy were to wear the surplice (rather than cope or chasuble) for services. In 1560, the bishops specified that the cope should be worn when administering the Lord's Supper and the surplice at all other times. Other provisions of the Royal Injunctions were out of step with the Edwardian Reformation and displayed the Queen's conservative preferences. These included injunctions allowing processions to take place at Rogationtide and requirements that clergy receive permission to marry from

9322-413: The nation, parishes paid to have roods , images and altar tabernacles removed, which they had only recently paid to restore under Queen Mary. They would spend more money on buying Bibles and prayer books and replacing chalices with communion cups (a chalice was designed for the priest alone whereas a communion cup was larger and to be used by the whole congregation). The Injunctions offered clarity on

9440-468: The older generation of recusant priests died out, Catholicism collapsed among the lower classes in the north, west and in Wales. Without priests, these social classes drifted into the Church of England and Catholicism was forgotten. By Elizabeth's death, Catholicism had become "the faith of a small sect", largely confined to gentry households. Leading Protestants within the Church of England were attracted to

9558-607: The opening of Parliament, the Houses were calling not for the restoration of the Anglican church, but the abolition of the entire ecclesiastical order and its reconstruction in a Puritan mold. During the conflicts the removal of ecclesiastical judges and the abolition of the High Commission meant that the Established Church was unprotected on a parish level since the Church could no longer charge anyone with

9676-604: The other posts went to Marian exiles such as Edmund Grindal for London , Richard Cox for Ely , John Jewel for Salisbury , William Barlow for Chichester and John Scory for Hereford . Those exiles with ties to John Calvin 's reformation in Geneva were notably excluded from consideration. The Queen never forgave John Knox for writing The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women , which denounced female monarchs, and

9794-506: The other to perform the Mass. Initially, recusant priests advised the laity to simply abstain from Protestant communion. However, this stance hardened over time. In 1562, the Council of Trent ruled out any outward conformity or Nicodemism for Catholics: "You may not be present at such prayers of heretics, or at their sermons, without heinous offence and the indignation of God, and it is far better to suffer most bitter cruelties than to give

9912-430: The parish clergy were Catholics. Through the mid-1560s, there were an estimated 800 clergy who resigned or were deprived for refusal to conform. Most parish clergy kept their posts, but it is not clear to what degree they conformed. The bishops thought that Catholicism was widespread among the old clergy, but priests were rarely removed because of a clergy shortage that began with an influenza epidemic in 1558. Music in

10030-487: The patterns of the Continental Reformed churches deepened conflict between Protestants who desired greater reforms and church authorities who prioritised conformity . In the early years of Elizabeth's reign, most Catholics hoped the Protestant ascendancy would be temporary, as it had been prior to Mary's restoration of papal authority. There were priests who conformed to the prayer book while also providing

10148-604: The political dangers of Puritanism, Laud saw the Calvinist movement's threat to the episcopacy . But the Puritans themselves felt threatened: the Counter-Reformation was succeeding abroad and Protestants were not winning the Thirty Years' War . In this climate, Laud's high church policy could be seen as sinister. A year after Laud's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury, the ship Griffin left for America, carrying religious dissidents such as Anne Hutchinson ,

10266-521: The provisions of the 1549 prayer book were intended, even though Edward's second year ended several months before the book was published. The 1549 prayer book required clergy to wear the alb , cope and chasuble . Opposition to the so-called "popish wardrobe" made it impossible to enforce the rubric. The most significant revision was a change to the Communion Service that added the words for administering sacramental bread and wine from

10384-569: The queen of Bohemia that Laud was 'very just, incorrupt...a rare counsellor for integrity'. Emeritus Professor at Cambridge, Patrick Collinson , an expert in Elizabethan Puritans , in 1980 published this rebuke of Laud in his book on the decades until 1625: "the greatest calamity ever visited upon the English Church". In September 2016, following King's School, Gloucester , Reading School named their newest students' division Laud House after him. The pun "give great praise to

