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144-464: In 1999, the geographic center of Vargas state suffered major floods and landslides, known as La Tragedia de Vargas (the Vargas tragedy ), causing major losses of life and property, and resulting in forced population movements, including the virtual disappearance of some small towns. Thousands died, and many more fled the area to other states. The state's name was changed on 14 June 2019 to La Guaira. It

288-560: A comprehensive analysis of the life and works of Bello's literary, linguistic, legal, historic, philosophical, and political texts. This book received an award from the Venezuelan National Academy of Language in 1935, and has remained an indispensable reference for scholarship studies on the most prominent Venezuelan man-of-letters of the 19th century. A year later, Venezuelan President López Contreras took notice of newspaper op-ed pieces about labor issues written by

432-528: A constituent assembly during the first year of his administration, reflect how consequential Congress' dismissal of this reform bill would eventually become. The most memorable and controversial speeches Caldera delivered as Senator came in February 1989, at the wake of the bloody riots in Caracas on 27 February, known as " Caracazo ," and in February, 4 of 1992, after the failed military coup . "The country

576-401: A decade after the tragedy, thousands remained homeless and the value of real estate in zones untouched by the floods declined by as much as 70%, due to the destruction of infrastructure. Orion  [ es ] , a Rottweiler , was officially recognized for his role in rescuing people during the tragedy. A mudslide forced Orion and his owner Mauricio Pérez to leave their home and go to

720-548: A few days, triggering widespread soil instability and flow of debris. Adding to the devastation, Vargas State had experienced high population growth and development since the 1951 disaster, thus increasing the toll of casualties. The alluvial fans built as sediments from floods and debris flows exit their channels and meet the oceans provide the only extensive flat surfaces along the mountainous coastline of north-central Venezuela. As such, many of them have been extensively developed and urbanized. This high population density increases

864-429: A former member of Pérez' ministerial cabinet, and an outspoken critic of Caldera, argues that despite these efforts, Caldera's administration was however "particularly ineffectual in bringing to justice the many regulators and bankers responsible for the country's massive banking crisis". Notwithstanding federal budget limitations, Caldera's administration developed major infrastructure projects, including two water dams

1008-641: A great range: It is considered a place of interest for debates, talks and discussions of knowledge with the studies of the history of Venezuela; headquarters of the Bolivarian Society of La Guaira. Located and conforms within what is the peripheries within the historical real helmet of the Guaira, right there is the Library "Adam Jose Seijas" and it is estimated that the Property was constructed during

1152-455: A group of representative meteorological stations of the Vargas state, there is a predominance of wet months almost all year round, except for December to March. The seasons with the highest average monthly rainfall records are Caruao and El Portachuelo, where the wet weight is equal to or greater than 10 months. In the coastal plain and foothills, average monthly rainfall records are low throughout

1296-475: A massive inundated area. Approximately 1/3 of the Caraballeda fan was inundated by debris flows, and the entire fan is built of past debris flow deposits. The floods and debris flows of 1999 did not follow the eastern channel on Caraballeda. This channel, formed during the 1952 floods, had been lined with concrete and designed to safely transport the flows into the sea. Instead, the debris flows overwhelmed

1440-620: A moist southwesterly flow in the Pacific Ocean. This interaction produced moderate to heavy rainfall starting in the first week of December and culminating in the 14–16 December event that caused the deadly floods and debris flows . The heaviest rains were centered around the mid-upper part of the San Julián basin, which feeds water and sediment onto the Caraballeda fan. Heavy rains persisted within 8 kilometers (5.0 mi) of

1584-702: A new governing board. During Caldera's first presidency, a total of 291,233 housing units were built. In terms of infrastructure and public buildings, some of the most important works completed during his first administration include: Poliedro de Caracas , the buildings for the Ministry of Education, the Courts of Law, and the Central Bank; the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, and the Ríos Reyna Theatre of

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1728-438: A period of four years and with the possibility of immediate reelection for equal periods, being in charge of the state administration. Since the elevation to the category of federal state, the state has chosen its governors in direct elections, before 1998 its governor was the same of the disappeared Federal District. The current state government has been headed since 2021 by José Manuel Suárez . The state legislature falls to

1872-403: A policy that allowed the armed left to lay down their arms and participate in politics under democratic rules, was one of the most important achievements of Caldera's first presidency. This pardon effectively put an end to the guerrilla warfare which had plagued the country for ten years, costing many lives. A key distinction between Caldera's first government and those of his predecessors lay in

2016-400: A safer place. They came across a young girl trapped by turbulent water. Orion guided the girl to shore by swimming at her side, then jumped back in to pull a second girl out of the water. He then helped eight children climb to high places. He spent Wednesday night and part of Thursday morning saving 37 people from drowning, ranging from a girl of 8 years old to an elderly man of 80 years old. He

2160-436: A steep decrease in oil prices, the economic recession and high inflation of 1993, and a huge banking crisis. The fiscal deficit forced Caldera's government to apply a severe austerity plan that included a ten per cent cut of the federal budget in 1994 and, simultaneously, a reform of fiscal legislation and the creation of SENIAT , a new tax collection agency. In January 1994, less than a month before Rafael Caldera's inauguration,

2304-453: A temporary float, abolished controls on current and capital transactions, eliminated price controls (except for medicines), and strengthened the social safety net". In 1997, gross domestic product ( GDP ) grew above five per cent and inflation rate was cut in half. The 1997 Asian financial crisis , however, brought oil prices to dramatic low levels, forcing government to make large budget cuts. A noteworthy achievement in this administration

2448-433: A thickness similar to those produced in the 1999 event and contain boulders of a size similar to those observed in 1999. The USGS geologists found paleosols with organic material above and below a 10-meter (33 ft) thick layer of debris flow deposits. The bottom paleosol was radiocarbon dated to 4267 ±38 years Before Present (BP), and the top one was dated to 3720±50 years BP. This means that, at least in this area,

2592-470: A year. The disaster was of such magnitude that the president of the Red Cross initially presumed more than 50,000 dead. The first priority was to evacuate survivors; more than 100,000 people were ultimately evacuated. After the disaster, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez advocated for other Venezuelans to open up their homes, and "adopt a family". Then-First Lady Marisabel Rodríguez de Chávez arranged

2736-414: Is 28 °C, with scarce daily and annual thermal amplitudes.23 Thus, for the different altitudes in the region, the following characteristics are found for the different altitudinal floors, such as 1.Tropical: It presents an altitude that varies between 0 and 600 m.a.s.l. with an annual average temperature of 25.4 and 26.1 °C. In these climates they have registered average values of precipitation in

