103-518: Lay's ( / l eɪ z / ) is a brand of potato chips with different flavors, as well as the name of the company that founded the chip brand in the United States. The brand is also referred to as Frito-Lay , as both Lay's and Fritos are brands sold by the Frito-Lay company, which has been a wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo since 1965. Frito-Lay primarily uses the brand name "Lay's" in
206-451: A mass-market product . Today, chips are packaged in plastic bags, with nitrogen gas blown in prior to sealing to lengthen shelf life, and provide protection against crushing. Chips were long made in a batch process , where the potato slices are rinsed with cold water to release starch, fried at a low temperature of 300 °F (150 °C), and continuously raked to prevent them from sticking together. Industrial advances resulted in
309-448: A cofactor for the following enzymes : As an antioxidant, ascorbate scavenges reactive oxygen and nitrogen compounds, thus neutralizing the potential tissue damage of these free radical compounds. Dehydroascorbate, the oxidized form, is then recycled back to ascorbate by endogenous antioxidants such as glutathione . In the eye, ascorbate is thought to protect against photolytically generated free-radical damage; higher plasma ascorbate
412-536: A crisp". Sweet potato chips are eaten in Korea, New Zealand, and Japan; parsnip, beetroot , and carrot crisps are available in the United Kingdom. India is famous for a large number of localized 'chips shops', selling not only potato chips, but also other varieties such as plantain chips, tapioca chips, yam chips, and even carrot chips. Plantain chips, also known as chifles or tostones , are also sold in
515-404: A deficiency state, and any enzyme cofactor or other physiological function affected by administration of vitamin C, orally or injected, in excess of normal requirements. At normal physiological concentrations, vitamin C serves as an enzyme substrate or cofactor and an electron donor antioxidant. The enzymatic functions include the synthesis of collagen , carnitine , and neurotransmitters ;
618-482: A definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews often reporting conflicting results. No effect of vitamin C supplementation reported for overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines and on
721-403: A food sample such as fruit juice can be calculated by measuring the volume of the sample required to decolorize a solution of dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and then calibrating the results by comparison with a known concentration of vitamin C. Plasma vitamin C is the most widely applied test for vitamin C status. Adequate levels are defined as near 50 μmol/L. Hypovitaminosis of vitamin C
824-467: A fried potato purée-based dough are known as "batata chips" ("potato chips"), or just "chips" . Most potato chips contain high levels of sodium , from salt . This has been linked to health issues such as high blood pressure . However, researchers at Queen Mary University of London in 2004 have noted that a small "bag of ready-salted crisps" contains less salt than a serving of many breakfast cereals, including "every brand of cornflakes on sale in
927-573: A gene for a synthesis enzyme has mutations that render it dysfunctional. Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and in 1933, was the first vitamin to be chemically produced . Partly for its discovery, Albert Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The name "vitamin C" always refers to the l -enantiomer of ascorbic acid and its oxidized form, dehydroascorbate (DHA). Therefore, unless written otherwise, "ascorbate" and "ascorbic acid" refer in
1030-554: A large part of the snack food and convenience food market in Western countries. The global potato chip market generated total revenue of US$ 16.49 billion in 2005. This accounted for 35.5% of the total savory snacks market in that year (which was $ 46.1 billion overall). The earliest known recipe for something similar to today's potato chips is in the English cook William Kitchiner 's book The Cook's Oracle published in 1817, which
1133-574: A multi-vitamin/mineral supplement that included vitamin C, and that for these people total consumption was between 300 and 400 mg/d. In 2000, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences set a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The amount was chosen because human trials had reported diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disturbances at intakes of greater than 3,000 mg/day. This
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#17327876160501236-439: A name that persisted into the mid-twentieth century. A version of this story was popularized in a 1973 national advertising campaign by St. Regis Paper Company which manufactured packaging for chips, claiming that Crum's customer was Cornelius Vanderbilt . Crum was already renowned as a chef at the time, and he owned a lakeside restaurant by 1860 which he called Crum's House. The "Saratoga Chips" brand name still exists today. In
1339-457: A national rollout in 1994. In the mid- to late 1990s, Lay's introduced a lower- calorie baked variety, and a fat-free variety ( Lay's WOW chips ) that contained the fat substitute olestra . In the 2000s, the company introduced “kettle-cooked” varieties, as well as a more highly processed variety ( Lay's Stax ) that was intended to compete with Pringles , and several differently flavored varieties. In 2012, Frito-Lay products comprised 59% of
1442-518: A number of celebrity endorsers. Annual revenues for Frito-Lay exceeded $ 180 million by 1965, when the company had more than 8,000 employees and 46 manufacturing plants. In 1965, Frito-Lay merged with the Pepsi-Cola Company to form PepsiCo , Inc. In 1991, the company introduced a new formulation of their chip that was crisper and kept fresher longer. Shortly thereafter, the company introduced the "Wavy Lay's" products to grocery shelves, with