10502-486: The religious settlement, but the Puritans were forced out of the Church of England. Anglicans now defined their church as a via media or middle way between the religious extremes of Catholicism and Protestantism; Arminianism and Calvinism; and high church and low church . Elizabeth I inherited a kingdom bitterly divided over matters of religion. This division began during the reign of her father, Henry VIII . After his first wife, Catherine of Aragon , failed to produce

10620-678: The royal marriage negotiations with Spain, James I faced an upsurge in hostility from the pulpit and the press. Although the King tried to quiet such opposition through proclamations, the confinement of offenders and a set of Directions to Preachers in 1622, opposition came from senior figures within the established Church, such as several royal chaplains, Dean Sutcliffe of Exeter, Archdeacon Hakewill of Surrey and George Abbot , Archbishop of Canterbury. Indeed, James reacted to this episode by moving his support to anti-Calvinist churchmen such as Lancelot Andrewes at Winchester dioceses and Montaigne at London dioceses , and at last elevating Laud to

10738-421: The royal prerogative, especially in matters of taxation. His strong positions were the focus of attack during his trial in 1644. When Wentworth was posted to Ireland in 1632, Laud brought his personal correspondence from him rapidly to the king's attention. It is in this correspondence, in 1633, that the term " Thorough " appears. In practical terms it meant the pursuit of ambitious policy objectives, on behalf of

10856-439: The run-down building, but he offended his bishop, Miles Smith . Neile was Laud's consistent patron. Neile sought, but could not obtain, Laud's appointment as Dean of Westminster , a post that John Williams retained. But at the end of 1621, and despite the king's view of Laud as a troublemaker, Laud received the relatively unimportant see of St Davids . Laud became a confidant of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham , at

10974-471: The service, she instructed the celebrant, Owen Oglethorpe , bishop of Carlisle, not to elevate the host . He refused, so the Queen left the chapel before the consecration . In effect, Elizabeth was declaring that she did not believe in the doctrine of transubstantiation. Elizabeth's coronation took place on 15 January 1559 at Westminster Abbey , and there was no elevation during the coronation Mass. The Queen returned to Westminster Abbey on 25 January for

11092-520: The spring of 1644, he was brought to trial which ended without a verdict: as with Strafford, it proved impossible to point to any specific action seen as treasonable. Parliament took up the issue and eventually passed a bill of attainder , under which Laud was beheaded on Tower Hill on 10 January 1645, notwithstanding being granted a royal pardon. As the common hangman of London, Richard Brandon carried out Laud's execution, just as he had, in May 1641, of

11210-510: The standard Latin-English Dictionary, dedicated to William Laud , contained for the first time the word Praedestinatiani , who were defined as "a kind of heretic that held fatal predestination of every particular matter person or action, and that all things come to passe, and fell out necessarily; especially touching the salvation and damnation of particular men". After the Anglican Archbishop William Laud made

11328-536: The title of head of the Church to Christ alone". The bill included permission to receive communion in two kinds. It also repealed the medieval heresy laws that Mary I had revived. Catholics gained an important concession. Under the bill, only opinions contrary to Scripture , the General Councils of the early church, and any future Parliament could be treated as heresy by the Crown's ecclesiastical commissioners . While broad and ambiguous, this provision

11446-534: The views of his predecessors, such as John Whitgift , that the Puritan Calvinists were aberrant brethren, erring but deserving some level of leniency; instead he believed that the Puritan non-conformists presented a direct threat to the establishment and that there was more common ground between Anglicanism and Lutheranism or even that of the pre- Reformed Roman Catholic Church. The 1633 edition of

11564-484: The year. When Buckeridge left St John's in 1611, Laud succeeded him as president, but only after a hard patronage struggle reaching high circles at court. The rival candidate, John Rawlinson , was chaplain to Lord Ellesmere , who was both chancellor of the university and Lord Chancellor of England. Laud was chaplain to Richard Neile , who was Clerk of the Closet . Eventually, King James brushed aside irregularities in