2880-693: Is another part of Caracas and another part of Miranda State). It corresponds to the one developed in the Coastal Range. It has as a geological limit the La Victoria Fault, where the rocks of the Gran Caracas group outcrop, on the igneous-metamorphic basement of the Sebastopol Complex of the lower Paleozoic, which is constituted by gneissic granite and chlorite schist. The formations are also located: Peña de Mora belonging to

3024-425: Is as rich and varied as its natural spaces. In the southwestern section of the state, in the mountainous zone of the cloud forest, there is a great variety of tree species, among the most exuberant are trees such as granadillo (Prumnopitys harmsiana), Sapium sp. and cedar (Cedrela montana). Of this last species is a specimen called "the giant cedar", which has a height of 47 meters and a diameter of 22 meters, located in

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3168-566: Is being added to them from upstream (infilling the channels) at a rate equal to or greater than the rate at which it can be removed. Hillslopes are steepened past the angle of repose for noncohesive materials. This oversteepening is more than could be provided for by the frictional resistance of the sandy soils. Internal soil cohesion, negative pore pressure ("soil suction"), soil structure, and/or tree root reinforcement may be responsible for this. Terraces containing previous debris flow deposits are now perched 10–20 meters (33–66 ft) above

3312-480: Is difficult to determine as there is no reliable census data from the region at that time, especially about shanty towns and small communities that were completely wiped out. Moreover, only some 1,000 bodies were recovered, with the rest swept to sea by the mud or buried in the landslides. More than 8,000 homes and 700 apartment buildings were destroyed in Vargas, displacing up to 75,000 people. The mudslides significantly altered more than 60 kilometres (37 mi) of

3456-439: Is located in the coastal-mountain region, north of the state of Miranda and the capital district. Previously, La Guaira belonged to the federal district, but since 1998, this municipality has been elevated to a state. This state has only one municipality, the municipality of Vargas, which is divided into eleven parishes. The state government and the municipality's mayor's office are in the same jurisdiction. The space comprised by

3600-536: Is moderately stony, with medium to high contents of organic matter in the surface horizons. Drainage varies from well to excessively drained. Based on the soil-forming factors and the predominant type of reference soil (Haplustults), in the entity the Haplargids and Torriorthents soil types were identified in the areas near the coast, where the humidity conditions are critical. In areas with higher slopes, Udorthents soils are classified, and in areas with lower slopes,

3744-487: Is possible that there is a vertical component of offset in offshore faults. Heavy rains fell in December 1999 along the north-central coast of Venezuela, culminating in a period of extreme intensity from 14 to 16 December. Starting around 8 PM local time ( AST ) on 15 December, runoff entered channels and rushed towards the sea, picking up and depositing sediments on its way. Generally after this first wave of flooding, from

3888-463: Is prohibited and the manifestation also acquires these characteristics. It is in itself a parody, simulating the passage of a burial in the streets of the town. Like so many other traditions in the state, the feast of St. Joseph is celebrated on March 19. Vargas tragedy The Vargas tragedy was a natural disaster that occurred in Vargas State , Venezuela on 15 December 1999 (over

4032-401: Is said to show the lasting impact of the tragedy that people were still sharing these narratives, especially in a nation with a poor cinema industry . Rafael Caldera Rafael Antonio Caldera Rodríguez ( Spanish pronunciation: [rafaˈel anˈtonjo kalˈdeɾa roˈðɾiɣes] listen ; 24 January 1916 – 24 December 2009) was a Venezuelan politician and academician who was

4176-432: Is temperate tropical due to the altitude, the humid tropical climate with little rain is characterized in the rest of the territory. In the areas below 400 m.a.s.l., high temperatures predominate presenting an average of 26.1 °C with infrequent rainfall. From this level, temperatures are more moderate, with an annual average of 14.7 °C and more frequent and intense rainfall. The average annual temperature of La Guaira

4320-612: Is worth mentioning that the structure is of a single floor with its wooden roofs in tiles, with its main door in wood with lattice, together with its three windows also in wood and wrought in iron, whose facade is of pure frieze. It is worth mentioning that also within the Bolivarian Society House of La Guayra, it houses the sections and activities for the Lions Club and the Rotary Club. Every January 6, after

4464-570: The A horizon of the soil is often less than 30 centimeters (12 in) thick, the bedrock is often weathered down to greater than 2 meters (6 ft 7 in). Further inland, gneisses of the Paleozoic San Julián Formation and Precambrian Peña de Mora Formation extend to the crest of the Sierra de Avila. These units have thin soils over less-weathered bedrock; this is believed to be because of rapid erosion due to

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4608-783: The Inter-Parliamentary Union from 1979 to 1982. In 1979, he was elected President of the World Congress of Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, which met in Rome under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. A year later, Caldera presided over the International Committee in charge of preparing an international agreement for the establishment of

4752-708: The International Labour Organization (ILO), an affiliated agency of the League of Nations, visited Venezuela in 1936 to review the law. He worked closely with Caldera, then Venezuela's first ILO correspondent. Jenks later stated that the International Labor Code published under his guidance on the eve of the Second World War, contained several topics that were arranged in a manner that had originally been employed in

4896-489: The US Geological Survey measured these old deposits. They found that they are thicker than the December 1999 ones and contain larger boulders. This means that previous debris flows were even larger than those in December 1999 and reached higher velocities. On the Caraballeda fan, the extent of the 1951 event paled in comparison to the 1999 event. Much of the deposits that constitute the Caraballeda fan are of

5040-678: The University for Peace , approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 5 December 1980. In March 1987, Caldera was invited by Pope John Paul II to deliver a speech before the College of Cardinals to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Papal Encyclical Populorum Progressio . A leading theme in his speeches and conferences during these years was the need to find solutions to

5184-493: The "architect" of the 1961 Constitution, he was called upon by leaders of all Venezuelan parties to defend its principles, validity and timeliness. Accordingly, he was chosen to deliver the commemorative speeches before special joint sessions of Congress on the 15th (1976) and 25th (1986) anniversaries of the 1961 Constitution. In 1985, he was appointed President of the Bicameral Congress Commission for

5328-459: The 15th, and the final debris flows were reported between 8 and 9 AM on 16 December. Many catchments released multiple debris flows, some of which carried large boulders and tree trunks onto the alluvial fan deltas. Starting between 7 and 9 AM on the 16th and continuing until late that afternoon, a new wave of floods occurred. These floodwaters were less concentrated in sediment and were therefore able to entrain new material and incise new channels into

5472-407: The 16th; precipitation on both the 15th and 16th exceeded the 1,000-year probability rainfall event. Even so, the coast received much less rain than some regions upstream. This sudden and intense storm was especially unusual because it occurred in December, while the typical rainy season in coastal Venezuela lasts from May to October. These out-of-season rains formed when a cold front interacted with