1545-532: A premium, "gourmet" item. Kettle chips are thicker and the surface starch is not rinsed off, resulting in a style of chip called "hard-bite". Little consistency exists in the English-speaking world for the name of this food. North American English uses "chips", though Canadians may also call French fries, especially thick ones, "chips" as well. "Crisps" may be used for thin fried or baked products made from potato paste. An example of this type of snack
1648-427: A sequence of enzyme -driven steps, which convert monosaccharides to vitamin C. Yeasts do not make l -ascorbic acid but rather its stereoisomer , erythorbic acid . In plants, synthesis is accomplished through the conversion of mannose or galactose to ascorbic acid. In animals, the starting material is glucose . In some species that synthesize ascorbate in the liver (including mammals and perching birds ),
1751-587: A settlement with Frito-Lay , Kettle Foods , and Lance Inc. , the makers of Cape Cod Potato Chips , for violating the state's Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act . The state had alleged in 2005 that potato chips from these companies failed to document that they contained high levels of acrylamide, which is listed by California since the 1990s as a carcinogen . These companies paid fines and agreed to reduce acrylamide levels to be under 275 parts per billion. Many potato chip manufacturers attempt to remove burned and thus potentially acrylamide-rich chips before
1854-543: A shift to production by a continuous process , running the chips through a vat of hot oil and drying them in a conveyor process. Some small producers continued to use a batch process, notably in Maui . In 1980, inspired by the Maui Chip, an entrepreneur started Cape Cod Potato Chips to produce thicker, batch-cooked "Hawaiian style" potato chips, which came to be known as kettle-style (US) or hand-cooked (UK) chips and became
1957-409: A short time afterward from an evolutionary perspective, the infraorder Tarsiiformes , whose only remaining family is that of the tarsier ( Tarsiidae ), branched off from the other haplorrhines. Since tarsiers also cannot make vitamin C, this implies the mutation had already occurred, and thus must have occurred between these two marker points (63 to 58 million years ago). It has also been noted that
2060-424: A similar effect in food despite their lack of efficacy in humans. They include erythorbic acid and its sodium salt (E315, E316). Pharmacodynamics is the study of how the drug – in this instance vitamin C – affects the organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how an organism affects the drug. Pharmacodynamics includes enzymes for which vitamin C is a cofactor, with function potentially compromised in
2163-562: Is Pringles , which are marketed as "potato crisps" even in the United States. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, "crisps" are potato chips which are eaten at room temperature, whilst "chips" are similar to french fries (as in " fish and chips ") and are served hot. In Australia, some parts of South Africa, New Zealand, India, and the West Indies , especially in Barbados, both forms of potato product are simply known as "chips", as are
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#17327876160502266-417: Is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription dietary supplement . As a therapy, it is used to prevent and treat scurvy , a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency . Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue , the formation of collagen , and
2369-527: Is a well-established mechanism of iron reduction and a step obligatory for iron uptake. All plants synthesize ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid functions as a cofactor for enzymes involved in photosynthesis, synthesis of plant hormones, as an antioxidant and regenerator of other antioxidants. Plants use multiple pathways to synthesize vitamin C. The major pathway starts with glucose, fructose or mannose (all simple sugars) and proceeds to l - galactose , l -galactonolactone and ascorbic acid. This biosynthesis
2472-437: Is absorbed in the body by both active transport and passive diffusion. Approximately 70%–90% of vitamin C is active-transport absorbed when intakes of 30–180 mg/day from a combination of food sources and moderate-dose dietary supplements such as a multi-vitamin/mineral product are consumed. However, when large amounts are consumed, such as a vitamin C dietary supplement, the active transport system becomes saturated, and while
2575-659: Is as ascorbic acid and metabolites. The fraction that is excreted as unmetabolized ascorbic acid increases as intake increases. In addition, ascorbic acid converts (reversibly) to DHA and from that compound non-reversibly to 2,3-diketogulonate and then oxalate. These three metabolites are also excreted via urine. During times of low dietary intake, vitamin C is reabsorbed by the kidneys rather than excreted. This salvage process delays onset of deficiency. Humans are better than guinea pigs at converting DHA back to ascorbate, and thus take much longer to become vitamin C deficient. Most animals and plants are able to synthesize vitamin C through
2678-453: Is associated with lower risk of cataracts. Ascorbate may also provide antioxidant protection indirectly by regenerating other biological antioxidants such as α-tocopherol back to an active state. In addition, ascorbate also functions as a non-enzymatic reducing agent for mixed-function oxidases in the microsomal drug-metabolizing system that inactivates a wide variety of substrates such as drugs and environmental carcinogens. Ascorbic acid
2781-446: Is at 200–300 μmol/L. The known coenzymatic functions of ascorbic acid do not require such high concentrations, so there may be other, as yet unknown functions. A consequence of all this high concentration organ content is that plasma vitamin C is not a good indicator of whole-body status, and people may vary in the amount of time needed to show symptoms of deficiency when consuming a diet very low in vitamin C. Excretion (via urine)
