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95-397: The dandy-horse was a two-wheeled vehicle, with both wheels in line, propelled by the rider pushing along the ground with the feet as in regular walking or running. The front wheel and handlebar assembly was hinged to allow steering. The dandy horse was capable of more than doubling the average walking speed, to around 10 mph (16 km/h) on level ground. Drais was inspired, at least in part, by

190-478: A hajji and killing him. This is expressed in a poem written around 1830: Bunyi bahananya sangat berjabuh Ditempuh air timpa habu Berteriak memanggil anak dan ibu Disangkanya dunia menjadi kelabu Asalnya konon Allah Taala marah Perbuatan sultan Raja Tambora Membunuh tuan haji menumpahkan darah Kuranglah pikir dan kira-kira Its noise reverberated loudly Torrents of water mixed with ash descended Children and mothers screamed and cried Believing

285-570: A biome classification, as climate is a major influence on life in a region. One of the most used is the Köppen climate classification scheme first developed in 1899. There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on

380-514: A seismograph . There has been no significant increase in seismic activity since the 1880 eruption. Monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera, with a focus on the parasitic cone Doro Api Toi . The directorate created a disaster mitigation map for Mount Tambora, which designates two zones for an eruption: a dangerous zone and a cautious zone. The dangerous zone identifies areas that would be directly affected by pyroclastic flows, lava flows or pyroclastic falls. It includes areas such as

475-467: A "dry fog", was observed in the northeastern United States. It was not dispersed by wind or rainfall, and it reddened and dimmed sunlight to an extent that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Areas of the northern hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions and 1816 became known as the " year without a summer ". Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F), enough to cause significant agricultural problems around

570-526: A 30-year period. A 30-year period is used as it is long enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation , but also short enough to be able to show longer climatic trends." The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a technical commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting, the technical commission designated

665-525: A broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system , including the atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , longitude , terrain , altitude , land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most widely used classification scheme

760-546: A few cases as the descent down the steep wall is difficult and dangerous, subject to earthquakes, landslides and rockfalls. Moreover, only relatively short stays on the caldera floor had been possible because of logistical problems, so that extensive studies had been impossible. The investigation program of Georesearch Volcanedo on the caldera floor included researching the visible effects of smaller eruptions which had taken place since 1815, gas measurements, studies of flora and fauna and measurement of weather data. Especially striking

855-419: A few global datasets exist. Global climate models can be dynamically or statistically downscaled to regional climate models to analyze impacts of climate change on a local scale. Examples are ICON or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas). The most talked-about applications of these models in recent years have been their use to infer

950-433: A patent for a two-wheeled human-powered vehicle was awarded to W.K. Clarkson of New York on June 26, 1819. However, in 1836, a fire in the U.S. Patent Office destroyed the only surviving drawings, and a prototype of the invention was never built by Clarkson. Dandy horses first appeared on the footpaths of Mannheim, Germany, in 1820. They were heavy and cumbersome, and as a result, riders preferred to operate their vehicles on

1045-454: A single central vent formed before the 1815 eruption, which follows a stratovolcano shape. The diameter at the base is 60 kilometres (37 mi). The volcano frequently erupted lava, which descended over steep slopes. Tambora has produced trachybasalt and trachyandesite rocks which are rich in potassium . The volcanics contain phenocrysts of apatite , biotite , clinopyroxene , leucite , magnetite , olivine and plagioclase , with

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1140-524: A small fleet of such wagons at each corps could be important, especially for dispatches over short distances and for carrying the wounded.” Several manufacturers in France and England made their own dandy-horses during its brief popularity in the summer of 1819—most notably Denis Johnson of London, who used an elegantly curved wooden frame that allowed the use of larger wheels. In the United States,

1235-578: A stormier winter, and the Elbe and Ohře Rivers froze over a period of twelve days in February 1816. As a result, prices of wheat , rye , barley and oats rose dramatically by 1817. This climate anomaly has been cited as a reason for the severity of the 1816–19 typhus epidemic in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. In addition, large numbers of livestock died in New England during