5616-553: The 46th and 51st president of Venezuela from 1969 to 1974 and again from 1994 to 1999, thus becoming the longest serving democratically elected politician to govern the country in the twentieth century. Widely acknowledged as one of the founders of Venezuela's democratic system, one of the main architects of the 1961 Constitution, and a pioneer of the Christian Democratic movement in Latin America, Caldera

5760-644: The Candlemas Festival has been gaining national space, recreating the Puno patron saint festival in Arequipa, Lima, places where the residents of the Altiplano express their cultural identity. People can go sightseeing in the areas. It is celebrated on Ash Wednesday, after Carnival, and is charged with irreverence, ambiguous characters with inverted roles and expressions of relaxation. In the beginning it

5904-627: The December 1957 plebiscite, Caldera was exiled by the Pérez Jiménez dictatorship in January 1958. He travelled to New York City and was greeted by Rómulo Betancourt and Jóvito Villalba. His exile, however, only lasted a few days since Marcos Pérez Jiménez was deposed by a civil revolt and military coup on 23 January 1958. Upon returning to Venezuela, the three leaders signed the Puntofijo Pact , named after Caldera's residence where it

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6048-479: The Federal District, with the status of Federal Territory, and shortly thereafter it definitively became the 23rd state in the nation. The creation of the state of La Guaira has motivated the appearance of new autonomist movements in other regions of the country, as in the case of the municipality Páez in the state of Apure, which has more geographical aspects similar to Táchira than to the rest of Apure. In

6192-493: The Institute of Higher Studies for National Defense. On 3 October 1970, after weeks of violent student protests, and reports of weapons and explosive materials hidden inside the university campus, Caldera intervened Central University of Venezuela in order to protect and safeguard the life of students, professors and university employees. Once peace was restored on campus, the university regained its autonomy and held elections for

6336-575: The Jesuit-run Catholic school San Ignacio de Loyola, where he completed his secondary education at the age of fifteen. The following year he began law studies at the Central University of Venezuela . As a young university student, Caldera exhibited a precocious intellectual brilliance. At the age of nineteen, and after studying the 26 volumes of Andrés Bello 's collected works, Caldera published his first book, Andres Bello ,

6480-1122: The José Antonio Páez water dam in Mérida, Cumaripa in Yaracuy, and the third and four phases of the Guri Project in Guayana. After leaving the presidency of Venezuela, Caldera continued both scholarly and political pursuits. He served in the Venezuelan Senate as all former presidents were granted lifelong appointments to the Senate under 1961 Constitution. During this period Caldera was appointed to several important leadership positions in international organizations. Hailed for his role in maintaining democracy and stability in an era when most other Latin American countries experienced political upheaval, Caldera served as President of

6624-605: The La Florida peak (2,240 meters above sea level). Another impressive tree in the area is the niño (Gyranthera caribensis), endemic to the Coastal Range. There are numerous species of guamos (Inga sp.), Protium sp., Alchornea triplinervia and Micropholis crotonoides, and palms such as the striking prapa (Wettinia praemorsa). In the hillside areas you can observe the majestic royal palms (Ceroxylon interruptum), palmetto (Euterpe predatoria), molinillo (Chamaedorea pinnatifrons) and araque (Dictyocaryum fuscum). Others Important species are

6768-523: The Legislative Council of the State of La Guaira, a unicameral parliament, elected by the people through direct and secret vote every four years, and they can be reelected for consecutive periods, under a system of proportional representation of the population of the state and its municipalities. Since the last elections, the state has had 7 deputies, of which 1 belongs to the opposition and 6 to

6912-797: The Mesozoic, the Todasana Magmatic Complex of the upper Cretaceous, the Las Pailas formation of the late Pliocene, and the Abyssinian formation, composed of marine sediments. The state is a kind of terminal for the rivers of Caracas and other populations because several rivers in the state flow into the Caribbean Sea, almost all of them are ravines of the Avila Hill. Some rivers in the state of La Guaira are: In

7056-728: The National Constituent Assembly, inaugurated on 17 December of that year. This legislative body had the task of drafting a new Constitution guided by the principles of the October Revolution . Venezuelans from every corner of the country came to admire the rhetorical skills of the young politician. Venezuelans were able to listen to Caldera's speeches after Andrés Eloy Blanco , President of the National Constituent Assembly , granted Caldera's request to allow live radio broadcast of

7200-580: The Paleustults. In areas with lower temperatures, typical of the mountain landscape, evolved and deep soils are identified as the Haplohumuslts. In areas of higher humidity, such as those at the extremes of the state, Hapludults soils are classified. Adopting Otto Huber's classification of plant formations, the plant landscape varguense is quite contrasted, being identified from the altitudinal base to 100 meters above sea level coastal vegetation of

7344-628: The Presidency, which he achieved in 1998 . Rafael Caldera Rodríguez, the son of Rafael Caldera Izaguirre and Rosa Sofía Rodríguez Rivero, was born on 24 January 1916, in San Felipe , Venezuela . His mother having died when he was two and a half years-old, Caldera was raised by his maternal aunt María Eva Rodríguez Rivero and her husband Tomás Liscano Giménez. Caldera attended elementary school in his native San Felipe and later in Caracas , at

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7488-495: The Pérez Jiménez military dictatorship (1952–1958), Caldera was expelled from Universidad Central de Venezuela and arrested several times. On 3 August 1955, agents of the National Security, a large secret police force led by Pedro Estrada that hunted down opponents and ran notorious concentration camps, threw a bomb into Caldera's home, endangering the life of his youngest child, then nine months-old. On 20 August 1957, he

7632-571: The Reform of the Labor Law. After years of deliberations with workers, legal experts, labor unions, and representatives from industry and commerce chambers, the bill was presented in 1989 and passed by Congress at the end of 1990. In June 1989, Caldera was appointed President of the Bicameral Congress Commission for the Reform of the Constitution. The reform project prepared by the commission

7776-794: The Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, in Caracas; the general hospitals of Maracay , Coro , Mérida , San Carlos , Valle de la Pascua , Chiquinquirá in Maracaibo and Miguel Pérez Carreño and Los Magallanes de Catia in Caracas; major highways such as Cota Mil and La Araña-Caricuao in Caracas, Barquisimeto-Yaritagua, Valencia-Campo de Carabobo and Barcelona-Crucero de Maturín; airports La Chinita in Maracaibo, Santiago Mariño in Porlamar and Las Piedras in Paraguaná ;