2884-474: Is defined as less than 23 μmol/L, and deficiency as less than 11.4 μmol/L. For people 20 years of age or above, data from the US 2017–18 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed mean serum concentrations of 53.4 μmol/L. The percent of people reported as deficient was 5.9%. Globally, vitamin C deficiency is common in low and middle-income countries, and not uncommon in high income countries. In
2987-438: Is is largely destroyed by the heat used when it is cooked. For example, raw chicken liver contains 17.9 mg/100 g, but fried, the content is reduced to 2.7 mg/100 g. Vitamin C is present in human breast milk at 5.0 mg/100 g. Cow's milk contains 1.0 mg/100 g, but the heat of pasteurization destroys it. Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during
3090-448: Is low, as cells rapidly reduce DHA to ascorbate. SVCTs are the predominant system for vitamin C transport within the body. In both vitamin C synthesizers (example: rat) and non-synthesizers (example: human) cells maintain ascorbic acid concentrations much higher than the approximately 50 micromoles/liter (μmol/L) found in plasma. For example, the ascorbic acid content of pituitary and adrenal glands can exceed 2,000 μmol/L, and muscle
3193-536: Is of concern because this is one of the most labile vitamins in foods. Its main loss during processing and storage is from oxidation, which is accelerated by light, oxygen, heat, increased pH, high moisture content (water activity), and the presence of copper or ferrous salts. To reduce oxidation, the vitamin C used in commodity fortification is coated with ethyl cellulose (2.5 percent). Oxidative losses also occur during food processing and preparation, and additional vitamin C may be lost if it dissolves into cooking liquid and
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3296-419: Is produced when potatoes are fried or baked at high temperatures. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth". In August 2008, California Attorney General Jerry Brown announced
3399-453: Is reduced to a primary alcohol using the enzyme glucuronate reductase and the cofactor NADPH, yielding l -gulonic acid. This is followed by lactone formation—utilizing the hydrolase gluconolactonase —between the carbonyl on C1 and hydroxyl group on C4. l -Gulonolactone then reacts with oxygen, catalyzed by the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase (which is nonfunctional in humans and other Haplorrhini primates; see Unitary pseudogenes ) and
3502-605: Is regulated following a diurnal rhythm . Enzyme expression peaks in the morning to supporting biosynthesis for when mid-day sunlight intensity demands high ascorbic acid concentrations. Minor pathways may be specific to certain parts of plants; these can be either identical to the vertebrate pathway (including the GLO enzyme), or start with inositol and get to ascorbic acid via l -galactonic acid to l -galactonolactone. Vitamin C can be produced from glucose by two main routes. The no longer utilized Reichstein process , developed in
3605-450: Is that inhalation of smoke causes oxidative damage, depleting this antioxidant vitamin. The US Institute of Medicine estimated that smokers need 35 mg more vitamin C per day than nonsmokers, but did not formally establish a higher RDA for smokers. The US National Center for Health Statistics conducts biannual National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in
3708-591: Is the highest. Salt content is particularly high, with a serving containing as much as 380 mg of sodium. A one-ounce (28 gram) serving of Lay's regular potato chips has 160 Calories , and contains ten grams of fat , with one gram of saturated fat . Kettle-cooked brands have seven to eight grams of fat and one gram of saturated fat, and are 140 Calories. Lay's Natural has nine grams of fat, two grams of saturated fat and 150 Calories. Stax chips typically contain ten grams of fat, 2.5 grams saturated fat and are 160 calories per serving. Wavy Lay's are identical to
3811-564: Is then discarded." Ascorbic acid and some of its salts and esters are common additives added to various foods, such as canned fruits, mostly to slow oxidation and enzymatic browning . It may be used as a flour treatment agent used in breadmaking . As food additives, they are assigned E numbers , with safety assessment and approval the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority . The relevant E numbers are: The stereoisomers of Vitamin C have
3914-557: Is used to determine vitamin status. For research purposes, concentrations can be assessed in leukocytes and tissues, which are normally maintained at an order of magnitude higher than in plasma via an energy-dependent transport system, depleted slower than plasma concentrations during dietary deficiency and restored faster during dietary repletion, but these analysis are difficult to measure, and hence not part of standard diagnostic testing. Recommendations for vitamin C intake by adults have been set by various national agencies: In 2000,
4017-581: The Pringles and Lay's Stax brands, is made by extruding or pressing a dough made from dehydrated potato flour into the desired shape before frying. This makes a product that is uniform in size and shape, which allows them to be stacked and packaged in rigid cardboard or plastic canisters. Pringles are officially branded as "potato crisps" in the US. Pringles may be termed "potato chips" in Britain, to distinguish them from traditional "crisps", but do not meet
4120-607: The Smiths Potato Crisps Company Ltd, formed in 1920, Frank Smith packaged his chips in greaseproof paper bags and attached a twist of salt, and sold them around London. The potato chip remained otherwise unseasoned until the 1950s. After some trial and error, in 1954, Joe "Spud" Murphy, the owner of the Irish crisps company Tayto , and his employee Seamus Burke, produced the world's first seasoned chips: cheese & onion. Companies worldwide sought to buy
