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129-836: This affordable, lightweight and simple automobile replaced the air-cooled, rear-engined ZAZ Zaporozhets 966-968 series models as "the people's car". SeAZ factory specialized in building purpose-built vehicles for handicapped drivers and by the 1970s their offering was the S-3D , a spartan, boxy two-seat sedan powered by a motorcycle engine. Despite being noisy and smoky, the S-3D was, nevertheless, very popular with mobility-challenged drivers many of whom were World War II veterans and, being such, received their vehicles free of charge. When engineers in Serpukhov under factory manager Alexander Popov (who told Minavtoprom (the automotive ministry) SeAZ needed

258-672: A front-wheel drive and a more powerful water-cooled engine. The name Zaporozhets translates into a Cossack of the Zaporizhian Sich or а man from Zaporozhye (now Zaporizhzhia ) or the Zaporozhye Oblast (now Zaporizhzhia Oblast ). Zaporozhets is still well known in many former Soviet states. Like the Volkswagen Beetle or East Germany 's Trabant , the Zaporozhets was destined to become

387-733: A "people's car" of the Soviet Union , and as such it was the most affordable vehicle of its era. At the same time, it was rather sturdy and known for its excellent performance on poor roads. Another important advantage of the Zaporozhets was its ease of repair. The car's appearance gave birth to several nicknames that became well known across the Soviet Union: horbatyi (" hunchback ", owing to ZAZ-965's insect -like form; although ZAZ factory workers never used this nickname ), malysh (English: Kiddy ), ushastyi ("big- eared ", due to ZAZ-966 and ZAZ-968's round air intakes on each side of

516-472: A 15 PS (11 kW) 500 cc (31 cu in) vee-twin (half an MeMZ-965), electromagnetic clutch and four-speed transmission. Fitted with a four-wheel independent suspension and weighing just 520 kg (1,150 lb), and intended for use by the disabled, it was never built. The ZAZ KD of 1969 was also based on the ZAZ-965, fitted with a glassfibre body, giving it a weight of only 500 kg and

645-716: A 1963 ZAZ-965A. In the 2011 animated feature film Cars 2 , the Trunkovs (Vladimir, Petrov, Lubewig, and Tolga) are based on the ZAZ-968 Zaporozhets. In the video game MudRunner , a car based on the ZAZ-968 is found in several maps named A-968M. In Half-Life 2 the car is shown in dilapidated condition as a prop that clutters some roads. It also appears as a prop in the S.T.A.L.K.E.R. games. Similar air-cooled and rear-engined vehicles: Volkswagen Beetle The Volkswagen Beetle , officially

774-547: A 3.3% increase from the previous year. When including Audis produced at Ingolstadt, the combined output from Volkswagen and its Auto-Union company constituted 50.4% of all West German cars produced that year. In 1968, the Type 1 was officially given the name "Beetle" (from "der Käfer", German for beetle ). While it was largely successful in the 1960s, recording its highest sales growth in North America from 1960 to 1965,

903-459: A 90- mile-per-hour speedometer . On 30 July 1962, Volkswagen made several updates for the 1963 model year , including the incorporation of an air filter into the oil filter, the introduction of larger-diameter cylinder head induction ports and the adoption of plastic for the headliner and window guides. Volkswagen replaced the Wolfsburg crest on the hood, which had been present since 1951, with

1032-521: A car similarly shaped to the Beetle, more than five years before Porsche unveiled his initial "People's Car" design. Through a court ruling in 1953, Barényi successfully asserted his authorship and associated claims. He explained that he had previously elucidated the concept of the Beetle, which was already formulated in the 1920s, to Porsche in great detail. However, this concept was not protected sufficiently by patents . Key elements of this concept included

1161-591: A cargo compartment instead of two rear seats. Series production of the Oka ended in Russia in 2008, when SeAZ built the last batch of Okas with Chinese EURO-2 engines. In the summer of 2023, the Russian government started talking about a possible revival of the brand. Its road agility and acceleration rate (quite surprising for its appeal) prevented it from taking Zaporozhets' place in folklore (which takes its delight in

1290-399: A final target of 3,000 per day. During 1960, the company occasionally increased production by around 100; by the end of 1960, Volkswagen planned to produce 4,000 examples daily. Nordhoff stated, "Then we believe we shall have reached a balance between supply and demand so that we can finally deliver Volkswagens to customers without a waiting period". By the early 1960s, the Wolfsburg facility

1419-479: A full-flow oil filter , a 6.6:1 compression ratio —allowing for the use of unleaded fuel —and an electric fuel pump . A standard version was also released in 1993, featuring painted bumper bars and many minor removals. From 1997, front disc brakes and an immobiliser became available, and the De Luxe model featured small traffic indicator side lamps ahead of the top door hinge. The steering wheel's centre boss

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1548-410: A horizontal chrome decoration. Among other changes was a less austere dashboard and better front brakes. The ZAZ-968 was discontinued in 1978, having been produced simultaneously with the newer 968A since 1973, which was produced until 1980. It introduced new safety measures, including a new steering wheel and a plastic dashboard instead of the earlier metal one. The ZAZ-968A also had its variants for

1677-707: A lack of interest from British car manufacturers; an official report included the phrase, "The vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car [...] it is quite unattractive to the average buyer [...] To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise." Instead, the factory remained operational by producing cars for the British Army . Allied dismantling policy changed from late 1946 to mid-1947. During this period, heavy industry in Germany continued until 1951. In March 1947, Herbert Hoover helped change policy by stating: There

1806-677: A lawsuit, halted only by Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938, leading to the Nazi administration of the Tatra factory in October. Hitler instructed Tatra to focus exclusively on heavy trucks and diesel engines, discontinuing all car models except the V8-engined Tatra 87 . The issue resurfaced post-World War II, and in 1965, Volkswagen paid Ringhoffer-Tatra 1,000,000 Deutsche Marks in an out-of-court settlement. The name Volkswagen

1935-415: A little Ukrainian-built economy car whose mechanicals dated back to 1959. Among the export variants produced by ZAZ were ZAZ-965E, ZAZ-965AE, ZAZ-966E, ZAZ-968E, and ZAZ-968AE , which had improved features compared to vehicles made for the home market. Depending on target markets, the model names Jalta or Eliette were used for these cars. In total, 3,422,444 Zaporozhets vehicles were manufactured in

