101-569: The Lafargue Mental Health Clinic , more commonly known as the Lafargue Clinic , was a mental health clinic that operated in Harlem , Manhattan , New York, from 1946 until 1958. The clinic was named for French Marxist physician Paul Lafargue and conceived by German-American psychiatrist Fredric Wertham , who recognized the dire state of mental health services for blacks in New York. With
202-411: A spinal tap ; however, the boy and his mother skipped the referral appointment and ended their counseling sessions at Lafargue due to the pain of the procedure. In addition, the clinic served as a de facto social welfare office, providing connections to public housing and welfare offices, and hosting a desegregated chapter of Alcoholics Anonymous . Indeed, Wertham and Mosse reasoned that improvements in
303-538: A "universal" approach to articulating international human rights . Although the Declaration has undeniably come to be accepted throughout the world as a cornerstone of the international system for the protection of human rights, a belief among some that the Universal Declaration does not adequately reflect certain important worldviews has given rise to more than one supplementary declaration, such as
404-562: A chapel on 128th Street in 2005. Many of the area's churches are " storefront churches ", which operate in an empty store, or a basement, or a converted brownstone townhouse. These congregations may have fewer than 30–50 members each, but there are hundreds of them. Others are old, large, and designated landmarks. Especially in the years before World War II, Harlem produced popular Christian charismatic "cult" leaders, including George Wilson Becton and Father Divine . Mosques in Harlem include
505-475: A combination of "race-blind universalism " (which meant that doctors did not, as was common practice at the time, make adjustments in their diagnoses for biological conceptions of race) and social psychiatry , at that time a new clinical approach. Said Wertham, "[W]e're not here to make a study of the Negro. . .We're simply here to treat them like other human beings". One must descend to the basement and move along
606-437: A confusing mazelike hall to reach it. Twice the passage seems to lead against a blank wall; then at last one enters the brightly lighted auditorium. And here, finally, are the social workers at the reception desks; and there, waiting upon the benches rowed beneath the pipes carrying warmth and water to the floors above, are the patients. One sees white-jacketed psychiatrists carrying charts appear and vanish behind screens that form
707-566: A deity dictating a society's morals. Plato's " Euthyphro dilemma " is a dialogue written to point out the inconsistencies of this philosophy. There is a body of work studying moral universalism using experimental and survey data in Economics, recently reinvigorated by Harvard Economist Ben Enke . The body broadly attempts to describe correlates with universalist preferences and to study the moral origins of political preferences or polarization. These efforts can be attributed as loosely inspired by
808-630: A living animal , as well as the obligation to establish courts of justice . The Jewish sages expanded the concept of universal morality within the Seven Laws of Noah and added several other laws beyond the seven listed in the Talmud and Tosefta , such as prohibitions against committing incest , cruelty to animals , pairing animals of different species , grafting trees of different kinds , castration , emasculation , homosexuality , pederasty , and sorcery among others, with some of
909-435: A number of studies, including their canonical study, where they find that heterogeneity in universalism descriptively explains why the left and right both simultaneously support and oppose different types of government spending. They find that you can explain the left-right divide on topics such as redistribution through the level and quality of universalism in their respective politics (e.g., redistribution to US veterans, which
1010-411: A start at the school. By the 2010s, new dining hotspots were opening in Harlem around Frederick Douglass Boulevard. At the same time, some residents fought back against the powerful waves of gentrification the neighborhood is experiencing. In 2013, residents staged a sidewalk sit-in to protest a five-days-a-week farmers market that would shut down Macombs Place at 150th Street. Uptown Night Market
1111-571: A strong role in soliciting), the clinic's closing grew inevitable. Due to the change in leadership at St. Philip's and the deaths and illnesses of several clinic staffers, the clinic held its last session on November 1, 1958. Over the clinic's thirteen-year history, it served 1,389 patients. Though Wertham was instrumental in the advocacy, foundation, and operation of the Lafargue Clinic, he remains known for his alarmist condemnations of comic books. Best typified by his 1954 book Seduction of
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#17327875557371212-556: A white population of 1,600,000; that, while in theory Negroes have access to psychiatric aid (just as the Negroes of Mississippi, in theory, have access to the vote!), such aid really does not exist[,] owing to the subtle but effective racial discrimination that obtains against Negroes in almost all New York City hospitals and clinics; that it is all but impossible for Negro interns to gain admission to hospitals to receive their psychiatric training." Wright noted that Wertham long recognized
1313-501: Is also the birthplace of popular hip-hop dances such as the Harlem shake , toe wop, and Chicken Noodle Soup . Harlem's classical music birthed organizations and chamber ensembles such as Roberta Guaspari 's Opus 118, Harlem Chamber Players, Omnipresent Music Festival BIPOC Musicians Festival , Harlem Quartet , and musicians such as violinist Edward W. Hardy . In the 1920s, African-American pianists who lived in Harlem invented their own style of jazz piano, called stride , which