4223-539: The United Kingdom , Walkers makes crisps with popular flavours as Prawn Cocktail, Beef and Onion, Roast Chicken, Smoky Bacon, Worcester Sauce, Pickled Onion, and Tomato Ketchup, and exotic flavors Thai sweet chili, roast pork and creamy mustard sauce, chicken with Italian herbs, Spicy Sriracha , BBQ Pulled Pork, sea salt and cider vinegar, spicy and aromatic curry, turkey and bacon, caramelized onion and sweet balsamic vinegar, Stilton and cranberry. In Ireland ,
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4326-687: The common cold , cancer or COVID-19 . There are also claims of benefits from vitamin C supplementation in excess of the recommended dietary intake for people who are not considered vitamin C deficient. Vitamin C is generally well-tolerated. Large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort , headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. The United States Institute of Medicine recommends against consuming large amounts. Most animals are able to synthesize their own vitamin C . However, apes (including humans) and monkeys (but not all primates ), most bats , most fish, some rodents, and certain other animals must acquire it from dietary sources because
4429-405: The enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters . It is required for the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function. It also functions as an antioxidant . Vitamin C may be taken by mouth or by intramuscular, subcutaneous or intravenous injection. Various health claims exist on the basis that moderate vitamin C deficiency increases disease risk, such as for
4532-479: The former Yugoslavia , fried thin potato slices are known as "chips" (locally pronounced very similarly to the English pronunciation), with a clear distinction from French fries. In Brazil, "home-style" potato chips are known as batatas portuguesas ("Portuguese potatoes") if their sides are relatively smooth and batatas prussianas ("Prussian potatoes") if their sides show a wafer biscuit-like pattern, whilst American-like industrial uniform potato chips made from
4635-684: The 1930s, used a single fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step fermentation process, originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. The Reichstein process and the modern two-step fermentation processes both use glucose as the starting material, convert that to sorbitol , and then to sorbose using fermentation. The two-step fermentation process then converts sorbose to 2-keto-l-gulonic acid (KGA) through another fermentation step, avoiding an extra intermediate. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from
4738-550: The 1960s, manufacturers switched to the less expensive composite canister (similar to the Pringles container). Reckitt Benckiser was a market leader in this category under the Durkee Potato Stix and French's Potato Sticks names but exited the business in 2008. In 2014, French's reentered the market. A larger variant (about 1 cm thick) made with dehydrated potatoes is marketed as Andy Capp 's Pub Fries , using
4841-456: The 20th century, potato chips spread beyond chef-cooked restaurant fare and began to be mass-produced for home consumption. The Dayton, Ohio -based Mikesell's Potato Chip Company, founded in 1910, identifies as the "oldest potato chip company in the United States". New Hampshire-based Granite State Potato Chip Factory, founded in 1905 and in operation until 2007, was one of America's first potato chip manufacturers. In an idea originated by
4944-745: The Netherlands, " Bolognese " flavoured potato chips are also popular; this flavour was introduced by Belgian chip company Croky. In Russia , the Russkaya Kartoshka brand of chips claim reduced content of oil in their curled (C-shaped, nearly ball-shaped) chips, and offers flavors like grilled salmon, shrimp and "Kamchatka's crab", that are unique seafood-themed flavors of potato chips mass-produced in Russia. Lay's offers crab-flavored and no-cream green onion flavored chips as ones made uniquely for Russian market. Lay's "Iz pechi" (literally "from
5047-466: The UK". Some potato chip companies have responded to the long-standing concerns by investing in research and development to modify existing recipes and create health-conscious products. PepsiCo research shows that about 80% of salt on chips is not sensed by the tongue before being swallowed. Frito-Lay spent $ 414 million in 2009 on product development, including development of salt crystals that would reduce
5150-663: The ULs for adults. For the European Union, the EFSA set higher recommendations for adults, and also for children: 20 mg/day for ages 1–3, 30 mg/day for ages 4–6, 45 mg/day for ages 7–10, 70 mg/day for ages 11–14, 100 mg/day for males ages 15–17, 90 mg/day for females ages 15–17. For pregnancy 100 mg/day; for lactation 155 mg/day. Cigarette smokers and people exposed to secondhand smoke have lower serum vitamin C levels than nonsmokers. The thinking
5253-488: The US are found in Mary Randolph 's Virginia House-Wife (1824) and in N.K.M. Lee's Cook's Own Book (1832), both of which explicitly cite Kitchiner. A legend associates the creation of potato chips with Saratoga Springs, New York , decades later than the first recorded recipe. By the late nineteenth century, a popular version of the story attributed the dish to George Crum , a cook at Moon's Lake House who
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#17327876160505356-603: The United States and Canada, and uses other brand names in some other countries, such as Walkers in the UK and Ireland, and Smith's in Australia. In 1932, salesman Herman Lay opened a snack food operation in Nashville, Tennessee . In 1938, he purchased the Atlanta, Georgia -based potato manufacturer "Barrett Food Company", renaming it "H.W. Lay Lingo & Company". Lay crisscrossed the southern United States , selling
5459-697: The United States provides rations to international food relief programs, later under the auspices of the Food for Peace Act and the Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance. Vitamin C is added to corn-soy blend and wheat-soy blend products at 40 mg/100 grams. (along with minerals and other vitamins). Supplemental rations of these highly fortified, blended foods are provided to refugees and displaced persons in camps and to beneficiaries of development feeding programs that are targeted largely toward mothers and children. The report adds: "The stability of vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid)