2064-509: A manner like suicide doors , partly to make it more accessible to the disabled. One of the primary differences was that the engine , which featured a V4 layout in place of the Fiat 's inline-four , was air-cooled, like the flat-4 engine used by Volkswagen in vehicles like the Beetle and Type 2 microbus. The Zaporozhets also featured bigger wheels and front suspension on torsion bars. In 1958,

2193-476: A new product) conceived the Oka, they turned to their VAZ colleagues for help. The project was approved in 1983. Prior to the Oka, VAZ designers had been working on a number of microcars, including a similar-looking variant of the VAZ-1101 offered by the designer Yuri Danilov in 1971, but those models did not go into production. The tiny car was to be a replacement for the S-3D, and, like its predecessor, featured

2322-425: A political organisation aimed at providing the populace with leisure activities) was in charge of this project. Robert Ley , the Nazi official heading Kraft durch Freude (KdF), announced in 1938 that every German would own a Volkswagen within ten years. However, there were challenges. Gasoline prices in Germany were high due to taxes, making it expensive for private car ownership. Gasoline was also primarily used for

2451-569: A quick and inexpensive part exchange. As Hitler explained, the reason for choosing an air-cooled engine was that many rural doctors did not have access to garages for maintaining coolant. On 22 June 1934, Ferdinand Porsche received a development contract from the Verband der Automobilindustrie (German Association of the Automotive Industry) for the prototype of an inexpensive and economical passenger car after Hitler decided there

2580-518: A savings plan to buy a car. At that time, Germany had fewer cars than other European countries. In 1930, there were only about 500,000 registered cars in Germany, while France and Great Britain had over 1 million each, and the USA had more than 26 million. However, the onset of the Second World War hindered the distribution of the cars, and there was a lack of time for series production . With

2709-415: A significant downturn, leading to the loss of many dealerships for the company. In 1991, the planning of a new car began once J Mays and Freeman Thomas returned to California to open Volkswagen's Design Centre at Simi Valley . Recognising that Japanese manufacturers dominated the market in the 1970s and '80s, Volkswagen needed to introduce a vehicle to regain popularity. Before this, the company began

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2838-465: A simple motorcycle engine. Andrei Rozov, one of lead engine designers at VAZ, proposed a new three-cylinder engine, but, due to time constraints, that engine was not developed, and the decision was made to employ a two-cylinder variant of the VAZ-2108 four-cylinder engine by essentially chopping the latter in half. It was 1983, and the first Soviet front-wheel drive automobile, the 2108, was ready to hit

2967-408: A slight curvature, replacing its flat configuration. Door windows also expanded by 6%, with a slight backward canting of door vent window edges. Rear side windows increased by 17.5%, and the rear window by 19.5%. In 1967, updates comprised shortened front and rear bonnets, box-profile bumpers with a railway rails design that were installed at a higher position, vertically oriented scattering discs for

3096-416: A textile cover could be added at an extra cost. By March of the same year, the export model began to be equipped with a hydraulic brake system , which became a standard feature from April onwards. In 1952, the equipment was enhanced with the addition of vent windows in the doors, and the wheels were reduced to a diameter of 15 inches (380 mm) from the previous 16 inches (410 mm). On 10 March 1953,

3225-524: A top speed of 75 mph (121 km/h) using just 30 PS (22 kW). It was never produced in quantity, either. The second generation of the Zaporozhets was a series of subcompact cars , starting with the ZAZ-966, which entered production in November 1966, although the prototype was first demonstrated in 1961. It had a completely restyled bodywork (done entirely by ZAZ ), no longer resembling

3354-464: Is made even better." Motor Trend , August 1960 In 1960, Volkswagen introduced a series of technical alterations. The front indicators were relocated to the front bonnet within chrome housings, and the rear indicators were integrated into the tail lamps . In January, the valve-clearing adjusting nut was slightly enlarged and resistor-type ignition leads were adopted. In March, Volkswagen made several modifications to its front trailing arm and

3483-534: Is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a " pastoral state ". It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it. Major Ivan Hirst (1916–2000), a British Army officer, has been widely acknowledged for the reopening of the factory. Hirst was ordered to take control of the heavily bombed factory, which the Americans had captured. Recognising

3612-482: The Golf in 1974. In the late 1970s and '80s, Japanese automakers began to dominate the market, which contributed to the Beetle's declining popularity. Over its lifespan, the Beetle's design remained consistent, yet Volkswagen implemented over 78,000 incremental updates. These modifications were often subtle, involving minor alterations to its exterior, interior, colours, and lighting. Some more noteworthy changes included

3741-618: The Irbitskiy Motorcycle Plant , which was "totally unsuited": it produced only 17.5  hp (13.0  kW ; 17.7  PS ) and lasted only 30,000 km (19,000 mi) between major overhauls. As a result, a search for another engine was begun, and the success of the VW Type 1 's boxer led to a preference for an air-cooled engine, which NAMI (the National Automobile Institute) had on

3870-522: The Kommandeurswagen persisted until 1944 when the production at the plant halted due to the extensive damage inflicted by the Allied air raids. Due to gasoline shortages late in the war, a few " Holzbrenner " (wood-burner) Beetles were built fueled with wood logs. Planned for September 1939, Kraft durch Freude arranged an event to showcase Germany's Autobahn highway system and to promote

3999-700: The Melitopolski Motor Plant , MeMZ. ) The V4 was a rather unusual engine configuration for an automobile, with its only other notable use in a similar era being in Ford vehicles like the Taunus and Transit van. It had the drawback of needing to have the rear of the car redesigned to fit, as well as needing a new rear suspension. The influence of the LuAZ designers led to the introduction of independent suspension on all four wheels. Its front doors open in

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4128-552: The Puebla plant in Mexico, Volkswagen produced the final Type 1, after 21,529,464 examples were produced globally during its tenure. Its production span of 65 years is the longest of any single generation of automobile, and its total production of over 21.5   million is the most of any car of a single platform . To celebrate the occasion, Volkswagen marketed a series of 3,000 Beetles as "Última Edición" (Final Edition). While

4257-688: The V570 prototype, which featured an air-cooled flat-twin engine mounted at the rear. Hitler and Porsche both were influenced by the Tatras. Hitler, an avid automotive enthusiast, rode in Tatras multiple times during political tours of Czechoslovakia and had frequent dinners with Ledwinka. Following one such tour, Hitler remarked to Porsche, "This is the car for my roads". From 1933 onwards, Ledwinka and Porsche met regularly to discuss their designs, and Porsche admitted, "Well, sometimes I looked over his shoulder, and sometimes he looked over mine" while designing