1414-613: Is bounded by Cathedral Parkway/110th Street on the south; 155th Street on the north; Manhattan/Morningside Ave/St. Nicholas/Bradhurst/Edgecombe Avenues on the east; and Riverside Park/the Hudson River on the west. Manhattanville begins at roughly 123rd Street and extends northward to 135th Street. The northernmost section of West Harlem is Hamilton Heights. A chain of large linear parks includes West Harlem Piers , Riverbank State Park , St. Nicholas Park, and Jackie Robinson Park. East Harlem , also called Spanish Harlem or El Barrio ,
1515-461: Is home to over 400 churches, some of which are official city or national landmarks. Major Christian denominations include Baptists , Pentecostals, Methodists (generally African Methodist Episcopal Zionist , or "AMEZ" and African Methodist Episcopalian , or "AME"), Episcopalians , and Roman Catholic . The Abyssinian Baptist Church has long been influential because of its large congregation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built
1616-544: Is located within Manhattan Community District 11, which is bounded by East 96th Street on the south, East 138th Street on the north, Fifth Avenue on the west, and the Harlem River on the east. A chain of parks includes Thomas Jefferson Park and Marcus Garvey Park. In the 2010s some real estate professionals started rebranding south Harlem as "SoHa" (a name standing for "South Harlem" in
1717-441: Is more morally loyalist, compared to redistribution via foreign aid). They find the political left to be broadly more universalistic. Haidt too has written about how his (broader) Moral Foundations theory can be applied to modern US politics. The idea of a universal basic income has also been put forward within politics. Enke and his coauthors also find that universalism is significantly related to observables: older people, men,
1818-494: Is now predominantly Hispanic / Latino, with a significant African-American presence. Moral universalism Moral universalism (also called moral objectivism ) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics , or a universal ethic, applies universally , that is, for "all similarly situated individuals", regardless of culture , race , sex , religion , nationality , sexual orientation , gender identity , or any other distinguishing feature. Moral universalism
1919-430: Is opposed to moral nihilism and moral relativism . However, not all forms of moral universalism are absolutist , nor are they necessarily value monist ; many forms of universalism, such as utilitarianism , are non-absolutist, and some forms, such as that of Isaiah Berlin , may be value pluralist . In addition to the theories of moral realism , moral universalism includes other cognitivist moral theories, such as
2020-575: Is patrolled by the 28th and 32nd Precincts of the New York City Police Department . The greater Harlem area also includes Manhattan Community Districts 9 and 11 and several police precincts, while fire services are provided by four New York City Fire Department companies. Harlem is located in Upper Manhattan . The three neighborhoods comprising the greater Harlem area—West, Central, and East Harlem—stretch from
2121-504: Is present at birth. Of note, the Moral Foundations Theory does not assert that every culture has the same morals, but rather each has developed their own set of acceptable behaviors, and there tends to be overlaps in the aforementioned areas listed earlier. Measurement regarding universalism and politics typically seeks to explain political divides from the moral origins of their supporters. Enke et al. have published
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#17327875557372222-470: The Encyclopedia of New York City takes a much more conservative view of Harlem's boundaries, regarding only central Harlem as part of Harlem proper. Central Harlem is the name of Harlem proper; it falls under Manhattan Community District 10. This section is bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east; Central Park on the south; Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Avenue and Edgecombe Avenue on the west; and
2323-746: The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam and the Bangkok Declaration . Global environmental treaties may also assume and present a moral universalism. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is founded upon the "common heritage of mankind". Protecting this heritage is presented in the treaty as a shared moral duty requiring protective actions based on "common but differentiated responsibilities". This has been criticized as anthropocentric and state-centric but it does assert universal goals. In his Groundwork of
2424-625: The East River , and south to Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard , Central Park , and East 96th Street . Originally a Dutch village, formally organized in 1658, it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Harlem's history has been defined by a series of economic boom-and-bust cycles, with significant population shifts accompanying each cycle. Harlem was predominantly occupied by Jewish and Italian Americans in
2525-564: The Harlem River and East River to the east, to the Hudson River to the west; and between 155th Street in the north, where it meets Washington Heights , and an uneven boundary along the south that runs along 96th Street east of Fifth Avenue , 110th Street between Fifth Avenue to Morningside Park , and 125th Street west of Morningside Park to the Hudson River. Encyclopædia Britannica references these boundaries, though
2626-479: The Interborough Rapid Transit and elevated railway lines, helped Harlem's economic growth, as they connected Harlem to lower and midtown Manhattan. The Jewish and Italian demographic decreased, while the black and Puerto Rican population increased in this time. The early-20th century Great Migration of black people to northern industrial cities was fueled by their desire to leave behind