7920-589: The United States headed up by New Mexico state Senator Joseph Carraro arrived with a medical team and supplies to assess the damage and help those who were displaced. Contact was made with Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico to determine if any radioactivity was included in the debris field. Water purification and sleeping units were provided. The disaster clean-up soon became politicized. Chávez initially accepted assistance from anyone who offered, with

8064-493: The United States sending helicopters and dozens of soldiers that arrived two days after the disaster. When defense minister Raúl Salazar accepted the United States offer of further aid that included 450 Marines and naval engineers aboard the USS Tortuga , which was setting sail to Venezuela, Chávez told Salazar to decline the offer since "[i]t was a matter of sovereignty". Salazar became angry and assumed that Chávez's opinion

8208-420: The Vargas state is generally elongated, presenting its maximum amplitude in the extreme west towards Carayaca, to then reduce considerably in the center, around the urban centers of Maiquetía and Macuto. From La Guaira it begins to expand again in an almost symmetrical way up to its eastern limit. The state has an area of 1,497 square kilometers (0.13% of the national territory); in fact, it is the second state with

8352-663: The Venezuelan draft Labor Code. During his university years, Caldera became actively engaged in student politics. He joined the Venezuelan Federation of Students (FEV), which was led by students who had revolted in 1928 against the dictator Juan Vicente Gómez and were known as the Generation of 28 . Although significantly younger than his peers, Caldera courageously split from this student federation after its leadership called for anticlerical reforms demanding

8496-408: The aborigines by the Spaniards who accompanied him made his attempt at peaceful conquest fail. As a consequence of this, the aboriginal congress held in the Uveros de Macuto and called by the chief Guaicamacuto, sought to expel Francisco Fajardo from the occupied territory, showing signs of primitive sessions of republican democracy. This political-territorial region has suffered important changes over

8640-469: The agreement of April 30, the twenty states of the Union (of the United States of Venezuela) were reduced to seven large states, the reduction being governed by the Law of April 28, 1856, which established the last sectional demarcation, by which the State of the Center is created, composed of Bolivar, Guzmán Blanco, Guárico, Apure and Nueva Esparta, becoming, on April 27, 1881, the "State Guzmán Blanco" composed only of Bolivar, Aragua, Guárico, Nueva Esparta and

8784-443: The announcement of reconstruction plans, little came of the process and Chávez grew distracted with political squabbles, abandoning attention on the tragedy with recovery ultimately halting. Survivors eventually left their refugee areas and returned to their homes in an attempt to rebuild. By 2006, the state was back to its pre-disaster population level, and projects were slowly being carried out to rebuild damaged infrastructure. Over

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8928-417: The annual national budget and an alarming 13 percent of the gross domestic product. Additional bank failures continued throughout the year and into 1995". In agreement with the International Monetary Fund , Caldera implemented in 1996 a new economic plan, called Agenda Venezuela  [ es ] , which "increased domestic fuel prices, liberalized interest rates, unified the exchange rate system under

9072-449: The area of foreign policy. President Caldera restored bilateral relations with the Soviet Union and the socialist nations of Eastern Europe, as well as with a number of South American nations that had fallen under military dictatorships, including Argentina , Panama , and Peru . This policy, known as "pluralistic solidarity", was a reversion of his predecessor's Betancourt Doctrine . Caldera took advantage of momentous developments in

9216-417: The beaches and associated with the enjoyment of rivers and surrounding mountains to the coast. Among the most prominent are mentioned, in the sense East-West: Chuspa, Caruao, La Sabana, Urama, Todasana, Oritapo, Osma, Los Caracas, Anare, Puerto Carayaca, Uricao, Chichiriviche, Puerto Cruz and Puerto Maya. Many of the resources available in the state are being used by the intensive recreation and tourism in both

9360-401: The bed aggraded 10 meters (33 ft) in 550 years, for an average rate of about 1.8 cm (0.71 in) per year (though the aggradation occurs only during short-lived events). The scientists were not able to tell whether the deposits were from a single debris flow or multiple events. Alluvial fan deltas in this region have shallow slopes. They are poorly channelized because sediment

9504-538: The channel and the flows overtopped the banks wherever the channel changed direction. Once free of the culvert, the channel rapidly avulsed across the fan and spread debris throughout the community. These overbank flows demolished 2-story houses and destroyed the first two stories of apartment buildings. Farther down the fan, the debris flows routed themselves down streets. As the flows progressed, they left thinner and thinner deposits, though they often still exceeded 1 meter (3 feet) in thickness. After several avulsions,

9648-412: The channel roughly followed the pre-1951 flood path. USGS geologists estimate the deposit volume to be at least 1.8 million cubic meters (from comparing topographic scans) or 1.9 million cubic meters (from field measurements). This is among the largest rainfall-induced debris flow deposits in recorded history, though volcanic-induced debris flows can be ten times as large. Subaqueous deposition extended

9792-481: The children make a written request for a toy from the Three Kings, leaving the requested gift on their shoes. This tradition keeps alive the childish illusion, something lost in our times. Every year, on February 2, the Patron Saint's Day of the Virgin of Candelaria in its context is made up of the popular religious behavior of the social collectivities. The dance groups, costumes, masks and bands of musicians lead to expressions of overflowing festive sensibility. Finally,

9936-425: The coast to just past the crest of the Sierra de Avila, these rains triggered thousands of shallow landslides that stripped soil and rock off the landscape and sent them slipping down the mountainside. Additional water liquefied these landslides into debris flows , which are granular flows in which water mixes with high concentrations of rock and mud. The first eyewitness accounts of debris flows were from 8:30 PM on

10080-510: The coast, and subsided on the Caracas side of the Cerro El Ávila . Rainfall rates also decreased westward toward Maiquetía. The bedrock in the region surrounding Caracas is mainly metamorphic . From the coast and extending approximately 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) inland, deeply foliated schist of the Mesozoic Tacagua Formation is exposed. Soils forming on them are fine-grained (clayey), thin (0.5–3.0 meters (1 ft 8 in – 9 ft 10 in)), and often colluvial . Although

10224-421: The coast. Two weeks later, in a 52-hour span during 14, 15 and 16 December 1999, 911 millimeters (35.9 in) of rain (approximately one year's average total rainfall for the region) was measured on the north-central coast of Venezuela at Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetia, Venezuela . These heavy rains included 72 millimeters (2.8 in) of accumulation in just one hour, between 6 and 7 AM on

10368-444: The coastline in Vargas. Over 70% of the total population of Vargas State was affected by the disaster. Public services, like water, electricity, phone lines, and land transportation (roads and bridges) completely disappeared in some places. There were no supplies of food and water for months, so most of the population had to be evacuated. Looting and sacking occurred everywhere, forcing the military to implement martial law for more than