1330-401: A team of Georesearch Volcanedo Germany followed the way used by Zollinger and explored this way for the first time since 1847. Because of the length of the distance to be travelled on foot, the partly very high temperatures and the lack of water it was a particular challenge for the team of Georesearch Volcanedo. Resettlement of the area began in 1907, and a coffee plantation was established in

1425-403: A wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system." The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes " climate normals " as "reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered typical. A climate normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element (e.g. temperature) over

1520-446: Is Nicéphore Niépce 's 1818 model with an adjustable saddle for his 'velocipede' built by Lagrange. However, in the 1860s in France, the vélocipède bicycle was created by attaching rotary cranks and pedals to the front-wheel hub of a dandy-horse. The dandy horse has been adapted as a starter bicycle for children, and it variously is called a balance bike or run bike. Mount Tambora Mount Tambora , or Tomboro ,

1615-449: Is basaltic lava flows . Radiocarbon dating has established that Mount Tambora had erupted three times during the current Holocene epoch before the 1815 eruption, but the magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown. Their estimated dates are 3910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and 740 AD ± 150 years. An earlier caldera was filled with lava flows starting from 43,000 years BC; two pyroclastic eruptions occurred later and formed

1710-615: Is an active stratovolcano in West Nusa Tenggara , Indonesia . Located on Sumbawa in the Lesser Sunda Islands , it was formed by the active subduction zones beneath it. Before 1815 , its elevation reached more than 4,300 metres (14,100 feet) high, making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. Tambora violently erupted in a series of eruptions beginning 5 April 1815, culminating in

1805-562: Is as follows: "Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather", or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in

1900-462: Is discussed in terms of global warming , which results in redistributions of biota . For example, as climate scientist Lesley Ann Hughes has written: "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards

1995-414: Is listed below. The explosion was heard 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) or 3,350 kilometres (2,080 mi) away, and ash deposits were registered at a distance of at least 1,300 kilometres (810 mi). A pitch of darkness was observed as far away as 600 kilometres (370 mi) from the mountain summit for up to two days. Pyroclastic flows spread to distances of about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from

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2090-589: Is located 340 kilometres (210 mi) north of the Java Trench system and 180 to 190 kilometres (110 to 120 mi) above the upper surface of the active north-dipping subduction zone . Sumbawa Island is flanked to the north and south by oceanic crust . The convergence rate of the Australian Plate beneath the Sunda Plate is 7.8 centimetres (3.1 in) per year. Estimates for the onset of

2185-463: Is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food. ... Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang’ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It

2280-412: Is still active and minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries. The last eruption was recorded in 1967. However, it was a gentle eruption with a VEI of 0, which means it was non-explosive. Another very small eruption was reported in 2011. In August 2011, the alert level for the volcano was raised from level I to level II after increased activity

2375-544: Is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint. —Lt. Philips, ordered by Sir Stamford Raffles to go to Sumbawa A moderate tsunami struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on 10 April, with waves reaching 4 metres (13 ft) in Sanggar at around 10 p.m. A tsunami causing waves of 1 to 2 metres (3.3 to 6.6 ft)

2470-603: Is the Flores Sea and to the south is the 86 kilometres (53 mi) long and 36 kilometres (22 mi) wide Saleh Bay . At the mouth of Saleh Bay there is an islet called Mojo. Besides the seismologists and vulcanologists who monitor the mountain's activity, Mount Tambora is an area of interest to archaeologists and biologists . The mountain also attracts tourists for hiking and wildlife activities, though in small numbers. The two nearest cities are Dompu and Bima . There are three concentrations of villages around

2565-569: Is the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. The major classifications in Thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on

2660-406: Is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over historical time spans, there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude , altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. All of these variables change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics . Other climate determinants are more dynamic:

2755-433: The cagebird trade by the local people. Orange-footed scrubfowl are hunted for food. This bird exploitation has resulted in population declines, and the yellow-crested cockatoo is nearing extinction on Sumbawa island. A commercial logging company began to operate in the area in 1972, posing a threat to the rain forest. The company holds a timber-cutting concession for an area of 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres), or 25% of