2727-500: The Jim Crow South, seek better jobs and education for their children, and escape a culture of lynching violence; during World War I , expanding industries recruited black laborers to fill new jobs, thinly staffed after the draft began to take young men. In 1910, Central Harlem population was about 10% black people. By 1930, it had reached 70%. Starting around the time of the end of World War I, Harlem became associated with
2828-663: The Masjid Malcolm Shabazz (formerly Mosque No. 7 Nation of Islam , and the location of the 1972 Harlem mosque incident ), the Mosque of Islamic Brotherhood and Masjid Aqsa. Judaism, too, maintains a presence in Harlem through the Old Broadway Synagogue . A non-mainstream synagogue of Black Hebrews , known as Commandment Keepers , was based in a synagogue at 1 West 123rd Street until 2008. Many places in Harlem are official city landmarks labeled by
2929-646: The New Negro movement, and then the artistic outpouring known as the Harlem Renaissance , which extended to poetry, novels, theater, and the visual arts. So many black people came that it "threaten[ed] the very existence of some of the leading industries of Georgia, Florida, Tennessee and Alabama." Many settled in Harlem. By 1920, central Harlem was 32.43% black. The 1930 census revealed that 70.18% of central Harlem's residents were black and lived as far south as Central Park , at 110th Street. However, by
3030-681: The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission or are listed on the National Register of Historic Places : Other prominent points of interest include: The demographics of Harlem's communities have changed throughout its history. In 1910, black residents formed 10% of Harlem's population, but by 1930, they had become a 70% majority. The period between 1910 and 1930 was marked by the Great Migration of African Americans from
3131-462: The Section 8 housing that was being placed, many were not able to live there and had to find homes elsewhere or become homeless. These policies are examples of societal racism , also known as structural racism. As public health leaders have named structural racism as a key social determinant of health disparities between racial and ethnic minorities, these 20th century policies have contributed to
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3232-555: The Seven Laws of Noah ( Hebrew : שבע מצוות בני נח , Sheva Mitzvot B'nei Noach ), a set of imperatives which, according to the Talmud , were given by God as a binding set of universal moral laws for the " sons of Noah " – that is, all of humanity . The Seven Laws of Noah include prohibitions against worshipping idols , cursing God , murder , adultery , bestiality , sexual immorality , theft , eating flesh torn from
3333-687: The University of Oxford published a study in 2019 examining 60 different cultures and their principles. This study was conducted by reviewing ethnographic content from each culture. Seven fundamentals were identified beforehand, and historic writings were analyzed to search for either positive or negative moral valence of each one. It was found that 99.9% of the time, these seven behaviors were considered “moral”: helping kin, helping group, reciprocating, being brave, respecting superiors, dividing resources, and respecting property. These principles appeared across all cultures studied, and only one counterexample
3434-645: The redlining policy. This policy rated neighborhoods, such as Central Harlem, as unappealing based on the race, ethnicity, and national origins of the residents. Central Harlem was deemed 'hazardous' and residents living in Central Harlem were refused home loans or other investments. Comparably, wealthy and white residents in New York City neighborhoods were approved more often for housing loans and investment applications. Overall, they were given preferential treatment by city and state institutions. In
3535-495: The 109,091 counted in 2000 . Covering an area of 926.05 acres (374.76 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 128.1 inhabitants per acre (82,000/sq mi; 31,700/km ). The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 9.5% (11,322) White , 63% (74,735) African American , 0.3% (367) Native American , 2.4% (2,839) Asian , 0% (46) Pacific Islander , 0.3% (372) from other races , and 2.2% (2,651) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22.2% (26,333) of
3636-645: The 1930s, the neighborhood was hit hard by job losses in the Great Depression . In the early 1930s, 25% of Harlemites were out of work, and employment prospects for Harlemites stayed poor for decades. Employment among black New Yorkers fell as some traditionally black businesses, including domestic service and some types of manual labor, were taken over by other ethnic groups. Major industries left New York City altogether, especially after 1950. Several riots happened in this period, including in 1935 and 1943 . There were major changes following World War II . In
3737-484: The 1960s, uneducated black people could find jobs more easily than educated ones could, confounding efforts to improve the lives of people who lived in the neighborhood through education. Land owners took advantage of the neighborhood and offered apartments to the lower-class families for cheaper rent but in lower-class conditions. By 1999 there were 179,000 housing units available in Harlem. Housing activists in Harlem state that, even after residents were given vouchers for
3838-554: The 21st century, crime rates decreased significantly, and Harlem started to gentrify . The area is served by the New York City Subway and local bus routes. It contains several public elementary, middle, and high schools, and is close to several colleges, including Columbia University , Manhattan School of Music , and the City College of New York . Central Harlem is part of Manhattan Community District 10 . It