11682-436: Was accused of Arminianism , favouring doctrines of the historic church prior to the Reformation and defending the continuity of the English Church with the primitive and medieval church, and opposing Calvinism . On all three grounds, he was regarded by Puritan clerics and laymen as a formidable and dangerous opponent. His use of the Star Chamber to persecute opponents such as William Prynne made him deeply unpopular. Laud

11800-732: Was addressed by establishing seminaries to train and ordain English priests. In addition to the English College at Douai, a seminary was established at Rome , the Collegium Anglorum or English College , and two more were established in Spain in Valladolid and in Seville . Between 1574 and 1603, 600 Catholic priests were sent to England. In 1580, the first Jesuit priests came to England. The Queen's excommunication and

11918-405: Was almost 60 years old when he became archbishop and, having waited for a decade to replace George Abbot, was no longer prepared to compromise on any aspect of his policy. Abbot's chaplains had licensed Histriomastix for publication in 1630; the book which attacked English theatre and Christmas celebrations, among others, had caused scandal when it appeared in late 1632. One of Laud's early moves

12036-532: Was arrested by Parliament in 1640 and executed towards the end of the First English Civil War in January 1645. Laud believed in episcopalianism , or rule by bishops. " Laudianism " was a reform movement that emphasised liturgical ceremony and clerical hierarchy, enforcing uniformity within the Church of England, as outlined by Charles. Its often highly ritualistic aspects prefigure what are now known as high church views. In theology, Laud

12154-491: Was bitterly divided between Catholics and Protestants as a result of various religious changes initiated by Henry VIII , Edward VI and Mary I . Henry VIII had broken from the Catholic Church and the authority of the Pope , becoming the supreme head of the Church of England . During Edward's reign, the Church of England adopted a Reformed theology and liturgy. In Mary's reign, these religious policies were reversed, England

12272-406: Was born at Reading, Berkshire , on 7 October 1573, the only son of William Laud, a clothier, and Lucy, born Webbe, widow of John Robinson, another clothier of the town, and sister of Sir William Webbe , Lord Mayor of London . He was educated at Reading School and on 17 October 1589 matriculated to St John's College, Oxford , where he was taught by Thomas Holland . In 1593 he became a fellow of

12390-482: Was composed for the royal chapel and cathedrals. Parish churches tended to have less music as Puritan influences argued against using of funds to pay for choristers. Churches employed singers for special occasions, which might be paid with money, wine, or ale and bread. The impressment of boys for service as singers in St. Paul's Cathedral and the royal chapel continued during this period. Devotional singing at home

12508-458: Was condemned as idolatry and replaced with a Protestant communion service, a reminder of Christ's crucifixion . Christ's Real Presence in the Eucharist was no longer explained by the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation ; instead, the 1552 Book of Common Prayer promoted the Reformed teaching of Christ's spiritual presence . The veneration of religious images ( icons , roods , statues) and relics were suppressed, and iconoclasm

12626-494: Was convicted of seditious libel along with John Bastwick and Henry Burton , and had their ears cropped and faces branded. Prynne reinterpreted the "SL" ("Seditious Libeller") branded on his forehead as " Stigmata Laudis". This led to popular discontent, particularly in London, and in May 1640 a large armed mob and attacking Lambeth Palace in the hope of capturing the Archbishop. Laud also moved to silence his critic among

12744-599: Was disappointed by the extreme iconoclasm of the Protestants during the visitations. In October 1559, she ordered that a crucifix and candlesticks be placed on the communion table in the Chapel Royal . Later, she decided that roods should be restored in parish churches. Elizabeth's bishops protested both moves as revivals of idolatry, arguing that all images were forbidden by the Second Commandment . In