10512-495: The constitution of the State of La Guaira, dictated by the Legislative Council, and which was sanctioned on August 23, 2001, entering into force on August 30, 2001, when it was published in the Official State Gazette. It is composed of the governor and a group of state secretaries appointed by him to assist him in the management of the government. The governor is elected by the people by direct and secret vote for

10656-457: The contrast that exists between the sea and the mountains. It is attractive to appreciate from the coast how an imposing mountainous relief that houses innumerable natural riches, giving it a less harsh to the dry but attractive coastal environment. In the entity there is a great number of natural beaches and spas, predominantly those of natural origin. The latter are less visited due to their remoteness and difficult accessibility from Caracas, except

10800-483: The country to spread the ideas of his newly created party. The renowned Venezuelan novelist Rómulo Gallegos , candidate of the social democrat party AD (Democratic Action), won this election. Caldera also ran for Congress and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the period 1948–1953. His congressional term, however, was interrupted after Gallegos was ousted by a coup d'état on 24 November 1948. In 1952, Caldera

10944-491: The course of 10 days), when torrential rains caused flash floods and debris flows that killed tens of thousands of people, destroyed thousands of homes, and led to the complete collapse of the state's infrastructure. According to relief workers, the neighborhood of Los Corales was buried under 3 metres (9.8 ft) of mud and a high percentage of homes were simply swept into the ocean. Entire towns including Cerro Grande and Carmen de Uria completely disappeared. As much as 10% of

11088-484: The debt crisis that gravely affected most third-world countries. His main concern was to denounce the injustice of placing the heavy burden of servicing the debt on the shoulders of the most impoverished and vulnerable people of third-world countries. As tenured Senator in the Venezuelan National Congress, Caldera chose to use the speaker podium exclusively on matters of national importance. As

11232-532: The department Vargas of the Federal District. In 1889, a year after Antonio Guzmán Blanco left power definitively, it was decided in a new territorial reorganization, to rename the Guzmán Blanco State with the name of "Estado Miranda", excluding from this new arrangement what was the province of Aragua. In 1909 both Vargas and Aguado were incorporated into Federal District. In 1936 Aguado and Vargas merged into one Department: Vargas. Until 1987, it kept

11376-694: The expulsion of the Jesuits and other religious orders from Venezuela. In 1936, Caldera founded the National Student Union (UNE), the seed of what eventually became the Venezuelan Christian Democratic movement. After graduating from university, Caldera founded National Action, a political movement formed to participate in municipal elections. Soon after, he founded the National Action Party and

11520-447: The flood and debris flow deposits from the previous days. The debris flows moved rapidly, and many of them were highly destructive. Based on the maximum sizes of boulders measured in the flood deposits and the amount by which the flow on the outside of a bend was higher than that on the inside, geologists estimate the flow velocities to range from 3.3–14.5 meters per second (11–48 ft/s). These rapid, bouldery flows resulted in much of

11664-403: The following spaces: 2. Low Pre-Mountain and High Pre-Mountain: It presents an altitude that varies between 600 and 1600 m.a.s.l. with an annual average temperature of 18 and 24 °C. In these climates they have registered average values of precipitation in: 3. Low Mountain: It presents an altitude that varies between 1600 and 2400 m.s.n.m. From the data of monthly average precipitation for

11808-588: The foundation for the longest period of civil democratic rule in Venezuela (1958–1999). Unable to reach agreement over a consensus candidate, the three major parties that signed the Puntofijo Pact (AD, URD, and COPEI) competed in the 1958 presidential election with their own candidates and platforms. Rafael Caldera lost to Rómulo Betancourt (AD) and Wolfgang Larrazábal (URD), who came in first and second place respectively. Caldera also ran for Congress and

11952-490: The government of Rafael Caldera decreed Vargas as an independent municipality, separate from the Federal District, with the statute of Federal Territory. Shortly after it became the 23rd state of Venezuela . In mid-December 1999, after several days of ever-increasing rains pouring over the Cordillera de la Costa Central and the piedmont within the span of 24 hours along the coastline for about 45 km (28 mi).,

12096-558: The government. Like the other 23 federal entities of Venezuela, the State maintains its own police force, which is supported and complemented by the National Police and the Venezuelan National Guard . According to the 2011 Census, the racial composition of the population was: The tourist resource in the state is conformed by significant natural attractions, which contain a singular beauty contributed by

12240-412: The halophilic and psamophilic herbaceous type, and bushes coastal xerophiles. Next, and according to the altitudinal succession, we observe thorny xerophytic shrubs (cardinal and spiny) of very variable density and low altitude (2–5 m); it is followed by the troopophilic basimontane forest, deciduous, transitional vegetation of the lowland species by the mountain species. Then, in the submontane belt extends

12384-745: The height above sea level. of the sea, according to the equation: Average 27.6 °C (average level 0.6) / 100. From the recorded and estimated values, three clearly defined zones are interpreted: a coastal zone with high annual average temperatures, which range from 25.4 °C to 26.1 °C. An intermediate mountainous zone (from 972 meters above sea level to 1300 meters above sea level), which presents temperatures ranging from 18.4 °C to 21.2 °C; and another higher mountainous zone with heights between 1787 meters above sea level and 2101 meters above sea level, where relatively low temperatures of 13.9 °C are registered in Alto de Ño León and 15.8 °C in

12528-414: The international oil trade. He raised taxes on oil production, nationalized the gas industry, and enacted stringent laws regulating the U.S. oil companies that operated in Venezuela. In 1971, Caldera raised the oil profit tax to 70 per cent. In addition, he passed the hydrocarbons reversion law which provided that all oil company assets would go to the State once the concessions had elapsed. This law paved

12672-408: The legislative sessions. Caldera played a prominent role in this assembly. He delivered celebrated speeches on the social rights of workers, the social function of private property, agrarian reform, religious freedom, religious education, and the need for direct, popular election of state governors. In the 1947 elections , at the age of 31, he ran for president for the first time and travelled around

12816-479: The many communities that were affected by the disaster, the Caraballeda fan was one of the most hard-hit. The intensity of the disaster here is a combination of two factors. First, the Caraballeda fan was heavily urbanized, with many high-rise buildings and multistory houses. Second, it lies at the mouth of the Quebrada San Julián (Saint Julian Ravine), and this watershed produced very large boulders and

12960-820: The members of the Organization of American States (OAS) adopted the Inter-American Convention against Corruption. The Convention is often referred to as the Caldera Convention, after the President of Venezuela, who was one of the driving forces behind it". President Caldera also insisted on making corruption the central theme of the VII Ibero-American Summit of Heads State and Government , hosted by Venezuela in 1997. The renowned Venezuelan economist Moises Naím ,