5562-549: The United States savory snack-food market. In April 2019, PepsiCo 's Indian subsidiary sued four farmers in Gujarat, India for copyright infringement, claiming they were growing a variety of potatoes trademarked by the company for exclusive use in its Lay's potato chips. Two years later, the ruling was done in the farmers' favour under the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001 . Frito-Lay primarily uses
5665-529: The United States, barbecue flavor , were being manufactured and sold by 1954. In 1958, Herr's was the first company to introduce barbecue-flavored potato chips in Pennsylvania . Chips sold in markets were usually sold in tins or scooped out of storefront glass bins and delivered by horse and wagon. Early potato chip bags were wax paper with the ends ironed or stapled together. At first, potato chips were packaged in barrels or tins, which left chips at
5768-461: The United States. Some results are reported as What We Eat In America. The 2013–2014 survey reported that for adults ages 20 years and older, men consumed on average 83.3 mg/d and women 75.1 mg/d. This means that half the women and more than half the men are not consuming the RDA for vitamin C. The same survey stated that about 30% of adults reported they consumed a vitamin C dietary supplement or
5871-553: The Western Hemisphere from Canada to Chile. In the Philippines, banana chips can be found sold at local stores. In Kenya, chips are made from arrowroot and cassava . In the United Kingdom, Sweden, Finland, and Australia, a new variety of Pringles made from rice has been released and marketed as lower in fat than its potato counterparts. Vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate )
5974-605: The World Health Organization's Model Forumulary. In 2021, it was the 255th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1 million prescriptions. Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C. Without this vitamin, collagen made by the body is too unstable to perform its function and several other enzymes in the body do not operate correctly. Early symptoms are malaise and lethargy, progressing to shortness of breath, bone pain and susceptibility to bruising. As
6077-411: The ability to internally synthesize vitamin C in either the kidney or the liver. In all of the cases where genomic analysis was done on an ascorbic acid auxotroph , the origin of the change was found to be a result of loss-of-function mutations in the gene that encodes L -gulono-γ-lactone oxidase, the enzyme that catalyzes the last step of the ascorbic acid pathway outlined above. One explanation for
6180-614: The ability to make vitamin C. Synthesis does not occur in some species in the rodent family Caviidae , which includes guinea pigs and capybaras , but does occur in other rodents, including rats and mice . Synthesis does not occur in most bat species, but there are at least two species, frugivorous bat Rousettus leschenaultii and insectivorous bat Hipposideros armiger , that retain (or regained) their ability of vitamin C production. A number of species of passerine birds also do not synthesize, but not all of them, and those that do not are not clearly related; it has been proposed that
6283-404: The ability was lost separately a number of times in birds. In particular, the ability to synthesize vitamin C is presumed to have been lost and then later re-acquired in at least two cases. The ability to synthesize vitamin C has also been lost in about 96% of extant fish (the teleosts ). On a milligram consumed per kilogram of body weight basis, simian non-synthesizer species consume
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#17327876160506386-687: The amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin C labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 60 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 90 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake . European Union regulations require that labels declare energy, protein, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrates, sugars, and salt. Voluntary nutrients may be shown if present in significant amounts. Instead of Daily Values, amounts are shown as percent of Reference Intakes (RIs). For vitamin C, 100% RI
6489-605: The appearance of the first primates, yet sometime after the split of early primates into the two major suborders Haplorrhini (which cannot make vitamin C) and its sister suborder of non-tarsier prosimians, the Strepsirrhini ("wet-nosed" primates), which retained the ability to make vitamin C. According to molecular clock dating, these two suborder primate branches parted ways about 63 to 60 million years ago. Approximately three to five million years later (58 million years ago), only
6592-496: The bottom stale and crumbled. In the 1920s, Laura Scudder , an entrepreneur in Monterey Park, California , started having her workers take home sheets of wax paper to iron into the form of bags, which were filled with chips at her factory the next day. This pioneering method reduced crumbling and kept the chips fresh and crisp longer. This innovation, along with the invention of cellophane , allowed potato chips to become
6695-535: The brand name "Lay's" in the United States, and uses other brand names in some other countries, including Walkers (UK and Ireland); Smith's (Australia); Chipsy (Egypt and the West Balkans); Tapuchips (Israel); Margarita (Colombia); and Sabritas (Mexico). As with most snack foods, the Lay's brands contain very few vitamins and minerals in any variety. At ten percent of the daily requirement per serving, vitamin C
6798-599: The chapter on Vitamin C in the North American Dietary Reference Intake was updated to give the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) as 90 milligrams per day for adult men, 75 mg/day for adult women, and setting a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The table (right) shows RDAs for the United States and Canada for children, and for pregnant and lactating women, as well as