3939-765: The Black population's decrease by 11% (9,544). While the growth of the Hispanic / Latino was predominantly in Central Harlem North, the decrease in the Black population was slightly greater in Central Harlem South, and the drastic increase in the White population was split evenly across the two census tabulation areas. Meanwhile, the Asian population grew by 211% (1,927) but remained a small minority, and
4040-731: The Delaware cases and impress upon Wertham the gravity of his testimony: "...for the important assistance which you gave us in the school segregation cases which were recently decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. . .Not only was your testimony in the Delaware case before the Court in the printed record of testimony, but the Chancellor in Delaware came to his conclusions concerning the effects of segregation largely upon
4141-559: The Harlem River on the north. A chain of large linear parks includes Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park , Jackie Robinson Park , as well as Marcus Garvey Park (also known as Mount Morris Park) which separates this area from East Harlem to the east. Central Harlem includes the Mount Morris Park Historic District . West Harlem ( Manhattanville , Hamilton Heights , and Sugar Hill ) comprises Manhattan Community district 9. The three neighborhoods' area
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4242-466: The Innocent , which claimed that comics were pathological and negative influences on children, many of Wertham's case studies and anecdotal references came from his time at Lafargue and at Queens General Hospital. In a 1949 article for Saturday Review of Literature titled "The Comics...Very Funny!", Wertham referenced five cases of juvenile delinquents that he worked with at Lafargue as a way of proving
4343-545: The Innocent . The Freudians talk about the Id And bury it below. But Richard Wright took off the lid And let us see the woe. Fredric Wertham , 1942, "Underground" Plans for the Lafargue Clinic began when Fredric Wertham , then chief psychiatrist at Queens General Hospital , agreed in 1942 to see author Ralph Ellison , who "refused to serve in a Jim Crow army," for a psychiatric visit intended to find grounds to void Ellison's draft notice. The meeting between
4444-570: The Lafargue Clinic was rejected for funds by both the city and state. According to Gabriel Mendes, author of Under The Strain of Color: Harlem's Lafargue Clinic and the Promise of an Antiracist Psychiatry , Lafargue was a good fit for the intended developments of the Community Mental Health Services Act, but Wertham's reputation as a "self-important nuisance" as well as his challenging of psychiatric orthodoxy turned
4545-448: The Lafargue Clinic's group of black and white psychiatrists, psychologists, teachers and social workers". Medical historian Dennis Doyle wrote favorably of the clinic, that it resulted from a "complex interaction" of community persons, Harlem leaders, and progressive psychiatrists. Doyle also lauded the clinic's ability to respond to both the social and medical needs of patients from troubled Harlem neighborhoods. Gabriel Mendes, author of
4646-549: The Metaphysics of Morals (1785), Immanuel Kant attempts to derive a supreme principle of morality that binds all rational agents . Similarly, divine command theory presents a form of universalism, by way of the unconditional morality of God's commandments. It revolves around the idea that morality is synonymous with following God's commands. While various religions may have Gods that endorse different beliefs and behaviors, divine command theory encompasses all instances of
4747-754: The Prohibition era, and was dubbed "Jungle Alley" because of "inter-racial mingling" on the street. Some jazz venues, including the Cotton Club , where Duke Ellington played, and Connie's Inn , were restricted to whites only. Others were integrated, including the Renaissance Ballroom and the Savoy Ballroom. In 1936, Orson Welles produced his black Macbeth at the Lafayette Theater in Harlem. Grand theaters from
4848-477: The South to northern cities, including New York. Within the city, this era also witnessed an influx of black residents from downtown Manhattan neighborhoods, where black people were feeling less welcome, to the Harlem area. The black population in Harlem peaked in 1950, with a 98% share of the population of 233,000. As of 2000, central Harlem's black residents comprised 77% of the total population of that area; however,
4949-463: The St. Philip's congregation. Said Mendes, "Weston's health initiative was not a slight directed at Wertham and the Lafargue Clinic. Rather it reflected a changing of the guard and perhaps the desire to place the health needs of the central Harlem community in the hands of black professionals." Without their strongest advocate and with the loss of their primary funding (outside donations that Rev. Bishop played
5050-634: The ages of 0–17, while 35% are between 25 and 44, and 24% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 10% and 11% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 10 was $ 49,059. In 2018, an estimated 21% of Community District 10 residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. Around 12% of residents were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or
5151-529: The backing of black intellectuals Richard Wright and Ralph Ellison , as well as members of the church and community, the clinic operated out of the parish house basement of St. Philip's Episcopal Church and was among the first to provide low-cost psychiatric health services to the poor, especially for poor blacks who either could not afford treatment at New York hospitals or faced racial discrimination from doctors and other hospital staff. The staff consisted entirely of volunteers, and Wertham and Hilde Mosse were