2850-639: The shoshonite range for alkaline series. Since the 1815 eruption, the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of lava and pyroclastic materials. Approximately 40% of the layers are represented in the 1-to-4 m-thick (3.3-to-13.1 ft) lava flows. Thick scoria beds were produced by the fragmentation of lava flows. Within the upper section, the lava is interbedded with scoria, tuffs , pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic falls . Tambora has at least 20 parasitic cones and lava domes , including Doro Afi Toi , Kadiendi Nae , Molo and Tahe . The main product of these parasitic vents

2945-443: The stratosphere , causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have been used to estimate the ejected sulfur mass: the petrological method, an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations, and the polar ice core sulfate concentration method, which calibrated against cores from Greenland and Antarctica . In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil, described then as

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3040-484: The thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases (particularly carbon dioxide and methane ) determines

3135-584: The 1815 eruption. In 2020, the population of the country reached 270 million people, of which 56% concentrated on the island of Java . An event as significant as the 1815 eruption would impact about eight million people. Seismic activity in Indonesia is monitored by the Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation with the monitoring post for Mount Tambora located at Doro Peti village. They focus on seismic and tectonic activity by using

3230-584: The 1930s in the Pekat village on the northwestern slope. A dense rain forest of Duabanga moluccana trees had grown at an altitude of 1,000 to 2,800 metres (3,300 to 9,200 ft). It covers an area up to 80,000 hectares (200,000 acres). The rain forest was discovered by a Dutch team, led by Koster and de Voogd in 1933. From their accounts, they started their journey in a "fairly barren, dry and hot country", and then they entered "a mighty jungle" with "huge, majestic forest giants". At 1,100 metres (3,600 ft),

3325-495: The Arctic region and oceans. Climate variability is the term to describe variations in the mean state and other characteristics of climate (such as chances or possibility of extreme weather , etc.) "on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events." Some of the variability does not appear to be caused systematically and occurs at random times. Such variability is called random variability or noise . On

3420-928: The Black Sands and Brown Tuff formations, the last of which was emplaced between about 3895 BC and 800 AD. In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its maximum eruptive intensity occurring in April 1815. The magnitude was 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) scale, with a total tephra ejecta volume of up to 1.8 × 10  cubic metres. Its eruptive characteristics included central vent and explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and caldera collapse. This eruption had an effect on global climate. Volcanic activity ceased on 15 July 1815. Activity resumed in August 1819—a small eruption with "flames" and rumbling aftershocks , and

3515-459: The EU's Copernicus Climate Change Service, average global air temperature has passed 1.5C of warming the period from February 2023 to January 2024. Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions and transfer of radiative energy between the atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice through a series of physics equations. They are used for a variety of purposes, from the study of

3610-462: The amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling . The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned. Climate classifications are systems that categorize the world's climates. A climate classification may correlate closely with

3705-439: The caldera and its surroundings, a span of up to 58.7 square kilometres (14,500 acres) where habitation is prohibited. The cautious zone consists of land that might be indirectly affected, either by lahar flows and other pumice stones. The size of the cautious area is 185 square kilometres (46,000 acres), and includes Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, Gubu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages. A river, called Guwu, at

3800-423: The caldera floor from the crater rim. In 2013, a German research team (Georesearch Volcanedo Germany) for the first time carried out a longer expedition into this caldera, about 1300 m deep, and with the help of a native team climbed down the southern caldera wall, reaching the caldera floor while experiencing extreme conditions. The team stayed in the caldera for nine days. People had reached the caldera floor only in

3895-493: The caldera of the volcano takes approximately 14 hours with several stops ( pos ) en route to the top. The trail leads through dense jungle with wildlife such as Elaeocarpus , Asian water monitor , reticulated python , hawks , orange-footed scrubfowl , pale-shouldered cicadabird ( Coracina dohertyi ), brown and scaly-crowned honeyeater , yellow-crested cockatoo , yellow-ringed white-eye , helmeted friarbird , wild boar , Javan rusa and crab-eating macaques . Tambora

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3990-417: The caldera, deep in jungle, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from shore. The team excavated 3 metres (9.8 ft) of deposits of pumice and ash. The scientists used ground-penetrating radar to locate a small buried house which contained the remains of two adults, bronze bowls, ceramic pots, iron tools and other artifacts. Tests revealed that objects had been carbonized by the heat of the magma . Sigurdsson dubbed