13104-583: The merciless attempts at forever lowering the prices of our goods while increasing the price of commodities we have to import." Caldera's most important domestic priorities during his first administration were education, housing, and infrastructure. He dramatically increased the number of educational institutions by doubling the number of public secondary schools and tripling the number of state university colleges and institutes of technology. Universities built and inaugurated during his administration include Simón Bolívar University , Simón Rodríguez , Táchira , and

13248-414: The modern boundaries of Vargas. Recorded events occurred in February 1798, August 1912, January 1914, November 1938, May 1944, November 1944, August 1948, and February 1951. In the February 1798 event, flash floods and debris flows severely damaged 219 homes. Spanish soldiers barricaded an upstream-facing entrance to a fort with cannons in order to prevent debris from filling it. Prior to the 1999 disaster,

13392-510: The modern stream channels. Erosion from the 1999 flood exposed bedrock benches 50 centimeters (20 in) to 2 meters (6 ft 7 in) above the present channel. These abandoned high surfaces suggest recent and continuing tectonic uplift of the Venezuelan coast and corresponding river channel incision. In spite of the fact that most onshore faults active in this region during the Quaternary are mapped as right-lateral strike-slip , it

13536-463: The most recent major flood had occurred in 1951, but that event did not cause as much damage. Based on aerial photos and records of measurements, geologists were able to directly compare the 1951 event to the 1999 event. The 1951 event involved less rainfall than the 1999 event, fewer landslides were triggered, and less fresh debris was observed on the fans. The unusually strong storm in December 1999 dumped 911 millimetres (35.9 in) of rain over just

13680-584: The most visited in the area, stands out. There is also a recreational park in the state of Vargas bordering the town of El Junquito, located in the municipality of Libertador, equipped with services for intensive enjoyment of the open field; the Metropolitan Recreational Park El Junquito was created according to presidential decree No. 913 published in the Official Gazette No. 30,693 on 18 May 1975. Within

13824-466: The mountain and coastal areas; it is mention: Oricao Club Campestre, Club Tanaguarena, Club Camurí Grande, Club Puerto Azul, Ciudad Vacacional Los Caracas, Altos de Lagunazo, areas adjacent to the Humboldt Hotel and Caraballeda golf courses. In the agricultural area of Galipán, several restaurants and rural recreation sites have been implemented, of which the Museo de Piedra Marina Soñadora, one of

13968-401: The name and conditions of Department, when by decree of 1986 it became Municipality Vargas. In the decade of the 90s of the 20th century, the autonomist demands that desired the state of La Guaira as a territory differentiated from the Federal District politically and economically increased. In 1998, the government of Rafael Caldera decreed the municipality of Vargas as autonomous, separate from

14112-485: The names of "El Libertador", "Vargas" and "Aguado", with Caracas, La Guaira and Maiquetía as their respective capitals. Their limits, those indicated by the law of April 28, 1856, on territorial division". In 1868, Vargas became part, together with the Libertador Department, of the State of Bolivar (current territory of the State of Miranda, Capital District and State of La Guaira together). In 1879, through

14256-443: The natural beaches near Punta Gorda,Tanaguarena, Camurí Grande and Los Caracas. On the other hand, the resorts are located in more accessible places, providing the public with some service infrastructure. Among the most popular are Playa Grande (Catia La Mar), Macuto, Camurí Chico, Playa Los Ángeles and Naiguatá. In addition to beach areas, there are other natural options with potential for to carry out ecotourism activities, close to

14400-423: The need to recognize the root causes of the crisis and the growing weakening of the people's faith in democratic values and institutions. One month after the February 1992 coup, he delivered a memorable speech at Universidad Central de Venezuela condemning the country's history with military dictatorships and coups d'état. He urged students to reject violent paths and search for answers to the crisis without abandoning

14544-591: The next high station of Colonia Tovar, located in the state of Aragua. The state consists almost entirely of coastlines as it faces the Caribbean Sea, but in the south of the state, is the Avila hill, icon of the state and Caracas, of the Cordillera de la Costa with peaks that exceed 2,000 m as Naiguatá Peak (2,765 m asl). It is home to Galipán, the highest population in La Guaira State, (partly because there

14688-406: The observed destruction. In addition to these debris flows, flash floods carrying extremely high sediment loads were very dangerous. Together the flash floods and debris flows destroyed hundreds of houses, bridges, and other structures. They incised new channels to depths of several meters into every alluvial fan delta on the Vargas state coastline, and they blanketed these fans with sediment. Of

14832-411: The ombrophile forest, seasonal semideciduous (trade winds forests). It is followed by a well-developed strip of submontane to evergreen mountain forests, called coastal cloud forests, dense forests with several medium to high tree strata. Finally, at the upper limit of the forest, from 2,200 meters above sea level, the areas of coastal shrubby moors are identified. The biodiversity of the state of Vargas

14976-580: The orchids, especially the Christmas orchid (Masdevallia tovarensis), an endemic species of the natural monument Agustin Codazzi. Like other states, the structure of the government of Vargas is laid out in the Constitution , the highest law in the state. It is an autonomous state and politically equal to the rest of the Venezuelan federation, it organizes its administration and public powers through

15120-474: The party primary. However, the party's old guard felt Prieto was too left-wing, and intervened to deliver the nomination to Gonzalo Barrios . Prieto and a number of his supporters broke off to form the People's Electoral Movement . Ultimately, Caldera defeated Barrios with 29.1 percent of the vote, a margin of just 32,000 votes. Prieto finished fourth, but his 719,000 votes far exceeded Caldera's margin. Caldera

15264-497: The past, the state of La Guaira has sought to have the jurisdiction of the Archipelago of Los Roques totally transferred to the state. There are also proposals to subdivide the state into 2 or 3 municipalities, which currently only has a single municipal entity. This region of Venezuela has undergone important changes over the years, and while the geographical borders have remained, the territorial delineation has varied. The area

15408-423: The population of Vargas died during the event. The coastal area of Vargas State has long been subject to mudslides and flooding. Deposits preserved on the alluvial fan deltas here show that geologically similar catastrophes have occurred with regularity since prehistoric times. Since the 17th century, at least two large-magnitude debris flow, landslide, or flood events, on average, have occurred each century within

15552-420: The principles and mechanisms of democracy. The 1961 Constitution did not allow former presidents to run again before ten years had elapsed after leaving office. In 1983, Caldera became eligible again and was chosen by his party COPEI to run against Jaime Lusinchi , the candidate of the opposition party AD , who won the presidential election. In 1993, Caldera ran for president as an independent candidate, with