12862-438: Was excused from attending on account of age. The Act of Uniformity required church attendance on Sundays and holy days and imposed fines for each day absent. It authorized the 1559 prayer book , which effectively restored the 1552 prayer book with some modifications. The Litany in the 1552 book had denounced "the bishop of Rome, and all his detestable enormities". The revised Book of Common Prayer removed this denunciation of

12980-815: Was given statutory force by the Subscription Act , which required all new ministers to affirm their agreement with this confessional statement. With the Queen's approval, Convocation also issued a second Book of Homilies with sermons on 20 topics. One, "Of the Worthy Receiving of the Sacrament", added more detail to the church's doctrine of the Eucharist, which was described as "spiritual food" and "a ghostly substance and not carnal" made real by faith. This receptionist view had much in common with John Calvin's Eucharistic theology. "Of Common Prayer and Sacraments" taught that although only baptism and

13098-406: Was increased to £20 per month (50 times an artisan 's wage). Afterwards, executions of Catholic priests became more common, and in 1585, it became treason for a Catholic priest to enter the country, as well as for anyone to aid or shelter him. The persecution of 1581–1592 changed the nature of Catholicism in England. The seminary priests were dependent on the gentry families of southern England. As

13216-474: Was meant to reassure Catholics that they would have some protection. The bill easily passed the House of Commons. In the House of Lords, all the bishops voted against it, but they were joined by only one lay peer. The Act of Supremacy became law. Another bill introduced to the same Parliament with the intent to return Protestant practices to legal dominance was the Uniformity bill, which sought to restore

13334-474: Was re-united with the Catholic Church and Protestantism was suppressed. The Elizabethan Settlement was an attempt to end this religious turmoil. The Act of Supremacy of 1558 re-established the Church of England's independence from Rome. Parliament conferred on Elizabeth the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England . The Act of Uniformity 1558 re-introduced the Book of Common Prayer , which contained

13452-774: Was sanctioned by the government. Mary I , Elizabeth's half-sister, became queen in 1553. She reversed the religious innovations introduced by her father and brother. Under Mary's rule, England returned to the Catholic Church and recognised the pope's authority. Mary died in November 1558 without a Catholic heir, leaving the throne to the Protestant Elizabeth. Elizabeth's religious views were Protestant, though "peculiarly conservative". She also kept many of her religious views private, which can make it difficult to determine what she believed. She disliked married clergy, held Lutheran views on Eucharistic presence , and there

13570-563: Was shared between family and friends. By far the most popular and reprinted metrical Psalter was Thomas Sternhold 's Whole book of Psalms . Although it was not legally required, it was traditional for virtually all Protestant churches and was also used at home. The Elizabethan settlement was further consolidated by the adoption of a moderately Protestant doctrinal statement called the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion . While affirming traditional Christian teaching as defined by

13688-493: Was to bring in his own men as censors: Samuel Baker (who was chaplain to William Juxon ), William Bray and Matthew Weeks. The operations of the censors, including William Haywood who joined them, became a focus of the Long Parliament as soon as it was convened in November 1640, and Laud ultimately had to answer for Haywood at his own trial. Whereas Wentworth (who became the Earl of Strafford in early 1640) saw

13806-433: Was transformed into a Protestant country as the prayer book shaped Elizabethan religious life. By the 1580s, conformist Protestants (termed "parish anglicans" by Christopher Haigh and "Prayer Book protestants" by Judith Maltby ) were becoming a majority. Efforts to introduce further religious reforms through Parliament or by means of Convocation were consistently blocked by the Queen. The Church of England's refusal to adopt

13924-429: Was unlikely to have been the only reason for the alteration. It was also a concession to the Queen's Protestant supporters who objected to "supreme head" on theological grounds and who had concerns about a female leading the Church. John Calvin , an influential Continental reformer, had called Henry VIII's claim to supreme headship blasphemy . Thomas Sampson , a Marian exile , believed that "All scripture seems to assign

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