4085-418: The caldera, which at 1,950 metres (6,400 ft) is reachable only by hiking. This location is only one hour from the caldera, and usually serves as a base camp from which volcanic activity can be monitored. The second route starts from Pancasila village at the northwest of the mountain and is only accessible on foot. The 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) hike from Pancasila at 740 metres (2,430 ft) elevation to

4180-426: The causes of climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness , evapotranspiration, or more generally the Köppen climate classification which

4275-482: The consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas ). These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature , with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex. Simple radiant heat transfer models treat

4370-557: The context of environmental policy , the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming . In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations. Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in

4465-635: The dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the Earth. Climate models are available on different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km. High resolutions in global climate models require significant computational resources, and so only

4560-423: The eruption to ascend the summit, which was still covered by smoke. As Zollinger climbed, his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder-like sulfur . Some vegetation had regrown, including trees on the lower slope. A Casuarina forest was noted at 2,200 to 2,550 metres (7,220 to 8,370 ft), while several Imperata cylindrica grasslands were also found. In August 2015

4655-589: The eruption, and the notes of Sir Stamford Raffles , Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the event. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on Bali and East Java because of famine and disease, and estimated 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic action and 49,000 from post-eruption famine and epidemics. Oppenheimer (2003) estimated at least 71,000 deaths, and numbers as high as 117,000 have been proposed. The 1815 eruption released 10 to 120 million tons of sulphur into

4750-522: The exact composition of the phenocrysts varying between different rock types. Orthopyroxene is absent in the trachyandesites of Tambora. Olivine is most present in the rocks with less than 53 percent SiO 2 , while it is absent in the more silica-rich volcanics, characterised by the presence of biotite phenocrysts. The mafic series also contain titanium magnetite and the trachybasalts are dominated by anorthosite -rich plagioclase. Rubidium , strontium and phosphorus pentoxide are especially rich in

4845-541: The find the " Pompeii of the East", and media reports referred to the "Lost Kingdom of Tambora". Sigurdsson intended to return to Tambora in 2007 to search for the rest of the villages, and hopefully to find a palace. Many villages in the area had converted to Islam in the 17th century, but the structures uncovered so far do not show Islamic influence. Based on the artifacts found, such as bronzeware and finely decorated china possibly of Vietnamese or Cambodian origin,

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4940-421: The global temperature and produce an interglacial period. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents , variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism. However, these naturally caused changes in climate occur on a much slower time scale than the present rate of change which is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases by human activities. According to

5035-549: The globe. After 4 June 1816, when there were frosts in Connecticut , cold weather expanded over most of New England . On 6 June 1816, it snowed in Albany, New York and Dennysville, Maine . Similar conditions persisted for at least three months, ruining most crops across North America while Canada experienced extreme cold. Snow fell until 10 June near Quebec City , accumulating to 30 centimetres (12 in). That year became

5130-973: The horizon at twilight and orange or red near the horizon. The number of fatalities has been estimated by various sources since the nineteenth century. Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger traveled to Sumbawa in 1847 and recollected witness accounts about the 1815 eruption of Tambora. In 1855, he published estimates of directly killed people at 10,100, mostly from pyroclastic flows. A further 37,825 were numbered having died from starvation on Sumbawa island. On Lombok , another 10,000 died from disease and hunger. Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated that about 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and Lombok, respectively. Several authors have used Petroeschevsky's figures, such as Stothers (1984), who estimated 88,000 deaths in total. However, Tanguy et al. (1998) considered Petroeschevsky's figures based on untraceable sources, so developed an estimate based solely on two primary sources: Zollinger, who spent several months on Sumbawa after

5225-712: The largest eruption in recorded human history and the largest of the Holocene (10,000 years ago to present). The magma chamber under Tambora had been drained by previous eruptions and underwent several centuries of dormancy as it refilled. Volcanic activity reached a peak that year, culminating in an explosive eruption. The explosion was heard on Sumatra island, more than 2,600 kilometres (1,600 miles) away and possibly over 3350 km (2060 miles) away in Thailand and Laos . Heavy volcanic ash rains were observed as far away as Borneo , Sulawesi , Java , and Maluku islands , and