15696-486: The real figure may be much higher. In the following weeks nearly the entire state's population was displaced. Locals refer to the Dec. 1999 disaster as "La Tragedia de Vargas" (the Vargas' Tragedy). Such climatic phenomenon (of extraordinarily high rainfall levels) appears to be periodical, having a cycle of about 70 years, and probably has occurred hundreds, perhaps thousands of times since a distant past. The state of La Guaira

15840-568: The risk to life and property from flash flood and debris flow events. As of 1999, several hundred thousand people lived in this narrow coastal strip in Vargas State. Many of these people lived atop alluvial fans formed by debris flows sourced out of the 2,000-meter (6,600 ft) peaks to their south. December 1999 was unusually wet along the north-central Venezuelan coast. The first, and less powerful, storm that month occurred 2–3 December and dropped 200 millimetres (7.9 in) of rain on

15984-632: The ruling party (AD). Soon thereafter, he was elected President of the Christian Democratic Organization of America (ODCA) for the period 1964–1968, and as first President of the Christian Democratic World Union for the period 1967–1968. In December 1968 Caldera ran for president for the third time. This time, Caldera benefited from a split in AD. Senate president Luis Beltrán Prieto Figueroa won

16128-403: The second largest bank in Venezuela, Banco Latino , failed and was taken over by the government. As of October 1994, the government had seized more than ten failed banks. As René Salgado explains in his research on government and economics in Venezuela, "the government's bailout of the financial sector guaranteed approximately 6 billion dollars to depositors, which represented roughly 75 percent of

16272-477: The shoreline an additional 40–60 meters into the sea. The deposit thicknesses range from 4–5 meters (maximum of 5.3 meters) near the center of the fan to around 0.5 meters near the pre-flood shoreline. Maximum boulder sizes decreased towards the shoreline due to the decreasing slope of the fan. The disaster caused estimated damages between $ 1.79 and $ 3.5 billion US dollars. The death toll was considered to be between 10,000 and 30,000 —the exact number of casualties

16416-533: The smallest territorial area in the country and represents 12.28% of the capital region. The entity has the following limits: to the north with the Caribbean Sea, to the south with the state of Miranda in the extreme southeast, the Capital District in the central sector and the state of Aragua in the extreme southwest; to the east with the state Miranda (the Chuspa River is the natural border), and to

16560-433: The state exists "The Individual Creation", a series of autonomous manifestations within the region and they are constituted in definitive as people of cultural relevance, for what their inhabitants devote themselves to the literature, to the interpretative creations, call the singer-songwriter, musicians and dances, many of the collections, the patrimonial carriers and to the artistic creations; among those that stand out inside

16704-460: The state suffered from massive floods which resulted in severe losses of life and property. In its wake as of December 16, the surviving population witnessed the massive destruction of most of the state infrastructure, including the collapse of most roads, bridges, housings, public and private buildings, and of basic services as electricity and communications; in which thousands were killed or missing. Official estimates some 50,000 dead or missing, but

16848-573: The state there are streams with the same name of some rivers in the area for simply being in the middle of the route of these water bodies. Considering as unit of analysis the mountainous system of the Coast, of which the Vargas state is part, the predominant type of soil in this unit is the Haplustults, whose main characteristics are: moderately deep (from 75 cm to 100 cm), of medium to fine textures, increasing its clay content with depth. It

16992-549: The steep slopes in this area. Because foliation planes are planes of weakness, these fabrics within the rocks strongly influence landslide and debris flow hazards. Where the foliation planes are dipping towards a free surface, failure is likely to occur along these planes. The alluvial fans that spread out into the sea from valley mouths were built by previous flood and debris flow events. The modern channel systems of these alluvial fan deltas are incised into previously deposited debris flow and flood material. Scientists at

17136-634: The support of a new party, National Convergence , which allowed members and sympathizers of COPEI to support his candidacy. He also received the support from a coalition of 17 small parties dismissed by opponents as " chiripas " (small cockroaches). Caldera won the presidency with almost 400.000 votes over his closest opponent Claudio Fermín , the candidate of AD. As it had been the case in his first administration, Caldera had to govern with an opposition majority in Congress. Caldera's second administration inherited and faced three adversities of great magnitude:

17280-605: The temporary sheltering of children that were feared orphaned in La Casona , the Presidential residence in Caracas . Others offered help, including Major League Baseball shortstop Omar Vizquel , a native Venezuelan, who helped raise over $ 500,000 in relief funds. After the initial emergency response, focus shifted to analyzing the causes of the disaster, and working to create a sustainable infrastructure for dealing with future torrential rains. A disaster relief team from

17424-521: The times of the Colonization; It is characterized for having a patio in its interior as the main axis, and that around it are the offices next to its rooms, the Stables at the end of it, and that to both sides are the warehouse, bedrooms or rooms, but that in its interior have doors of closings in wood or of lock, and with an annex like conference room for with the different sessions of the center; It

17568-732: The way for the nationalization of the oil industry, which was overseen by finance minister Luis Enrique Oberto . In his official visit to the U.S. in 1970, Caldera obtained a commitment from the Nixon administration to increase the market share of Venezuelan petroleum exports to the United States. Speaking before a joint session of the U.S. Congress, Caldera won repeated applause from the Senators and Representatives as he bluntly urged Americans to change their approach toward Latin America: "The formula for achieving cordial relations," he said, "cannot be

17712-485: The west with the state of Aragua (Moralera Creek and the Maya River define the boundary with this state). La Guaira state covers a total surface area of 1,497 km (578 sq mi). The climate of the state is a factor that generates strong territorial contrasts, since it varies according to the altitudinal levels. In general, the climate is arid tropical, in the high zones of Galipán, Carayaca and El Junko it

17856-500: The words of Professor Levine, "the most stable mass democracy in South America". For four decades, he explains, "Venezuelans built a political system marked by high participation, strong leadership, institutional continuity, and genuine pervasive competition. Power was transferred peacefully in six consecutive national elections." Caldera came in second place in the 1963 presidential election that Raúl Leoni won as candidate of

18000-456: The year, with the Mamo season recording the driest period from January to March. The analysis of the geographical distribution of the annual average temperature is carried out based on the stations with available records, being these the ones located in the coastal area. For the mountainous zone, we adapted the equation of correlation between the average temperature of an area in degrees Celsius and

18144-439: The years, its territory (Aguado and Vargas) was part of the province of Caracas, during the whole colonial period. According to the decree of March 9, 1864, by Marshal Juan Crisóstomo Falcón, the organization of the Federal District is established in the following terms: "Article 2.- The Federal District, whose capital is Caracas, is made up of the former cantons of Caracas, La Guaira and Maiquetía, which will form Departments under