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#17327875557375252-485: The basis of your testimony and the work done in your clinic." Over time, Wertham grew jaded with how the nation recalled the testimony that led to the dissolution of Jim Crow, feeling that too much attention was paid to the Clark doll tests, rather than the Lafargue Clinic's clinical studies, saying "[The Brown v. Board decision] was not based on primitive insignificant dolls play, but on careful lifelike clinical studies by
5353-429: The battle for the desegregation of American society." Harlem Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan , New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and Central Park North on the south. The greater Harlem area encompasses several other neighborhoods and extends west and north to 155th Street, east to
5454-432: The black population has recently declined as many African Americans move out and more immigrants move in. As of 2021, central Harlem's Black residents numbered 56,668, comprising 44% of the total population. In that regard, there are an estimated 27% (34,773) Hispanics, 18% (23,182) White, 4% (5,151) Asian, 6% (7,727) of two or more races and 2% (2,575) Other. Harlem suffers from unemployment rates generally more than twice
5555-419: The citywide average, as well as high poverty rates. and the numbers for men have been consistently worse than the numbers for women. Private and governmental initiatives to ameliorate unemployment and poverty have not been successful. During the Great Depression , unemployment in Harlem went past 20% and people were being evicted from their homes. At the same time, the federal government developed and instituted
5656-416: The clinic's first referral, was referred by head physician Hilde Mosse to a respected gynecology clinic outside of Harlem for menorrhagia (excessive vaginal bleeding). She had the exam performed and came back to tell Mosse about the visit. A teenage boy named Chris, the son of Southern migrants, was treated for "bad blood", a Southern euphemism for syphilis , and was referred out to a local medical clinic for
5757-607: The clinic's lead doctors. Though the clinic only operated for 12 years, Wertham and Mosse's experiences from Lafargue were cited in a court decision to integrate schools in Wilmington, Delaware , and later in Brown v. Board of Education , which ruled that separate black and white schools were unconstitutional. Wertham would use case studies from his time at the clinic to support his later arguments that comic books caused juvenile delinquency, as evidenced in his 1954 work Seduction of
5858-547: The clinic's operation were diagnosed with psychosis, and the clinic was able to detect mental defects and disorders previously undiagnosed. When doctors at Lafargue made a diagnosis of a serious brain disease, they referred their patients to outside hospitals, providing blacks a pathway to proper medical care. 12% of Lafargue patients received inpatient care elsewhere in the city. In some cases, patients who received referrals would follow through with treatment, but others did not. A woman known only as Rachel, listed in records as being
5959-564: The community has also hosted numerous actors and theater companies, including the New Heritage Repertory Theater, National Black Theater, Lafayette Players, Harlem Suitcase Theater, The Negro Playwrights, American Negro Theater , and the Rose McClendon Players. The Apollo Theater opened on 125th Street on January 26, 1934, in a former burlesque house . The Savoy Ballroom , on Lenox Avenue ,
6060-408: The construction of new projects. From the mid-20th century, the low quality of education in Harlem has been a source of distress. In the 1960s, about 75% of Harlem students tested under grade levels in reading skills, and 80% tested under grade level in math. In 1964, residents of Harlem staged two school boycotts to call attention to the problem. In central Harlem, 92% of students stayed home. In
6161-423: The current population health disparities between Central Harlem and other New York City neighborhoods. For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Central Harlem into two neighborhood tabulation areas: Central Harlem North and Central Harlem South, divided by 126th street. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census , the population of Central Harlem was 118,665, a change of 9,574 (8.1%) from
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#17327875557376262-540: The debilitating effect Jim Crow segregation had on black children, and invited Wertham to testify on the NAACP's behalf. In a later book, Greenberg credited Wertham's testimony for Belton v. Gebhart as "[making] segregation a public health issue". After examining a cadre of Delaware children, both black and white, Wertham testified, "Segregation in schools legally decreed by statute, as in the State of Delaware, interferes with
6363-533: The doctrine of separate but equal , which was still in effect from Plessy v. Ferguson . The case that the LDEF sought help from Lafargue staff on was Belton v. Gebhart , which along with its consolidated case Bulah v. Gebhart became one of the five cases combined into the review of Brown v. Board of Education . Worried that conservative courts would reject the doll tests of black psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark , Greenberg sought more definitive proof of
6464-619: The feeling-states of individuals at particular times." Linguist and political theorist Noam Chomsky states: "if we adopt the principle of universality: if an action is right (or wrong) for others, it is right (or wrong) for us. Those who do not rise to the minimal moral level of applying to themselves the standards they apply to others—more stringent ones, in fact—plainly cannot be taken seriously when they speak of appropriateness of response; or of right and wrong, good and evil." An early example of moral universalism can be found in Judaism :