4386-524: The Volkswagen Type 1 , is a small family car produced by the German company Volkswagen from 1938 to 2003. One of the most iconic cars in automotive history, the Beetle is noted for its distinctive shape. Its production period of 65 years is the longest of any single generation of automobile, and its total production of over 21.5 million is the most of any car of a single platform . The Beetle

4515-677: The ZAZ-968MB2 , for drivers who had only one foot, and the ZAZ-968MB for drivers who had no feet. Planned ZAZ-968s with 1,300 cc (79 cu in) or 1,400 cc (85 cu in) engines would never enter production, likely a side effect of the stagnation of Russia in the 1970s and 80s and the subsequent reign of Gorbachev , the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the breakup of the Soviet Union occupying more attention than

4644-403: The 1200 received fully independent suspension , some stylistic improvements and an external fuel cap . The 1300 transitioned from six-volt to twelve-volt electrics and received dual circuit braking and a fuel gauge. The 1500 also received these alterations, as well as carburettor enhancements. In 1969, the 1200 received twelve-volt electrics, hazard warning lamps and a locking fuel cap. The 1300

4773-632: The 1933 Berlin Auto Show . The Standard Superior , designed by Ganz for the Standard vehicle factory, featured an implied teardrop-shaped body on a central tubular frame with a rear swing axle, yet the engine was transversely installed in front of the axle, not longitudinally as a rear engine. The Austrian automobile designer Hans Ledwinka , whom Porsche was a contemporary, worked at the Czechoslovakian company Tatra . In 1931, Tatra built

4902-460: The 1974 model year, possessing the same specifications as the 1300 but maintaining the same overall design as the 1200. The VW 1302, introduced in August 1970, featured a redesigned front end. It incorporated a new front axle featuring MacPherson suspension struts , wishbones and a stabiliser. The enlargement of the front trunk became possible as a result. Unlike its predecessor, the spare wheel

5031-558: The 1989 Moscow International Motor Show , VAZ exhibited a battery-electric version known as the VAZ-111E. The car was produced on a special-order basis until 1998. The 120 V worth of batteries were stored in the engine bay, beneath the seats and in the cargo bay, giving the car a range of approximately 100 km. In 2002 the car was awarded zero stars out of a possible four by the Russian ARCAP safety assessment program;

5160-714: The 30 PS ZAZ-966A-powered model became the ZAZ-966-1 which was only ever produced in small numbers. The ZAZ-966B, weighing in at 780 kg (1,720 lb), was heavier than the earlier model, but faster, reaching 75 mph (121 km/h). The ZAZ-966 was discontinued in 1972, with the introduction of the ZAZ-968. Nicknamed "Zapo" in the Eastern Bloc , the ZAZ-966 also found some buyers in Western Europe, including Finland and France. Some markets swapped

5289-624: The Beetle in the 1960s, including 1200, 1300, 1500, 1600, 1302, and 1303. Volkswagen introduced a series of large luxury models throughout the 1960s and 1970s—comprising the Type 3 , Type 4 and the K70 —to supplement the Beetle, but none of these models achieved the level of success that it did. Rapidly changing consumer preferences toward front-wheel drive compact hatchbacks in Europe prompted Volkswagen's gradual shift away from rear-wheel drive, starting with

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5418-596: The Beetle started facing competition from more contemporary designs worldwide in the 1970s. The decade started out well for Volkswagen, which sold 569,000 Beetles in 1970. In 1970, fifteen Volkswagen dealerships in Washington convened to implement the Volkswagen American Dealers Association , which was made to preserve a free market of imported international automobiles through political pressure and lobbying. On 17 February 1972,

5547-614: The Beetle. As opposed to the Beetle, the Golf was substantially redesigned over its lifetime, with only a few components carried over between generations. On 10 January 1980, the final Beetle convertible of 330,281 rolled off the production line at the Karmann facility in Osnabrück . It was the most successful convertible for a long time and was replaced by the first Golf cabriolet in 1979. The number of Beetle units sold by Volkswagen

5676-494: The Eastern Bloc) had headlights modified to meet international standards, a safety glass windscreen, and an anti-theft steering lock. In 1979, the ZAZ-968 series was replaced by the modernized ZAZ-968M . Prototyped in 1977, it had the "ears" removed and replaced much of the chrome exterior with black plastic. Its interior design was also upgraded, featuring an enclosed glove box and a slightly more modern dashboard. It

5805-631: The Fiat 600 and arguably similar to the Chevrolet Corvair , Hillman Imp or the NSU Prinz . This was an effort to cure some of the ZAZ-965's issues, such as torsion bars that lost tension, suicide doors , and engines that overheated and made the cabin uncomfortably loud. The engine was the 30 PS (22 kW) 887 cc (54.1 cu in) MeMZ-966A . A radio was standard equipment. The price had inched up, too, from 1,800 roubles at

5934-489: The Forces of Occupation received 20,991 cars, leaving less than 10,000 for export or domestic consumption. The number of employees increased from 6,033 by the end of 1945 to almost 57,000 in 1957. After the war, over 10,000 apartments were built to house the workers in Wolfsburg, which then had a population of nearly 60,000. In 1959, Volkswagen invested more than DM500   million to increase daily production by 1,000, reaching

6063-514: The Melitopol factory from 1960 to 1994, with all of them using the same family of air cooled V-4 engines mounted in the back. In the 1963 Soviet romantic comedy Three Plus Two , a ZAZ-965 with license plate number 18-15-лдг is featured in numerous scenes throughout the movie, and is even referred to directly in the script as "a tin can of the Zaporozhets system." In the 1995 James Bond film GoldenEye , Bond's CIA contact Jack Wade drove

6192-834: The Mikoyan Diesel-Building Factory in Melitopol , which was part of the Soyuzdiesel combinat. The first car, dubbed the ZAZ-965 Zaporozhets, was delivered 12 June 1959, was approved 25 July 1960, and entered production 25 October. The Zaporozhets was priced at 1,800 redenominated roubles . There was also a car-derived van model for the Soviet post office, the ZAZ-965S, with right-hand drive and blanked-off windows. The ZAZ-965A