5320-596: The lavas from Tambora, more than the comparable ones from Mount Rinjani . The lavas of Tambora are slightly enriched in zircon compared with those of Rinjani. The magma involved in the 1815 eruption originated in the mantle and was further modified by melts derived from subducted sediments, fluids derived from the subducted crust and crystallization processes in magma chambers . Sr Sr ratios of Mount Tambora are similar to those of Mount Rinjani, but lower than those measured at Sangeang Api. Potassium levels of Tambora volcanics exceed 3 weight percent, placing them in

5415-514: The maximum elevation of Tambora was reduced from about 4,300 to 2,850 metres (14,110 to 9,350 feet). Although estimates vary, the death toll was at least 71,000 people. The eruption contributed to global climate anomalies in the following years, while 1816 became known as the " year without a summer " because of the impact on North American and European weather. In the Northern Hemisphere , crops failed and livestock died, resulting in

5510-456: The modern time scale, their observation frequency, their known error, their immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be considered when studying the climate of centuries past. Long-term modern climate records skew towards population centres and affluent countries. Since the 1960s, the launch of satellites allow records to be gathered on a global scale, including areas with little to no human presence, such as

5605-404: The most common atmospheric variables (air temperature, pressure, precipitation and wind), other variables such as humidity, visibility, cloud amount, solar radiation, soil temperature, pan evaporation rate, days with thunder and days with hail are also collected to measure change in climate conditions. The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate

5700-535: The mountain and towards the sea on all sides of the peninsula , wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until the next evening, 11 April. The veil of ash spread as far as West Java and South Sulawesi , while a "nitrous odor" was noticeable in Batavia . The heavy tephra -tinged rain did not recede until 17 April. Analysis of various sites on Mount Tambora using ground-penetrating radar has revealed alternations of pumice and ash deposits covered by

5795-417: The mountain slope. At the east is Sanggar village, to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages, and to the west is Calabai village. There are two routes of ascent to the caldera . The first begins at Doro Mboha village on the southeast of the mountain and follows a paved road through a cashew plantation to an elevation of 1,150 metres (3,770 ft). The road terminates at the southern part of

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5890-583: The need to develop a form of transit that did not rely on the horse. After the eruption of Mount Tambora and the Year Without a Summer (1816), which followed close on the devastation of the Napoleonic Wars , widespread crop failures and food shortages resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of horses, which either starved to death or were killed to provide meat and hides. "In wartime," he wrote, "when horses and their fodder often become scarce,

5985-745: The origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables . They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores —and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. Recent warming

6080-705: The other hand, periodic variability occurs relatively regularly and in distinct modes of variability or climate patterns. There are close correlations between Earth's climate oscillations and astronomical factors ( barycenter changes, solar variation , cosmic ray flux, cloud albedo feedback , Milankovic cycles ), and modes of heat distribution between the ocean-atmosphere climate system. In some cases, current, historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be masked by significant volcanic eruptions , impact events , irregularities in climate proxy data, positive feedback processes or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases . Over

6175-402: The past state of the climate. It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns such as regular cycles. Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather instruments as thermometers , barometers , and anemometers during the past few centuries. The instruments used to study weather over

6270-465: The past, including four major ice ages . These consist of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo , reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases , such as by volcanic activity , can increase

6365-508: The poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones." Climate (from Ancient Greek κλίμα  'inclination') is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period. The standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 glossary definition

6460-588: The pyroclastic surge and flow sediments that vary in thickness regionally. The eruption is estimated to have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7. It had 4–10 times the energy of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption . An estimated 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of pyroclastic trachyandesite was ejected, weighing approximately 1.4×10  kg . This has left a caldera measuring 6 to 7 kilometres (3.7 to 4.3 mi) across and 600 to 700 metres (2,000 to 2,300 ft) deep. The density of fallen ash in Makassar

6555-420: The second-coldest year in the northern hemisphere since 1400, while the 1810s were the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's eruption and other suspected volcanic events between 1809 and 1810. (See sulfate concentration chart.) Surface-temperature anomalies during the summers of 1816, 1817 and 1818 were −0.51, −0.44 and −0.29 °C, respectively. Along with a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced

6650-496: The smooth pavements instead of the rough roads. Their interactions with pedestrians caused many municipalities worldwide to enact laws prohibiting their use, and in New York City, a law was passed that banned dandy horses from all footpaths and public places. Later designs avoided the initial drawback of this device when it had to be made to measure, manufactured to conform with the height and the stride of its rider. An example

6745-535: The southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone. Climate This is an accepted version of this page Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , and precipitation . In

6840-470: The summit and an estimated 9.3–11.8 × 10 g of stratospheric sulfate aerosols were generated by the eruption. The island's entire vegetation was destroyed as uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts of up to 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) across. One pumice raft was found in the Indian Ocean , near Calcutta , on 1 and 3 October 1815. Clouds of thick ash still covered

6935-403: The summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were still observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event. On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced

7030-587: The team concluded that the people were well-off traders. The Sumbawa people were known in the East Indies for their horses, honey, sappan wood (for producing red dye), and sandalwood (for incense and medications). The area was thought to be highly productive agriculturally. The language of the Tambora people was lost with the eruption. Linguists have examined remnant lexical material, such as records by Zollinger and Raffles, and established that Tambora

7125-489: The thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals. In 1982, the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and these were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990. The 1961–1990 climate normals serve as the baseline reference period. The next set of climate normals to be published by WMO is from 1991 to 2010. Aside from collecting from

7220-474: The total area. Another part of the rain forest is used as a hunting ground. In between the hunting ground and the logging area, there is a designated wildlife reserve where deer, water buffalos , wild pigs , bats, flying foxes and species of reptiles and birds can be found. In 2015, the conservation area protecting the mountain's ecosystem was upgraded to a national park . Zollinger (1847), van Rheden (1913) and W. A. Petroeschevsky (1947) could only observe

7315-551: The trees became thinner in shape. Above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft), they found Dodonaea viscosa flowering plants dominated by Casuarina trees. On the summit was sparse Edelweiss and Wahlenbergia . An 1896 survey records 56 species of birds including the crested white-eye . Several other zoological surveys followed and found other bird species, with over 90 bird species discoveries in this period, including yellow-crested cockatoos , Zoothera thrushes, Hill mynas , green junglefowl and rainbow lorikeets are hunted for

7410-479: The variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth , external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or human activities, as found recently. Scientists have identified Earth's Energy Imbalance (EEI) to be a fundamental metric of the status of global change. In recent usage, especially in

7505-414: The volcanism at Mount Tambora range from 57 to 43 ka . The latter estimate published in 2012 is based on argon dating of the first pre-caldera lava flows. The formation of Tambora drained a large magma chamber pre-existing under the mountain. The Mojo islet was formed as part of this geological process in which Saleh Bay first appeared as a sea basin about 25,000 years BP . A high volcanic cone with

7600-680: The volume of ash emitted: a recent study estimates a dense-rock equivalent volume for the ash of 23 ± 3 cubic kilometres (5.52 ± 0.72 cu mi) and a dense-rock equivalent volume of 18 ± 6 cubic kilometres (4.3 ± 1.4 cu mi) for the pyroclastic flows. Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Between 28 June and 2 July, and between 3 September and 7 October 1815, prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were frequently seen in London, England. Most commonly, pink or purple colours appeared above

7695-653: The winter of 1816–1817, while cool temperatures and heavy rains led to failed harvests in the British Isles. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Demonstrations at grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting, took place in many European cities. It

7790-505: The world had turned to ash The cause was said to be the wrath of God Almighty At the deed of the King of Tambora In murdering a worthy pilgrim, spilling his blood Rashly and thoughtlessly A team led by the Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger arrived on Sumbawa in 1847. Zollinger sought to study the area of eruption and its effects on the local ecosystem . He was the first person after

7885-460: The worst famine of the century. Mount Tambora, also known as Tomboro, is situated in the northern part of Sumbawa island, part of the Lesser Sunda Islands . It is a segment of the Sunda Arc , a chain of volcanic islands that make up the southern chain of the Indonesian archipelago . Tambora forms its own peninsula on Sumbawa, known as the Sanggar peninsula. To the north of the peninsula