6565-426: The fewest opportunities for success. Though the federal government's Model Cities Program spent $ 100 million on job training, health care, education, public safety, sanitation, housing, and other projects over a ten-year period, Harlem showed no improvement. The city began auctioning its enormous portfolio of Harlem properties to the public in 1985. This was intended to improve the community by placing property in
6666-406: The hands of people who would live in them and maintain them. In many cases, the city would even pay to completely renovate a property before selling it (by lottery) below market value. After the 1990s, Harlem began to grow again. Between 1990 and 2006 the neighborhood's population grew by 16.9%, with the percentage of black people decreasing from 87.6% to 69.3%, then dropping to 54.4% by 2010, and
6767-444: The healthy development of children. It doesn't necessarily cause an emotional disorder in every child. I compare that with the disease of tuberculosis. In New York thousands of people have the tubercle bacilli in their lungs—hundreds of thousands—and they don't get tuberculosis. But they do have the germ of illness in them at one time or another, and the fact that hundreds of them don't develop tuberculosis doesn't make me say, 'never mind
6868-652: The improvised interviewing cubicles. All is an atmosphere of hurried efficiency; and the concerned faces of the patients are brightened by the friendly smiles and low-pitched voices of the expert workers. One has entered the Lafargue Psychiatric Clinic. Ralph Ellison , Harlem Is Nowhere The clinic was only psychotherapeutic, meaning that it could not treat psychoses or other brain diseases. However, it treated minor neuroses and emotional disturbances, and frequently referred its patients to other inpatient facilities. 21% of adult patients during
6969-493: The late 1950s and early 1960s, Harlem was the scene of a series of rent strikes by neighborhood tenants, led by local activist Jesse Gray , together with the Congress of Racial Equality , Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU), and other groups. These groups wanted the city to force landlords to improve the quality of housing by bringing them up to code, to take action against rats and roaches , to provide heat during
7070-549: The late 19th and early 20th centuries were torn down or converted to churches. Harlem lacked any permanent performance space until the creation of the Gatehouse Theater in an old Croton aqueduct building on 135th Street in 2006. From 1965 until 2007, the community was home to the Harlem Boys Choir , a touring choir and education program for young boys, most of whom are black. The Girls Choir of Harlem
7171-469: The late 19th century, while African-American residents began to arrive in large numbers during the Great Migration in the early 20th century. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem were the center of the Harlem Renaissance , a major African-American cultural movement. With job losses during the Great Depression of the 1930s and the deindustrialization of New York City after World War II , rates of crime and poverty increased significantly. In
7272-695: The leadership of Peter Stuyvesant . During the American Revolution , the British burned Harlem to the ground. It took a long time to rebuild, as Harlem grew more slowly than the rest of Manhattan during the late 18th century. After the American Civil War , Harlem experienced an economic boom starting in 1868. The neighborhood continued to serve as a refuge for New Yorkers, but increasingly those coming north were poor and Jewish or Italian. The New York and Harlem Railroad , as well as
7373-786: The malevolent influence of comic books. In the early 1950s, the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDEF) began to seek more authoritative scientific evidence that Jim Crow schools were detrimental to black children. Columbia Law graduate Jack Greenberg, who joined the LDEF in 1949, brought the idea of pursuing social scientist testimony to fellow lawyers and supervisors at the LDEF, believing that their work would greatly improve their chances of challenging school segregation. The LDEF successfully challenged segregation in higher education in Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents , but now looked towards overturning
7474-410: The most comprehensive book-length treatment of the clinic, noted that the system that Wertham and his colleagues devised at Lafargue built a framework for addressing social ills and that its work, and through its linkage of race and class to mental health issues, went further than any other mental institution at its time in addressing these issues. "The Lafargue Clinic," wrote Mendes, "became a key site in
7575-491: The percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 48% in Community District 10, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, as of 2018 , Community District 10 is considered to be gentrifying : according to the Community Health Profile, the district was low-income in 1990 and has seen above-median rent growth up to 2010. In 2010,
7676-512: The percentage of whites increasing from 1.5% to 6.6% by 2006, and to "almost 10%" by 2010. A renovation of 125th Street and new properties along the thoroughfare also helped to revitalize Harlem. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem was the focus of the " Harlem Renaissance ", an outpouring of artistic work without precedent in the American Black community. Though Harlem musicians and writers are particularly well remembered,
7777-739: The population of West Harlem was 110,193. West Harlem, consisting of Manhattanville and Hamilton Heights , is predominately Hispanic / Latino, while African Americans make up about a quarter of the West Harlem population. In 2010, the population of East Harlem was 120,000. East Harlem originally formed as a predominantly Italian American neighborhood. The area began its transition from Italian Harlem to Spanish Harlem when Puerto Rican migration began after World War II, though in recent decades, many Dominican , Mexican and Salvadoran immigrants have also settled in East Harlem. East Harlem