6321-534: The Second World War because the Volkswagen plant at Fallersleben (now Wolfsburg ), founded in May 1938, was not yet finished. During the war, other German manufacturers were concurrently producing military vehicles and armaments , so the series production of the then-called Volkswagen car could not begin until peacetime; nevertheless, 210 KdF-Wagens were manufactured by the end of the war in May 1945. Following

6450-480: The Type 1 and used by the Wehrmacht . These vehicles, including several hundred Kommandeurswagen (Type 87), featured a Type 1 Beetle body mounted on the robust chassis of the four-wheel-drive Type 86 Kübelwagen prototype. The Kommandeurswagen included a portal axle, a Schwimmwagen drivetrain, wider fenders, and oversized Kronprinz all-terrain tyres, reminiscent of the later Baja Bugs . The production of

6579-508: The Type 60 K 10, officially known as the Porsche 64 . Although the engineers produced three vehicles, they never made it to the race due to the outbreak of war before the scheduled date; two of them disappeared during the conflict. Austrian Otto Mathé acquired the third Berlin-Rome car and raced it throughout the 1950s, becoming the fastest in its class during the 1950 Alpine Cup. He continued to use it until his death in 1995. Following

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6708-406: The Type 60 before 1946, received the dub "Pretzel Beetle" due to its distinctive oval-shaped, vertically divided rear window. On 1 July 1949, the Volkswagen lineup was expanded to include the "export" model featuring enhanced interiors, chrome bumpers, and trim. It was offered in a variety of colours to distinguish it from the preceding "Standard" model. Starting in 1950, an optional sunroof with

6837-460: The Type 60 by Porsche, the Beetle project involved a team of designers and engineers comprising Erwin Komenda , who specialised in the bodywork; Josef Kales, responsible for the engine design; Karl Rabe , serving as the chief engineer; and Josef Mickl and Franz Xaver Reimspiess, the latter credited for devising the iconic Volkswagen badge. The project saw significant milestones in October 1935 with

6966-750: The V3s underwent over 50,000 km (31,000 mi) of testing across various terrains. A series of thirty W30 development models, commissioned by Porsche and manufactured by Daimler-Benz, underwent testing in early April 1937, covering a total distance of over 2,900,000 kilometres (1,800,000 mi). All vehicles featured the characteristic rounded design and included air-cooled , rear-mounted engines . A further batch of 44 VW38 pre-production cars produced in 1938 introduced split rear windows, and subsequently, Volkswagen introduced fifty VW39 cars, completed in July 1939. Kraft durch Freude (Strength Through Joy,

7095-502: The VW Beetle, impacting the Tatra 77 and other vehicles. His initial patents and publications date back to the early 1920s. The engineer Christian Binnebesel scientifically presented Jaray's significant contribution to streamline form in his 2008 dissertation. Josef Ganz's potential early contributions to the original Beetle's development remained controversial for years and lacked clear clarification. Research suggests that his idea and

7224-592: The Volkswagen Beetle continued in Australia, Mexico and Nigeria. In the 1960s and '70s, Volkswagen augmented its product portfolio with several models to supplement the Type 1—the Type 3 , the Type 4 and the NSU -based K70 sedan. None of these models achieved the level of success of the Beetle. The overdependence on a singular model, which was experiencing a decline in popularity, meant that Volkswagen

7353-504: The Volkswagen facility dedicated solely to wartime requirements, the over 330,000 KdF savers could not acquire their vehicles. Following the war, numerous KdF savers pressed for the receipt of a Volkswagen. When their request was denied, the VW saver initiative ensued, spanning several years. During the war, the factory predominantly built the Kübelwagen (Type 82), the Schwimmwagen (Type 166) and numerous other light utility vehicles . These vehicles were derived mechanically from

7482-410: The Volkswagen. The Tatra 97 of 1936 had a 1,749 cc, rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder boxer engine . It accommodated five passengers in its compact four-door body, which provided luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seats. Just before the outbreak of World War II , Tatra filed numerous legal claims against VW for patent infringement. Tatra launched

7611-415: The ZAZ-965's debut to 2,200 by 1969. While featuring a larger two-door notchback saloon body, it still featured an air-cooled V4 engine and featured more prominent air intakes – the so-called "ears", although a decorative chrome grille was also present. The car's rear suspension was also replaced. The ZAZ-966 started out as the simpler ZAZ-966V (ЗАЗ-966В in Cyrillic ) with the 30 PS engine from

7740-416: The ZAZ-965A, which was also featured on all later models. Much like the ZAZ-965A, the ZAZ-966V was also produced in several special variants for the disabled (VR, VB, VB2 - until January 1973). It was produced in tandem with the ZAZ-965 from November 1966 to May 1969. ZAZ launched an upgraded ZAZ-966B in 1968, powered by a new 40 PS (29 kW) 1,197 cc (73.0 cu in) MeMZ-968 V4, while

7869-464: The adoption of the crankshaft from the Type 3 . This extended the stroke from 64 mm (2.5 in) to 69 mm (2.7 in), resulting in an engine displacement of approximately 78 cubic inches (1,280 cm ). 1965 also marked the Beetle's most extensive design change when its body stampings were extensively revised. It allowed for significantly larger windows, a departure from previous designs. The windshield increased by 11% in area and adopted

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7998-412: The air-cooled four-cylinder boxer engine at the rear, the transmission positioned in front of the rear axle, and the distinctive roundish shape. Dieter Landenberger, the head of Porsche's historical archive, later affirmed that Barényi played a "decisive role in the authorship of the later VW Beetle". Since then, he has been known for conceiving the original car design. Many assume that Paul Jaray shaped

8127-463: The awkwardness and slow speed of the former). Its small size and weight (635 kilograms), however, gave birth to a multitude of funny (and often true) stories involving several men carrying an Oka away from its parking place. Special modifications for disabled people (missing one or both legs or one arm) were being distributed for free through the Soviet Union's (and later Russia's) social service system. Like its brethren VW Beetle , it often attracts

8256-554: The car to cool the rear-mounted engine), zapor ("constipation"), mylnitsa ("soap-box", for ZAZ-968M, lacking "ears" and producing a more box-like appearance). Numerous special versions of the Zaporozhets were produced, equipped with additional sets of controls that allowed operating the car with a limited set of limbs, and were given for free or with considerable discounts to disabled people, especially war veterans - similar to SMZ -series microcars. These mobility cars would at times take up to 25% of ZAZ factory output. The ZAZ-965