6901-607: The chips are made with sunflower, corn and/or canola oil. Potato chips A potato chip ( NAmE and AuE ; often just chip ) or crisp ( BrE and IrE ) is a thin slice of potato (or a thin deposit of potato paste) that has been deep fried , baked , or air fried until crunchy. They are commonly served as a snack , side dish , or appetizer . The basic chips are cooked and salted ; additional varieties are manufactured using various flavorings and ingredients including herbs , spices , cheeses , other natural flavors, artificial flavors , and additives . Potato chips form
7004-560: The cofactor FAD+. This reaction produces 2-oxogulonolactone (2-keto-gulonolactone), which spontaneously undergoes enolization to form ascorbic acid. Reptiles and older orders of birds make ascorbic acid in their kidneys. Recent orders of birds and most mammals make ascorbic acid in their liver. Some mammals have lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C, including simians and tarsiers , which together make up one of two major primate suborders, Haplorhini . This group includes humans. The other more primitive primates ( Strepsirrhini ) have
7107-417: The cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease with time in proportion to the temperature at which they are stored. Cooking can reduce the vitamin C content of vegetables by around 60%, possibly due to increased enzymatic destruction. Longer cooking times may add to this effect. Another cause of vitamin C loss from food is leaching , which transfers vitamin C to
7210-525: The cooking water, which is decanted and not consumed. Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and juice drinks. Tablet and capsule content ranges from 25 mg to 1500 mg per serving. The most commonly used supplement compounds are ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate. Vitamin C molecules can also be bound to
7313-425: The definition or standard of identity for potato chips. Munchos , another brand that uses the term "potato crisps", has deep air pockets in its chips that give it a curved shape, though the chips themselves resemble regular bagged chips. An additional product similar to potato chips exists in the form of "potato sticks", also called "shoestring potatoes". These are made as extremely thin (2 to 3 mm) versions of
7416-405: The disease progressed, it is characterized by spots on and bleeding under the skin and bleeding gums. The skin lesions are most abundant on the thighs and legs. A person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there is fever, old wounds may become open and suppurating , loss of teeth , convulsions and, eventually, death. Until quite late in
7519-417: The disease the damage is reversible, as healthy collagen replaces the defective collagen with vitamin C repletion. Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy were conducted on conscientious objectors during World War II in Britain and on Iowa state prisoners in the late 1960s to the 1980s. Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about four weeks after starting
7622-461: The fatty acid palmitate, creating ascorbyl palmitate , or else incorporated into liposomes. Countries fortify foods with nutrients to address known deficiencies. While many countries mandate or have voluntary programs to fortify wheat flour, maize (corn) flour or rice with vitamins, none include vitamin C in those programs. As described in Vitamin C Fortification of Food Aid Commodities (1997),
7725-452: The formation of UDP-glucuronic acid. UDP-glucuronic acid is formed when UDP-glucose undergoes two oxidations catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase. UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase uses the co-factor NAD as the electron acceptor. The transferase UDP-glucuronate pyrophosphorylase removes a UMP and glucuronokinase , with the cofactor ADP, removes the final phosphate leading to d -glucuronic acid . The aldehyde group of this compound
7828-687: The glucose is extracted from glycogen ; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process. In humans and in animals that cannot synthesize vitamin C, the enzyme l -gulonolactone oxidase (GULO), which catalyzes the last step in the biosynthesis, is highly mutated and non-functional. There is some information on serum vitamin C concentrations maintained in animal species that are able to synthesize vitamin C. One study of several breeds of dogs reported an average of 35.9 μmol/L. A report on goats, sheep and cattle reported ranges of 100–110, 265–270 and 160–350 μmol/L, respectively. The biosynthesis of ascorbic acid in vertebrates starts with
7931-529: The glucose starting point. Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation. China produces about 70% of the global vitamin C market. The rest is split among European Union, India and North America. The global market is expected to exceed 141 thousand metric tons in 2024. Cost per metric ton (1000 kg) in US dollars was $ 2,220 in Shanghai, $ 2,850 in Hamburg and $ 3,490 in the US. Vitamin C has
8034-605: The larger "home-style" variety. In the north of New Zealand, they are sometimes affectionately known as "chippies"; however, they are marketed as "chips" throughout the country. In Australia and New Zealand, a distinction is sometimes made between "hot chips" (fried potatoes) and "chips" or "potato chips". In Bangladesh, they are generally known as "chip" or "chips", and much less frequently as "crisps" (pronounced "kirisp") and locally, alu bhaja . In German-speaking countries (Austria, Germany: " Kartoffelchips ", often shortened to "Chips"; Switzerland: " Pommes Chips ") and in countries of
8137-418: The latter, prevalence is higher in males than in females. Plasma levels are considered saturated at about 65 μmol/L, achieved by intakes of 100 to 200 mg/day, which are well above the recommended intakes. Even higher oral intake does not further raise plasma nor tissue concentrations because absorption efficiency decreases and any excess that is absorbed is excreted in urine. Vitamin C content in plasma