7878-428: The population. Harlem's Black population was more concentrated in Central Harlem North, and its White population more concentrated in Central Harlem South, while the Hispanic / Latino population was evenly split. The most significant shifts in the racial composition of Central Harlem between 2000 and 2010 were the White population's increase by 402% (9,067), the Hispanic / Latino population's increase by 43% (7,982), and
7979-412: The post-World War II era, Harlem ceased to be home to a majority of the city's black people, but it remained the cultural and political capital of black New York, and possibly black America. By the 1970s, many of those Harlemites who were able to escape from poverty left the neighborhood in search of better schools and homes, and safer streets. Those who remained were the poorest and least skilled, with
8080-706: The practice of rebranding historically recognized neighborhoods illegal. Politically, central Harlem is in New York's 13th congressional district . It is in the New York State Senate 's 30th district, the New York State Assembly 's 68th and 70th districts, and the New York City Council 's 7th, 8th, and 9th districts. Before the arrival of European settlers, the area that would become Harlem (originally Haarlem)
8181-425: The psychiatric establishment's favor away from Lafargue and led the clinic to not receive funds. In addition, Rev. Bishop, who had initially granted the clinic its space and was one of its strongest supporters, retired from the ministry in 1957. His replacement, a Columbia University graduate named M. Moran Weston , turned the parish house into a center for community services and health programs headed by members of
8282-421: The reverend at St. Philip's Episcopal Church , who agreed to house the clinic in two rooms of the parish house basement. The clinic, which the men named after French Marxist physician Paul Lafargue , opened on March 8, 1946, and served patients from 6 to 8 o'clock on Tuesdays and Thursdays. According to Dennis Doyle, a medical historian and expert on Lafargue, demand was so great for services that "the waiting list
8383-518: The rich, the rural, and the religious exhibit less moral universalism. Moreover, universalists donate less money but to more global recipients. Behaviorally, universalists have fewer friends, spend less time with them, and feel more lonely. These studies also allow us to compare the prevalence of universalism across countries and cultures. A large, cross-country survey study finds that socioeconomic experiences determine levels of universalism, with experience of democracy greatly helping. Anthropologists at
8484-399: The sages going so far as to make a list of 30 laws. The Talmud expands the scope of the Seven Laws of Noah to cover about 100 of the 613 Jewish commandments . The United Nations ' Universal Declaration of Human Rights can be read as assuming characteristics and attributes akin to moral universalism. The drafting committee of the Universal Declaration did assume, or at least aspired to,
8585-424: The small population of all other races increased by 4% (142). The entirety of Community District 10, which comprises Central Harlem, had 116,345 inhabitants as of NYC Health 's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 76.2 years. This is lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are children and middle-aged adults: 21% are between
8686-561: The social conditions of Harlem would "relieve the main source of anxiety for an estimated third of their patients". In 1954, New York State passed the Community Mental Health Services Act, establishing mental health boards in cities with more than 50,000 residents. The purpose of the boards was to dispense state funds to licensed providers of mental healthcare. While the Northside Center, which worked with black children, received $ 72,000 (equivalent to $ 337,722 in 2017) in funding,
8787-1211: The style of SoHo or NoHo ) in an attempt to accelerate gentrification of the neighborhoods. "SoHa", applied to the area between West 110th and 125th Streets, has become a controversial name. Residents and other critics seeking to prevent this renaming of the area have labelled the SoHa brand as "insulting and another sign of gentrification run amok" and have said that "the rebranding not only places their neighborhood's rich history under erasure but also appears to be intent on attracting new tenants, including students from nearby Columbia University". Multiple New York City politicians have initiated legislative efforts to curtail this practice of neighborhood rebranding, which when successfully introduced in other New York City neighborhoods, have led to increases in rents and real estate values, as well as "shifting demographics". In 2011, U.S. Representative Hakeem Jeffries attempted but failed to implement legislation "that would punish real estate agents for inventing false neighborhoods and redrawing neighborhood boundaries without city approval." By 2017, New York State Senator Brian Benjamin also worked to render
8888-446: The subjectivist ideal observer theory and divine command theory , and also the non-cognitivist moral theory of universal prescriptivism . According to philosophy professor R. W. Hepburn: "To move towards the objectivist pole is to argue that moral judgements can be rationally defensible, true or false, that there are rational procedural tests for identifying morally impermissible actions, or that moral values exist independently of