8385-446: The car's body design through his aerodynamics calculations. According to a November 2021 update of research mentioned in the fifteenth report by the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , Jaray's findings influenced the design of "Hitler's streamlined KdF car", later known as the 'beetle', which became the best-selling car globally post-war. Jaray's research results in fluid mechanics for ground-bound vehicles extended beyond

8514-441: The cessation of hostilities the British occupying forces brought the factory into operation and by the close of 1945, 1,785 Volkswagens had been built, delivered to the occupying powers and the postal service . The Beetle featured a rear-located, air-cooled four-cylinder, boxer engine and rear-wheel drive in a two-door bodywork featuring a flat front windscreen, accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under

8643-406: The cheapest Soviet-made cars. Quite a large number of them were produced in variants for disabled people, with modified steering. Between November 1966 and May 1969 the ZAZ-965A and its successor, the ZAZ966, were produced concurrently. When production of the ZAZ-965 ended, 322,116 had been built. The ZAZ-965 also inspired the 1962 prototype NAMI 086, named Sputnik (Fellow Traveller), with

8772-399: The company's lettering. A heating system was also introduced. In 1965, the 1200A designation was introduced for the standard Beetle with the 22 kW (30 hp) engine. Volkswagen introduced the 1300 in August 1965, equipped with a 1.3-litre engine producing 29.5 kW (39.6 hp). Although featuring an identical design, the 6 horsepower (4.5 kW) increase was achieved through

8901-476: The completion of the first two Type-60 prototypes, identified as cars V1 (sedan) and V2 (convertible), denoted with a "V" (for Versuchs – "prototype") signifying their status as a test car . The testing of three additional V3 prototypes began on 11 July 1936, the first of which was driven to Obersalzberg and inspected by Hitler. Two V3s were delivered to Berlin in August for examination by other Nazi Party officials, who showed great interest in them. By June 1936,

9030-534: The concept in its final form, which was slated for completion by the end of the century. To help gauge public demand of the forthcoming automobile in the United States, Volkswagen implemented a free-access telephone line to allow members to express their thoughts on the car. The line quickly became inundated with calls, with many saying, "You build it, I'll buy it!" Work on the Concept One continued, with further redesigns on its front fascia . To reduce production investments and expenses, Volkswagen initially planned to use

9159-424: The concept of a compact car played a significant role in the VW Beetle's development and its prototypes. Ganz personally drove a Hanomag Kommissbrot and a swing-axle Tatra—both featuring elements such as a central tubular frame, independent wheel suspension, and a rear/mid-engine design. Ganz incorporated these technical features into his proposed vehicle designs. Hitler reportedly saw cars designed by Josef Ganz at

9288-416: The design of the Beetle changed little over its lifespan, Volkswagen implemented over 78,000 incremental updates. Typically subtle, these alterations usually involved minor updates to the exterior, interior, colours and lighting. More noteworthy changes have comprised new engines, models and systems, such as updated dashboards and hydraulic braking . The Type 11 standard limousine, initially designated as

9417-460: The development of a city car, codenamed " Chico ", in which they invested millions of Deutsche Marks . In 1993, the brand stated that the Chico was intended to begin production in 1995. However, this plan was abandoned once Volkswagen realised that the project was commercially infeasible. Mays and Thomas recognised the difficulties faced by the brand and suggested the need for a vehicle that included

9546-511: The disabled (the ZAZ-968R, B, B2, AB, and AB2) with the 30  hp (22  kW ; 30  PS ) 887 cc (54.1 cu in) engine. Toward the end of 1974, the up-market ZAZ-968A debuted, continuing in production until 1979. Among its improvements was a padded dash, energy-absorbing (collapsing) steering column, and seats from the VAZ-2101 . The export ZAZ-968E (destined mostly for

9675-568: The drawing board. Minavtroprom , however, preferred a 23  hp (17  kW ; 23  PS ) rear-mounted 746 cc (45.5 cu in) V4 , the NAMI-G, which had the additional advantage of being developed for the LuAZ-967 . As a result, it had characteristics not common for automobile engines, including a magnesium alloy engine block . (This engine, the MeMZ-965 , would be built by

9804-430: The effort to infuse the Beetle with a modernised design, this did not resonate with consumers, resulting in declining Beetle sales. In 1975, the 1303 and 1303S received rack and pinion steering, but in July of that year, Volkswagen discontinued both of them. The long-serving 1200 was renamed the "1200L" in 1976, with the additional deluxe features incorporated into the car's interior. In July 1984, Volkswagen eliminated

9933-632: The engine lid louvres. Starting in 1986, for the 1987 model year , the sole model available was the single-carburettor version with 98 cubic inches (1,600 cm ). From late 1992 for the 1993 model year, Volkswagen standardised catalytic converters , the Bosch Digifant engine management system , a lambda probe and electric ignition . This fuel-injection system proved much more straightforward and reliable than previous injection systems used on German-assembled Volkswagens since 1967. Vehicles with these modifications can be identified externally by

10062-399: The engines to breathe more effortlessly. The British automotive magazine Autocar expressed disappointment in its power increase, noting, "Even with 14 [per   cent] more power, the total output of 50   bhp is very modest for the size of the engine". The Super Beetle had a 2 cm (0.8 in) increase in wheelbase , but the extra space was in front of the windshield. For 1971,

10191-575: The event, however, he was proven wrong, as the Oka's overall acceptable operating characteristics and low price resulted in some 700,000 examples rolling off the assembly line over a period of nearly two decades. During test drives on roads and in the Caucasus Mountains , the car proved to have good handling, roadholding and, surprisingly for a vehicle of its size, excellent off-road capabilities. The first cars were made in December 1987 At

10320-511: The final Beetle was produced at the Wolfsburg plant after 11,916,519 examples were made there. Following its discontinuation, Volkswagen ceased the ongoing development of the Beetle in Germany. On 19 January 1978, the last Beetle sedan manufactured in Europe rolled off the production line at the Emden plant with the chassis number 1182034030. After its discontinuation in Germany, production of