8240-681: The loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the inability to break down uric acid , also a characteristic of primates. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong reducing agents . This has led to the suggestion that, in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate. There are many different biosynthesis pathways to ascorbic acid in plants. Most proceed through products of glycolysis and other metabolic pathways . For example, one pathway utilizes plant cell wall polymers. The principal plant ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway seems to be via l -galactose. The enzyme l -galactose dehydrogenase catalyzes
8343-453: The media when an ingredient many contained, Olestra , was linked in some individuals to abdominal discomfort and loose stools. Many other products might be called "crisps" in Britain, but would not be classed as "potato chips" because they are not made with potato or are not chipped (for example, Wotsits , Quavers , Skips , Hula Hoops , and Monster Munch ). British restaurant critic Tanya Gold argues that Monster Munch "is absolutely not
8446-424: The nutritional literature to l -ascorbate and l -ascorbic acid respectively. Ascorbic acid is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose . In biological systems, ascorbic acid can be found only at low pH , but in solutions above pH 5 is predominantly found in the ionized form, ascorbate. Numerous analytical methods have been developed for ascorbic acid detection. For example, vitamin C content of
8549-482: The overall oxidation to the lactone and isomerization of the lactone to the C4-hydroxyl group, resulting in l -galactono-1,4-lactone. l -Galactono-1,4-lactone then reacts with the mitochondrial flavoenzyme l -galactonolactone dehydrogenase to produce ascorbic acid. l -Ascorbic acid has a negative feedback on l -galactose dehydrogenase in spinach. Ascorbic acid efflux by embryos of dicot plants
8652-539: The packaging process. Large scanners are used to eliminate chips worst affected by heat. In the United States , major regional brands include Jays , Better Made , Old Dutch , Utz and Zapp's . In Canada , regional varieties include all-dressed , dill pickle, and ketchup . Ketchup chips are flavored with tomato, garlic and onions. In Colombia , lemon , chicken , chorizo , and sirloin steak with mushroom sauce flavored potato chips are sold. In
8755-458: The popular French fry but are fried in the manner of regular salted potato chips. A hickory -smoke-flavored version is popular in Canada, going by the vending machine name "Hickory Sticks". Potato sticks are typically packaged in rigid containers, although some manufacturers use flexible pouches, similar to potato chip bags. Potato sticks were originally packed in hermetically sealed steel cans. In
8858-512: The product from the trunk of his car. In 1961, the Frito Company, founded by Charles E. Doolin, merged with Lay’s, forming Frito-Lay Inc., a snack food giant with combined sales of over $ 127 million annually, which was then the highest sales revenue earned by any manufacturer. Shortly thereafter, Lay's introduced what became its best-known slogan: "betcha can't eat just one". Sales of the chips became international, with marketing assisted by
8961-587: The recommended dietary intake for adult humans is in the range of 1–2 mg/kg. Ascorbic acid is a common enzymatic cofactor in mammals used in the synthesis of collagen , as well as a powerful reducing agent capable of rapidly scavenging a number of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Given that ascorbate has these important functions, it is surprising that the ability to synthesize this molecule has not always been conserved. In fact, anthropoid primates, Cavia porcellus (guinea pigs), teleost fishes, most bats, and some passerine birds have all independently lost
9064-636: The regular brand, except for a half-gram less of saturated fat in some combinations. Now the various brands do not contain any trans fats . A 50 gram serving of Lay's BarBQ chips contains 270 calories, and 17 grams of fat. It also contains 270 mg of sodium, and 15% of the daily recommended dose of Vitamin C . The baked variety, introduced in the mid 1990s, feature 1.5 grams of fat per one ounce serving, and have no saturated fat. Each serving has 110 to 120 Calories. Lay's Light servings are 75 Calories per ounce and have no fat. Lay's Classic Potato chips were cooked in hydrogenated oil until 2003. Currently,
9167-438: The repeated loss of the ability to synthesize vitamin C is that it was the result of genetic drift ; assuming that the diet was rich in vitamin C, natural selection would not act to preserve it. In the case of the simians, it is thought that the loss of the ability to make vitamin C may have occurred much farther back in evolutionary history than the emergence of humans or even apes, since it evidently occurred soon after
9270-424: The rights to Tayto's technique. Walkers of Leicester, England produced cheese & onion the same year. Golden Wonder (Smith's main competitor at the time) also started to produce cheese & onion, and Smith's countered with salt & vinegar (tested first by their north-east England subsidiary Tudor and then launched nationally in 1967), starting a two-decade-long flavor war. The first flavored chips in
9373-442: The salt content of Lay's potato chips without adversely affecting flavor. Unsalted chips are available, e.g. the longstanding British brand Salt 'n' Shake , whose chips are not seasoned, but instead include a small salt sachet in the bag for seasoning to taste. Many other popular brands in the United States, such as Frito-Lay , also offer such a product. One health scare related to potato chips focused on acrylamide , which
9476-510: The stove") line of less-oiled chips also include crab flavor. "Just Brutal" brand has pitch-black chips, where the flavors are "vinegar" and "Thai sweet pepper". In Japan , flavors include norishio ( nori and salt), consommé , wasabi , soy sauce and butter , garlic , plum , barbecue, pizza, mayonnaise, and black pepper. Chili , scallop with butter, teriyaki , takoyaki , and yakitori chip flavors are also available. Major manufacturers include Calbee and Koikeya . In Hong Kong ,