18288-496: The young twenty-year-old Caldera. Contreras appointed him deputy director of the newly created National Labor Office. From this position, Caldera played a major role in the drafting of Venezuela's first Labor Law, which remained current for more than fifty years until its reform in 1990. The international lawyer Wilfred Jenks , who drafted the Declaration of Philadelphia on labor rights and served two terms as Director-General of

18432-469: Was President during the second period of civilian democratic rule in a country beleaguered by a history of political violence and military caudillos . His leadership helped to establish Venezuela's reputation as one of the more stable democracies in Latin America during the second half of the twentieth century. He is also remembered as the President who pardoned Hugo Chávez in December 1994, enabling him to gain freedom from prison and later on to run for

18576-648: Was appointed Solicitor General by Rómulo Betancourt , head of the Revolutionary Government Junta that ousted President Isaías Medina Angarita on 18 October 1945 . On 13 January 1946, Caldera co-founded COPEI , Comité de Organización Política Electoral Independiente (Independent Political Electoral Organization Committee), the Christian Democratic Party that grew to become one of the two largest mass political parties in Venezuela. COPEI's first statement of principles

18720-433: Was associated with the custom of burying a pig's rib called sardine, symbolizing the prohibition of eating meat during the days of Lent. There are those who believe that the burial of the sardine was a way of attracting abundant fishing and fertility of the animals before a new cycle of reproduction, but it is also considered a typical festival of carnivals because it is a time when it is normally allowed to do everything that

18864-518: Was awarded the Medal " Honor The Value " and a certificate for the role he played. He also received plaques and medals from private institutions and governments, international tributes and recognition by the Grand Lodge of Masonry in Venezuela . On 1 December 2008, Orion died of intestinal gastroenteritis . Three films were made about the tragedy by Venezuelan filmmakers, all released in 2011; this

19008-600: Was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies . In this capacity, he co-presided the Bicameral Commission in charge of drafting the new Constitution. The 1961 Constitution was Venezuela's most successful and long-lived Constitution. This country adopted twenty-five different constitutions between 1811 and 1961, and only three of them (1830, 1854, 1881) lasted more than ten years. After its long history under dictatorships and arbitrary rule, Venezuela became, in

19152-498: Was elected in January 1941, at the age of twenty-five, to the Chamber of Deputies for his native state of Yaracuy. As a congressman, he strongly opposed the bill that led to the 1941 boundary treaty with Colombia . He also had a prominent role in the debates on the partial reform of the 1936 Constitution and revisions to the Civil Code, and was a leading voice in the enactment of progressive labor laws. On 27 October 1945, Caldera

19296-520: Was elected representative to the National Constituent Assembly . After Colonel Marcos Pérez Jiménez , head of the Military Junta, ignored the electoral triumph of the URD party (Democratic Republican Union), and expelled Jóvito Villalba and other leaders of this party from the country, Caldera and other elected party members of COPEI refused to participate in the new Constituent Assembly. During

19440-517: Was in crisis. Even though Caldera was one of the main architects of the system, he was one of the first to realize its weakness. So much oil (by some estimates, in the decade after the 1973 oil price surge, Venezuela received 240 billion dollars, or five times the Marshall Plan) had led not just to dependence but widespread corruption and growing resentment from the popular sectors left off the gravy train". In these speeches, Caldera insisted on

19584-605: Was influenced by talks with Fidel Castro ; though he complied with Chávez's order. As part of its medical internationalism , Cuba provided medical support after the landslides. Cuba sent a 450-member medical brigade, which remained in Venezuela after the conclusion of the emergency. This experience contributed to Chávez's view that Cuba would be an important partner in the Chávez administration's foreign policy . Despite initial dispersals of emergency funds, receiving tens of millions of dollars from international organizations and

19728-418: Was inspired by the social teaching of the papal encyclical Quadragesimo Anno (1931) and embraced democracy, pluralism and social reform. Four months later, on 13 April 1946, Caldera resigned from his position as Solicitor General in protest against the continuous violent attacks that members of his newly created party were suffering from government supporters. In 1946, he was elected as a representative to

19872-417: Was once again imprisoned, but this time in solitary confinement, after Pérez Jiménez learned that Caldera, in all likelihood, would be the consensus candidate for all opposition parties in the presidential election scheduled for December, 1957. With Caldera imprisoned, Pérez Jiménez turned the election into an unconstitutional plebiscite ("Yes" or "No" referendum) to decide his permanence in power. Following

20016-668: Was presented in March 1992, but did not receive the necessary support from the major political parties in Congress. This project included provisions to restructure the Judiciary as well as mechanisms to strengthen citizen participation in democracy. These changes had been demanded by most sectors of Venezuela's society, in light of corruption in the administration of justice and insufficient means for citizens to directly participate in governmental decisions. The political events that later unfolded in 1999, and particularly President Chávez' call for

20160-508: Was previously one of the departments of the Venezuela's Federal District (the other being the Libertador department, now Libertador Municipality ), and the governor of this region was chosen by the national government. The area later evolved into a municipality, but was still dependent on the governor of the Federal District. In the 1990s there were increased calls for Vargas to become a separate entity, distinct from Federal District. In 1998

20304-529: Was signed. This pact contained important political agreements, especially, the commitment of all major political parties to build, protect and strengthen democratic institutions and the rule of law. According to political science scholar Daniel H. Levine, its aim was to "support democracy, band together to resist challenges to its legitimacy and survival; respect elections; and strive in general to institutionalize politics, channeling participation within democratic vehicles and arenas." The Puntofijo Pact served as

20448-408: Was sworn in on 11 March 1969. For the first time in Venezuela's 139-year history as an independent nation, there was a peaceful and democratic transfer of power from the ruling party to the opposition. It was also the first time in the country's history that a party won power without ever having resorted to violence. However, COPEI still had a minority in the legislature. The process of pacification,

20592-762: Was the Arauaco Indians who first inhabited the central coast and then the western part of Venezuela. However, 500 years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus , they were displaced, in some places by the Caribs, settled on these coasts. The state of La Guaira later became the great Tarma nation, extended between Puerto Maya and the Valles del Tuy, populated by Indians, who spoke the Caribbean language. A mestizo Guaiquerí, Francisco Fajardo, arrived in 1555 and founded La Villa del Rosario. The outrages committed against

20736-564: Was the tripartite agreement over labor benefits, social security, and pension funds, reached between labor unions, the private business sector, and the State, after ten years of stalled negotiations. The fight against corruption was a central priority in Caldera's second term. In March 1996, as the GlobalSecurity organization describes, "an epochal event occurred, hardly creating a ripple in the world press. In its third plenary session,

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