10449-407: The former has a capacity of 96.7 cubic inches (1,584 cm ). In English-speaking countries, the name "Super Beetle"—alongside "1600"—was included on the written description but not the engine cover. The 1302 possessed the same 32.4 kW (44 PS) output as the 1300, whereas the 1302S saw an increase to 36.8 kW (50 PS). This was facilitated by a twin-port cylinder head , enabling

10578-428: The front bonnet and behind the rear seat, and it has a drag coefficient of 0.48. The bodywork attached with eighteen bolts to the Beetle's nearly flat platform chassis featured a central structural tunnel. The front and rear suspension incorporated torsion bars and a front stabiliser bar, providing independent suspension at all wheels, albeit the front axle was designed with double longitudinal trailing arms, whereas

10707-458: The government ordered production of the car in the reformed ZAZ factory, under its final designation ZAZ-965. All further production of the car was carried out there. The new car was approved for production at the MeMZ factory on the 28th of November, 1958, changing the name to ZAZ (Zaporizhzhia Automobile Building Plant) to reflect the new profile. The Zaporizhzhia factory was supplemented with

10836-415: The headlights and larger rear lights with an iron design. Volkswagen introduced external fuel filler flap, eliminating the need to open the front bonnet for refuelling. In September 1967, the 1500 Beetle was introduced. Its engine displacement was approximately 91.1 cubic inches (1,493 cm ), its power output was 32 kW (43 hp) and it featured a three-speed semi-automatic transmission . In 1968,

10965-446: The inspiration, however, was limited only to the size and overall proportions, and the car was different in design. The Soviet Ministry preferred the Oka over other three-door microcars designed by SeAZ and NAMI, as well as over a different, futuristic variant of the new car proposed by Vereschagin in 1984. Tightly restricted by project specifications, he did his work believing that his creation had little chance of seeing production. In

11094-422: The introduction of new engines, models and systems, such as improved technology or comfort. In May 1934, at a meeting at Berlin's Kaiserhof Hotel , the leader of Nazi Germany , Adolf Hitler , insisted on the development of a vehicle that could accommodate two adults and three children while not using more than seven   litres of fuel per 100 km (33.6 mpg US/40.4 mpg UK). All components were designed for

11223-500: The key components. Once Heinrich Nordhoff assumed management at Volkswagenwerk , manufacturing capacity increased significantly. Production in 1946 and 1947 was rated at 9,878 and 8,973 examples, respectively, but in Nordhoff's first year, 1948, manufacture doubled to approximately 19,244 units. On 6 August 1955, the millionth example was assembled and by 1959, production capacity was rated at 700,000 units per year. By mid-1948,

11352-465: The locations in which it was manufactured. Official exportation of the Beetle to the Brazilian market began on 23 March 1953, with its parts imported from Germany. For the local market, the Type 1 was officially known "Volkswagen Fusca". In January 1959, Volkswagen shifted assembly to the new São Bernardo do Campo plant, initially maintaining 60   per   cent of its German parts. However, by

11481-585: The market. The Oka quickly became the next "people's car" project, a vehicle that "every factory engineer can afford". The inspiration for Yuri Vereschagin, the VAZ exterior designer who penned the Oka, came from Japanese kei cars , such as the Daihatsu Cuore , which in turn, and along with the similar-looking Fiat Uno and the Fiat Panda , resembled the styling of the iconic French supermini Renault 5 ;

11610-529: The mid-1960s, the cars had about 99.93   per   cent Brazilian-made components. Production persisted until 1986, after over 3.3   million examples were produced there, and resumed in 1992, extending until 1996. The production of the Beetle was possible through agreements with companies like Chrysler in Mexico and the Studebaker-Packard Corporation , which assembled cars imported in complete knock-down form. The Beetle

11739-399: The military in the Nazi regime. Despite that, the Nazi leaders saw the mass-produced car as a way to promote their system. It symbolised a shift from cars being a privilege for the wealthy to a dream that lower-class Germans could now fulfil. Hitler was particularly enthusiastic about it because the car could easily be adapted for military use. The KdF-Wagen was not series-produced before

11868-544: The model to follow. However, despite being visually similar to the Fiat, the ZAZ was in fact a completely different car. The first prototype, the Moskvitch-444, was designed by MZMA in October 1957; it used the same glass for front and rear windows. Its ground clearance, on 13 in (330 mm) wheels, was 200 mm (7.9 in). The prototype was first powered by a flat twin -cylinder MD-65 engine provided by

11997-407: The new model, some of which were minor. Noteworthy changes comprised an automatic choke, an anti-icing carburettor heater , a redesigned fuel tank that increased boot capacity , an external gas tank vent to prevent odours in the car, standard windshield wipers and a new ignition switch. Stylistic improvements included new paint colours and interior design options, a coloured steering wheel and

12126-413: The original engine for a 956 cc (58.3 cu in) Renault unit. The ZAZ-968 and its variants were produced from 1971 to 1980. It featured the same 40  hp (30  kW ; 41  PS ) 1,197 cc (73.0 cu in) MeMZ-968 V4 as the ZAZ-966, but the exterior design was slightly modernized. The most obvious alteration was replacing the fake chrome grille in the car's front with

12255-468: The overall length increased by 8 cm (3.1 in), doubling the front trunk capacity and adding 3 cu ft (0.1 m ) of luggage space. Volkswagen also implemented a new fresh-air ventilation system, drawing its air from the rear quarter panels. In August 1972, the 1303 range superseded the 1302 model, which featured a curved windshield. This design change elicited mixed opinions; some favoured it, while others expressed dissatisfaction. Despite

12384-582: The platform of the Polo . However, in 1995, at the Tokyo Motor Show , the company unveiled another prototype , sharing its wheelbase and its broader range of engine options with the Golf . Simultaneously, Volkswagen announced that it would be named the "New Beetle". After over six years of planning and development, Volkswagen introduced the New Beetle in 1997. On 30 July 2003 at 9:05 a.m., at

12513-435: The previous model; it was a horizontally opposed , overhead valve , four-cylinder air-cooled engine . It generated 40 kilowatts (54 PS; 54 hp) at 3,900   rpm and produced 83 newton-metres (61 lbf⋅ft) at 2,000   rpm. The 1961 Beetle introduced a full-synchronised four-speed manual transmission , replacing the former non-synchronised first gear. The Volkswagen facility implemented 27 alterations to