8989-419: The subpar state of black psychiatric services, and that "Wertham's attitude is that psychiatry is for everybody or none at all." Wertham also unsuccessfully petitioned mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia to create preventive psychiatry facilities in Harlem for at least ten years, adding to his frustration with the city's treatment of black mental patients. Ellison brought the idea of the clinic to Sheldon Hale Bishop,
9090-406: The tubercle bacillus; it doesn't harm people, so let it go'". Judge Collins J. Seitz was deeply moved by Wertham's testimony, and though he did not rule segregation unconstitutional, he effectively struck down Delaware's segregation laws and ordered the integration of the state's schools. After the conclusion of Brown v. Board , Thurgood Marshall wrote to Wertham to thank him for his testimony in
9191-531: The two men was set up by Richard Wright , then an established Harlem intellectual. In September 1946, after the establishment of the clinic, Wright penned an article in Free World titled Psychiatry Comes to Harlem, where he described the destitute state of mental health services for blacks in New York: "[T]hat Harlem's 400,000 black people produced 53% of all the juvenile delinquents of Manhattan, which has
9292-470: The winter, and to keep prices in line with existing rent control regulations. The largest public works projects in Harlem in these years were public housing, with the largest concentration built in East Harlem. Typically, existing structures were torn down and replaced with city-designed and managed properties that would, in theory, present a safer and more pleasant environment than those available from private landlords. Ultimately, community objections halted
9393-473: The words and phrases from the dictionary. He released several editions until 1944, the last being The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive . Poet Lemn Sissay observed that "Cab Calloway was taking ownership of language for a people who, just a few generations before, had their own languages taken away." Religious life has historically had a strong presence in Black Harlem. The area
9494-511: The work of social psychologist, Jonathan Haidt , and his Moral Foundations Theory . The Moral Foundations theory , developed by Jonathan Haidt and colleagues, proposes that there are “intuitive ethics,” or morals that individuals subscribe to within cultures. There are five foundations that a person's behaviors tend to adhere to: care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and sanctity/degradation. Haidt argues that these morals are cross-cultural, and alignment with them
9595-537: Was a renowned venue for swing dancing, and was immortalized in a popular song of the era, " Stompin' at the Savoy ". In the 1920s and 1930s, between Lenox and Seventh Avenues in central Harlem, over 125 entertainment venues were in operation, including speakeasies , cellars, lounges, cafes, taverns, supper clubs, rib joints, theaters, dance halls, and bars and grills. 133rd Street , known as "Swing Street", became known for its cabarets, speakeasies and jazz scene during
9696-681: Was founded in 1989, and closed with the Boys Choir. From 1967 to 1969, the Harlem Cultural Festival took place in Mount Morris Park . Another name for this festival is "Black Woodstock". Artists like Stevie Wonder , The 5th Dimension , and Gladys Knight performed here. Harlem is also home to the largest African American Day Parade , which celebrates the culture of African diaspora in America. The parade
9797-789: Was founded in 2021 to celebrate cuisine, community, and culture. It is one of the largest night markets in Manhattan . The main attractions include musical performances, arts and crafts shows, and food. Many R&B/Soul groups and artists formed in Harlem. The Main Ingredient , Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers , Black Ivory , Cameo , Keith Sweat , Freddie Jackson , Alyson Williams , Johnny Kemp , Teddy Riley , Dave Wooley , and others got their start in Harlem. Manhattan's contributions to hip-hop stems largely from artists with Harlem roots such as Doug E. Fresh , Big L , Kurtis Blow , The Diplomats , Mase or Immortal Technique . Harlem
9898-573: Was heavily influenced by ragtime . This style played a very important role in early jazz piano In 1938, jazz bandleader and singer Cab Calloway published the first dictionary by an African-American, Cab Calloway's Cat-ologue: A "Hepster's" Dictionary , which became the official jive language reference book of the New York Public Library . In 1939, Calloway published an accompanying book titled Professor Cab Calloway's Swingformation Bureau , which instructed readers how to apply
9999-470: Was inhabited by a Native American band , the Wecquaesgeek , dubbed Manhattans or Manhattoe by Dutch settlers, who along with other Native Americans, most likely Lenape , occupied the area on a semi-nomadic basis. As many as several hundred farmed the Harlem flatlands. Between 1637 and 1639, a few settlements were established. The settlement of Harlem was formally incorporated in 1660 under
10100-551: Was started up in the spring of 1969 with Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Jr. as the Grand Marshal of the first celebration. Arthur Mitchell , a former dancer with the New York City Ballet , established Dance Theatre of Harlem as a school and company of classical ballet and theater training in the late 1960s. The company has toured nationally and internationally. Generations of theater artists have gotten
10201-491: Was still full in the clinic's final years". The clinic's staff was interracial, and most were professionally accredited. Their ranks included psychiatrists and psychiatric nurses, social workers and psychologists, as well as teachers and psychology students. The clinic saw around 70% adults and 30% children (other progressive psychiatrists opened another Harlem facility in 1946 called the Northside Center, which primarily served children), and operated under what Doyle referred to as
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