9579-453: The synthesis and catabolism of tyrosine ; and the metabolism of microsomes . In nonenzymatic functions it acts as a reducing agent, donating electrons to oxidized molecules and preventing oxidation in order to keep iron and copper atoms in their reduced states. At non-physiological concentrations achieved by intravenous dosing, vitamin C may function as a pro-oxidant , with therapeutic toxicity against cancer cells. Vitamin C functions as
9682-531: The theme of a long-running British comic strip , which are baked and sold in a variety of flavors. Walkers make a similar product (using the Smiths brand) called "Chipsticks" which are sold in ready-salted and salt and vinegar flavors. Some companies have also marketed baked potato chips as an alternative with lower fat content. Additionally, some varieties of fat-free chips have been made using artificial, and indigestible, fat substitutes. These became well known in
9785-501: The total amount being absorbed continues to increase with dose, absorption efficiency falls to less than 50%. Active transport is managed by Sodium-Ascorbate Co-Transporter proteins (SVCTs) and Hexose Transporter proteins (GLUTs). SVCT1 and SVCT2 import ascorbate across plasma membranes. The Hexose Transporter proteins GLUT1 , GLUT3 and GLUT4 transfer only the oxydized dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) form of vitamin C. The amount of DHA found in plasma and tissues under normal conditions
9888-884: The two prominent potato chips are the spicy "Ethnican" variety by Calbee, and barbecue by Jack 'n Jill . In Indonesia , potato chips are commonly called kripik kentang and traditionally fell under the kripik category. The major brands are Indofood 's Chitato (since 1990s) and Lay's ( Frito-Lay ). In 2014, Japan's Calbee and Indonesia's Wings Food formed Calbeewings, a joint venture and marketed Potabee potato chips offering two flavors: beef BBQ and grilled seaweed. Lay's potato chips sold in Indonesia are available in six flavors: honey butter, sour cream and onion, nori seaweed, beef barbecue, classic salty, and salmon teriyaki flavors. In 2018 Chitato launched three unusual flavors: beef rendang , fried crab golden egg yolk, and mango sticky rice. Another food made from potatoes, notably
9991-541: The vitamin C-free diet, whereas in the earlier British study, six to eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed. Men in both studies had blood levels of ascorbic acid too low to be accurately measured by the time they developed signs of scurvy. These studies both reported that all obvious symptoms of scurvy could be completely reversed by supplementation of only 10 mg
10094-460: The vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than what is recommended by governments for humans. This discrepancy constituted some of the basis of the controversy on human recommended dietary allowances being set too low. However, simian consumption does not indicate simian requirements. Merck's veterinary manual states that daily intake of vitamin C at 3–6 mg/kg prevents scurvy in non-human primates. By way of comparison, across several countries,
10197-878: The word "Tayto" is synonymous with potato chips after the Tayto brand, and can be used to describe all varieties of chips, including those not produced by Tayto. Hunky Dorys and King are other popular Irish brands. In Germany , Belgium and the Netherlands , salted and sweet paprika chips (sometimes also called ungarisch (from " Hungarian ") in Germany) are the two most common and popular types. In Germany, chip producers have introduced additional flavours, such as sour cream and onion, cheese, oriental, or more exotic seasonings like " Chakalaka ", " Currywurst ", "Pommes" (french fries), and " Rot-weiss " (red and white: french fries with tomato ketchup and mayonnaise ). In Belgium and
10300-593: Was a bestseller in the United Kingdom and the United States. The 1822 edition's recipe for "Potatoes fried in Slices or Shavings" reads "peel large potatoes... cut them in shavings round and round, as you would peel a lemon; dry them well in a clean cloth, and fry them in lard or dripping". An 1825 British book about French cookery calls them "Pommes de Terre frites" (second recipe) and calls for thin slices of potato fried in "clarified butter or goose dripping", drained and sprinkled with salt. Early recipes for potato chips in
10403-534: Was set at 80 mg in 2011. Although also present in other plant-derived foods, the richest natural sources of vitamin C are fruits and vegetables. Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement . The following table is approximate and shows the relative abundance in different raw plant sources. The amount is given in milligrams per 100 grams of the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable: Compared to plant sources, animal-sourced foods do not provide so great an amount of vitamin C, and what there
10506-687: Was the Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL), meaning that other adverse effects were observed at even higher intakes. ULs are progressively lower for younger and younger children. In 2006, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also pointed out the disturbances at that dose level, but reached the conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin C, as did the Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition in 2010. For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes,
10609-399: Was trying to appease an unhappy customer on August 24, 1853. The customer kept sending back his French-fried potatoes , complaining that they were too thick, too "soggy", or not salted enough. Frustrated, Crum sliced several potatoes extremely thin, fried them to a crisp, and seasoned them with extra salt. To his surprise, the customer loved them. They soon came to be called "Saratoga Chips",
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