12642-508: The purported beginning of the production of the KdF-Wagen , involving a 1,500-kilometre   (930   mi) journey from Berlin to Rome. Erwin Komenda supervised the development process, while Karl Froelich was responsible for creating official plans that they subsequently used to form a wooden scale model. The model was wind tunnel tested at Stuttgart University by Josef Mickl. Dubbed the "Berlin-Rome car", Porsche AG's engineers designed

12771-502: The ratio is now down to about every four [Volkswagens] out of every ten. If the current VW starts to slip, the new [Type 3]—soon to be introduced—probably will be imported to justify the [company's] more than 600 [Volkswagen] dealerships and the $ 100   million investment in facilities". He continued by expressing that the Type 3 had failed to leave a positive impression on industry executives in both Europe and North America. The new engine essentially possessed identical specifications as

12900-541: The rear axle was a swing axle . Light alloy forms the Beetle's engine, transmission, and cylinder heads. German-Bohemian Ferdinand Porsche (1875–1951) and his team were generally known as the original designers of the Volkswagen. However, there has been debate over whether he was the original designer. Rumours circulated, suggesting that other designers, such as Béla Barényi , Paul Jaray , Josef Ganz and Hans Ledwinka , may have influenced its design. In 1925, Austro-Hungarian automotive engineer Béla Barényi designed

13029-410: The recognisable design of the Beetle as a potential solution to improve customer appeal. During development, this car was known as the "Concept One" project. The prototype version of the project was revealed at the 1994 Detroit Motor Show , and a red convertible variant of the model was showcased at the 1995 Geneva Motor Show . It took a year for Volkswagen to officially confirm the production of

13158-401: The reintroduced louvred engine lid, heavier and larger bumper bars, four-stud wheels with twenty ventilation holes and a "1600i" badge on the engine lid. The 1993 model also featured a third-generation Golf -style steering wheel and front seats, a protection alarm, handbrake and engine compartment lamps and an optional ZF limited-slip differential . The engine received hydraulic tappets ,

13287-602: The scarcity of occupations in Germany and the shortage of vehicles in the British Army, Hirst persuaded the British military to order 20,000 cars, stating that it "was the limit set by the availability of materials". By March 1946, production capacity was rated at approximately 1,000 units per month. Based on an eight-hour shift in mid-1946, production was around 2,500 per month. At the time, about 1,800 machine tools were in operation, of which 200 were used exclusively for

13416-676: The sentiment of the owner, so various customised and tuned versions are often seen at local exotic car shows. As of 2019, an American company called Oka Auto USA owned by MIROX , and located in Las Vegas, Nevada , offered electrically powered Okas for the US neighborhood electric vehicle (NEV) market called the Oka NEV ZEV. To conform to NEV regulations, the electric Oka's speed is limited to 25 mph. Zaporozhets ZAZ Zaporozhets ( Russian : Запоро́жец pronunciation )

13545-467: The split rear window was replaced with a one-piece rear window. Starting in 1954, the Type 122 engine had a 77 mm (3.0 in) cylinder bore , increased by 2 mm (0.08 in), and an engine displacement of 1,192 cc (1.19 L; 72.74 cu in), surpassing the previous 1,131 cc (1.1 L; 69.0 cu in). This engine produced 22 kW (30 PS), a 4 kW (5.4 PS) improvement over its predecessor. In 1955,

13674-458: The steering damper. In May 1960, Volkswagen added plastic warm air ducts to decrease noise. In the mid-1960s, the traditional labels "standard" and "export" for the Beetle's model variants were superseded by numerical designations, approximately correlating with the engine displacements. In the October 1961 issue of Motor Trend , Don Werner noted, "Five years ago, out of every ten imported cars sold, six were Volkswagens. [The] latest figures show

13803-802: The time given us. The wheel of history never turns back! Whatever opportunities you miss today will never return! The new year will have 366 days this time; every day, we will cross one off—and soon there will be only four left. No power of heaven or earth will bring those days back. Let us use this time, as long as we are free to do so, as we are now, and as we shall still be for a few years. The Emden facility represented an expenditure exceeding DM154.4   million, with Beetle operations beginning there on 1 December 1964. By late 1965, Volkswagen's annual production exceeded 1,600,000 units, averaging 6,800 units per day. Volkswagen's share of all cars produced in West Germany reached 48.6 per   cent, representing

13932-548: The total West German automotive market and 42.3   per   cent of sub-2,750 lb (1,250 kg) commercial vehicle market there. Nordhoff's recurring encouragement proved to be highly effective. He consistently urged the team to work harder, reduce expenses and avoid complacency and corporate inefficiencies. In January 1960, Nordhoff quoted: We shall some day speak of the Golden Fifties . We are now moving away from them and we must recognise that fact and use

14061-416: The traditional VW semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicator lamps for North America, followed by their worldwide replacement in 1961. In 1958, the Beetle received a revised instrument panel, and a larger rectangular rear window replaced the previous oval design. "The 1961 Volkswagen sedan provides the kind of happy surprise that comes when an excellent motor vehicle

14190-449: The version built in the ZMA factory was found to be marginally safer than the one built by SeAZ. As of 2006, there were four versions of Oka distributed: basic VAZ-11113 Oka made by either ZMA (Naberezhnye Chelny) or SeAZ factory (33 hp, 125 km/h (78 mph) max, 3.2 litres per 100 km), "custom" VAZ-11301 Astro (49 hp) and VAZ-11113-27 Toyma - a light delivery vehicle with

14319-431: The war, the Beetle experienced a significant growth in success. On 11 April 1945, Fallersleben , where 17,000 people lived, was officially designated " Wolfsburg ". Official series manufacture of the saloon began on 27 December 1945; Volkswagen made fifty-five vehicles by the end of the year. The Volkswagen facility, initially slated for dismantling and transportation to Britain under American control in 1945, faced

14448-573: The world car production record was broken by the Beetle, with a total of 15,007,034 units produced worldwide, thereby surpassing the production figure that had been held by the American Ford Model T for nearly fifty years. Volkswagen donated the car to the Smithsonian Institution for permanent exhibition in its industrial history section. By 1973, over 16   million Beetles had been manufactured. On 1 July 1974,

14577-419: Was a city car produced from 1960 to 1963. The design of a simple economy city car, and one in part taking the place of the soon to be discontinued Moskvitch 401 , began in 1956. Following the growing trend of city cars (then accounting for between 25% and 40% of all European car sales), the minister in charge of Minavtroprom (the Soviet automotive ministry) Nikolay Strokin selected the new Fiat 600 as