7980-448: The years, the definitions of climate variability and the related term climate change have shifted. While the term climate change now implies change that is both long-term and of human causation, in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies. Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time. It reflects changes in

8075-406: Was 636 kg/m . Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was approximately 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) high, one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After the eruption of 1815, the maximum elevation was reduced to 2,851 metres (9,354 ft). The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest and most devastating observed eruption in recorded history; a comparison with other major eruptions

8170-552: Was called by the Indonesians "Doro Api Bou" ("new volcano"). This lavadome probably appeared in 2011/2012 when there was an increased seismic activity and probably volcanic activity on the caldera floor (there is no exact information about the caldera floor at that time). In 2014 the same research team carried out a further expedition into the caldera and set a new record: over 12 days the investigations of 2013 were continued. Indonesia's population has been increasing rapidly since

8265-509: Was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption. This eruption was recorded at 2 on the VEI scale. Around 1880 ± 30 years, eruptions at Mount Tambora have been registered only inside the caldera. It created small lava flows and lava dome extrusions ; this was recorded at two on the VEI scale. This eruption created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera. Mount Tambora

8360-555: Was first thought to be the sound of firing guns was heard on 10 and 11 April on Sumatra island (more than 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) away), and possibly over 3350 km (2060 miles) away in Thailand and Laos . The eruptions intensified at about 7:00 p.m. on the 10th. Three plumes rose and merged. Pieces of pumice of up to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in diameter rained down at approximately 8 p.m., followed by ash at around 9–10 p.m. The eruption column collapsed, producing hot pyroclastic flows that cascaded down

8455-661: Was generated as temperatures ranged from 700 to 850 °C (1,292 to 1,562 °F). In 1812, the crater began to rumble and generated a dark cloud. A moderate-sized eruption on 5 April 1815 was followed by thunderous detonation sounds that could be heard in Ternate on the Molucca Islands , 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) from Mount Tambora. On the morning of 6 April 1815, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java , with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April. What

8550-412: Was not an Austronesian language, as would be expected in the area, but possibly a language isolate , or perhaps a member of one of the families of Papuan languages found 500 kilometres (310 mi) or more to the east. The eruption is captured in latter-day folklore, which explains the cataclysm as divine retribution. A local ruler is said to have incurred the wrath of Allah by feeding dog meat to

8645-533: Was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes . A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature. Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth 's history. It uses evidence with different time scales (from decades to millennia) from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, pollen, coral, and rocks to determine

8740-516: Was reported in Besuki, East Java before midnight and another exceeded 2 metres (6.6 ft) in the Molucca Islands . The eruption column reached the stratosphere at an altitude of more than 43 kilometres (141,000 ft). Coarser ash particles fell one to two weeks after the eruptions, while finer particles stayed in the atmosphere for months to years at an altitude of 10 to 30 kilometres (33,000 to 98,000 ft). There are various estimates of

8835-466: Was reported in the caldera, including earthquakes and steam emissions. Before 1815, Mount Tambora had been dormant for several centuries, as hydrous magma cooled gradually in a closed magma chamber. Inside the chamber, at depths of 1.5 to 4.5 kilometres (0.93 to 2.80 mi), cooling and partial crystallization of the magma exsolved high-pressure magmatic fluid . Overpressure of the chamber of about 4,000 to 5,000 bars (58,000 to 73,000 psi)

8930-485: Was the relatively high activity of Doro Api Toi ("Gunung Api Kecil" means "small volcano") in the southern part of the caldera and the gases escaping under high pressure on the lower north-east wall. Besides the team discovered near the Doro Api Toi a lavadome which had not yet been mentioned in scientific studies. The team called this new discovery "Adik Api Toi (Indonesian "adik": younger brother). Later this lavadome

9025-592: Was the worst famine of the 19th century. A human settlement obliterated by the Tambora eruption was discovered in 2004. That summer, a team led by Haraldur Sigurðsson with scientists from the University of Rhode Island , the University of North Carolina at Wilmington and the Indonesian Directorate of Volcanology began an archaeological dig in Tambora. Over six weeks, they unearthed evidence of habitation about 25 kilometres (16 mi) west of

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