14706-467: Was a need for a people's car —a car affordable and practical enough for lower-class people to own—to serve the country's new road network, the Reichsautobahn . Although the Volkswagen Beetle was primarily the conception of Porsche and Hitler, the idea of a "people's car" is much older than Nazism and has existed since the introduction of automotive mass-production. Originally designated as

14835-524: Was a series of rear-wheel-drive superminis ( city cars in their first generation) designed and built from 1958 at the ZAZ factory in Soviet Ukraine . Different models of the Zaporozhets, all of which had an air-cooled engine in the rear , were produced until 1994. Since the late 1980s, the final series, ZAZ-968M, was replaced by the cardinally different ZAZ-1102 Tavria hatchback , which featured

14964-511: Was also continued in later models, came at the expense of the car's infamous lack of cornering stability. The ZAZ-965A also had its versions for the disabled (ZAZ-965B, AB, AR), as well as a more luxurious export variant, the ZAZ-965AE Yalta. Despite the low prestige of those cars, they have shown an unbeaten accessibility and popularity among the people of the Soviet Union, becoming the "car for pensioners and intellectuals". They were

15093-508: Was an improvement on the ZAZ-965 and was produced from November 1962 to May 1969. In total, 322,106 units of the ZAZ-965 were produced. It was powered by a MeMZ-965 rear-mounted, air-cooled OHV 887 cc (54.1 cu in) V4 engine , partially of aluminium design, producing 27 PS (20 kW). From November 1966 some cars were fitted with the slightly more powerful 30 PS (22 kW) MeMZ-965A engine. The ZAZ-965's modest engine output has given ground to an urban joke that it

15222-523: Was at its lowest in the 1980s. The Beetle faced competition from Japanese automakers such as Toyota and Honda , whose cars were uprated in reliability and performance. The closure of Volkswagen's Pennsylvania factory was due to high costs, subpar quality, and poor sales. In the United States, Volkswagen introduced the Rabbit and Corrado , both of which had little success. The overall sales suffered

15351-427: Was available with a semi-automatic transmission and radial-ply tyres . In 1970, the 1500 received a new carburettor and dual circuit braking, and Volkswagen discontinued the 1500. In 1971, the 1200 received a larger windscreen, while the 1300 received a power increase to 32 kW (43 hp) and larger brakes, effectively replacing the 1500. Volkswagen replaced the 1300 with the 1300A "economy version" in 1973 for

15480-485: Was conceived in the early 1930s. The leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler , decided there was a need for a people's car —an inexpensive, simple, mass-produced car—to serve Germany's new road network, the Reichsautobahn . The German engineer Ferdinand Porsche and his design team began developing and designing the car in the early 1930s, but the fundamental design concept can be attributed to Béla Barényi in 1925, predating Porsche's claims by almost ten years. The result

15609-659: Was in a financial crisis and needed German government funding to produce the Beetle's replacement. Consequently, the company introduced a new generation of water-cooled, front-engined, front-wheel-drive models, including the Golf , the Passat , the Polo and the Scirocco , all of which were styled by the Italian automotive designer Giorgetto Giugiaro . By 1979, the Golf constituted over 50 per cent of Volkswagen sales, and it eventually became Volkswagen's most successful model since

15738-430: Was massive. It accommodated about 10,000 production machines and covered 10.8   million square feet in roofed area, more than the combined residential area in Wolfsburg . Daily production increased to approximately 5,091, and the plant employed over 43,500 workers. By 1962, Nordhoff had spent over DM675   million in expanding the factory. At that time, Volkswagen sales constituted 34.5   per   cent of

15867-500: Was no longer positioned diagonally at the front under the hood but instead rested horizontally under a cover in the trunk area. The company initially intended to designate the car as the "1301", but a trademark already held by the French company Simca compelled Volkswagen to use "1302" instead. Volkswagen produced the more powerful 1302S alongside the 1302. The latter has an engine displacement of 79 cubic inches (1,300 cm ), while

15996-534: Was offered with either the MeMZ-968E (40  hp (30  kW ; 41  PS ), carbureted, low- compression for 76- octane fuel); ZAZ-968GE (40  hp (30  kW ; 41  PS ), dual carburettor); or the MeMZ-968BE (50  hp (37  kW ; 51  PS ), 8.4:1 compression, for 93-octane) engine. Instead of the side-mounted "ears", the hood lid and rear quarter panels were louvered . The ZAZ-968M

16125-468: Was officially substituted by the term KdF ( Kraft durch Freude ; German for 'Strength Through Joy') derived from the Nazi organisation once Hitler ceremoniously laid the foundation stone for the Volkswagen factory on 26 May 1938. As part of this organisation, Volkswagen urged workers to "save five marks a week and get your car". Before the completion of the KdF factory, many Germans had already signed up for

16254-522: Was restyled to resemble that of the contemporary Golf and Polo. In 1998, Volkswagen removed the small through-flow ventilation slots behind the rear side windows and standardised front disc brakes. Furthermore, Volkswagen included a security alarm as standard and removed the "1600i" inscription from the engine lid. Over its 65-year tenure, Volkswagen produced the Volkswagen Type 1 in numerous locations worldwide. The following list encompasses all

16383-422: Was the Volkswagen Type 1 and the introduction of the Volkswagen brand. Volkswagen initially slated production for the late 1930s, but the outbreak of war in 1939 meant that production was delayed until the war had ended. The car was originally called the Volkswagen Type 1 and marketed simply as the Volkswagen. It was not until 1968 that it was officially named the "Beetle". Volkswagen implemented designations for

16512-573: Was the last Zaporozhets model and also spent the most time in production, with cars being made from 1979 to 1 June 1994. By that time, the Soviet Union had collapsed, Ukraine had become independent, and modern, front wheel drive economy cars from the West like the Volkswagen Polo and Ford Fiesta had become available in quantity, vehicles which the 1950s and 60s designed Zaporozhets had no hope of competing with. Some of its special variants include

16641-415: Was used as a starter motor in Soviet tanks . As Soviet drivers were expected to do much of the servicing themselves, and mechanics trained in the servicing of consumer automobiles were in short supply, the engine's 90° V4 layout proved more practical, especially in harsh winter conditions. The higher centre of gravity of the engine also provided superior traction on steep slopes, though this advantage, which

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