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120-577: The lake currently covers about 16,400 km (6,300 sq mi). However, like the Aral Sea , it is shrinking due to diversion and extraction of water from its feeders. The lake has a narrow, quite central, strait . The lake's western part is fresh water and its eastern half is saline . The eastern part is on average 1.7 times deeper than the west. The largest shore city is named Balkhash and has about 66,000 inhabitants. Main local economic activities include mining, ore processing and fishing. There

240-828: A deal to pledge 1% of their budgets to help the sea recover. In March 2000, UNESCO presented their "Water-related vision for the Aral Sea basin for the year 2025". By 2006, the World Bank 's restoration projects, especially in the North Aral, were giving rise to some unexpected, tentative relief in what had been an extremely pessimistic picture. Funded in part by the UNDP, implementations in Kazakhstan such as laser levelling and irrigation optimization using energy-efficient technologies has shown effectiveness. The future of

360-677: A desert shrub akin to the creosote bush ) to be collected in Aralsk for the new steamers. Saxaul wood proved not to be a suitable fuel and in the later years the Aral Flotilla was provisioned, at substantial cost, by coal from the Donbas . In the early 1960s, as part of the Soviet government plan for cotton , or "white gold", to become a major export, the Amu Darya river in the south and

480-489: A hazard to navigation such as rocks, shoals , reefs and other features that obstruct ship passage. Bottom measurements also include collection of the nature of the bottom as it pertains to effective anchoring. Unlike oceanography, hydrography will include shore features, natural and manmade, that aid in navigation. Therefore, a hydrographic survey may include the accurate positions and representations of hills , mountains and even lights and towers that will aid in fixing

600-506: A planned increase of 3.6 times that. The current rate of the increase is 0.5–4 km/year. In 2007, the Kazakhstan government proposed a price reduction for sales of Kazakh products to China in exchange for reduction of water consumption from Ili River, but the offer was declined by China. Aral Sea The Aral Sea ( / ˈ ær əl / ) was an endorheic lake (that is, without an outlet) lying between Kazakhstan to its north and Uzbekistan to its south, which began shrinking in

720-421: A preference for multi-use surveys, so that the same data collected for nautical charting purposes can also be used for bathymetric portrayal. Even though, in places, hydrographic survey data may be collected in sufficient detail to portray bottom topography in some areas, hydrographic charts only show depth information relevant for safe navigation and should not be considered as a product that accurately portrays

840-621: A remit to gather and distribute charts to HM Ships. Within a year existing charts from the previous two centuries had been collated, and the first catalog published. The first chart produced under the direction of the Admiralty , was a chart of Quiberon Bay in Brittany , and it appeared in 1800. Under Captain Thomas Hurd the department received its first professional guidelines, and the first catalogs were published and made available to

960-640: A sectional flow rate of moving water through a section and or current. Uncrewed Surface Vessels (USVs) and are commonly used for hydrographic surveys - they are often equipped with some sort of sonar. Single-beam echosounders, multibeam echosounders , and side scan sonars are all frequently used in hydrographic applications. The knowledge gained from these surveys aid in disaster planning, port and harbor maintenance, and various other coastal planning activities. Hydrographic services in most countries are carried out by specialized hydrographic offices . The international coordination of hydrographic efforts lies with

1080-488: A ship's position, as well as the physical aspects of the sea and seabed. Hydrography, mostly for reasons of safety, adopted a number of conventions that have affected its portrayal of the data on nautical charts. For example, hydrographic charts are designed to portray what is safe for navigation, and therefore will usually tend to maintain least depths and occasionally de-emphasize the actual submarine topography that would be portrayed on bathymetric charts . The former are

1200-474: A very long, narrow, high sided valley lined by the Tian Shan mountains and is mainly fed by glacier . These have a sporadic degree of relief precipitation , their predominant type. Inflow is often greatest and most regulated during the glacial melting season: June to July. The river forms a quite narrow delta of 8,000 km that serves as an multi-year accumulator type of regulator. The eastern part of

1320-437: A year. Women and children are the most vulnerable populations in this environmental health crisis due to the highly polluted and salinated water used for drinking and the dried seabed. Toxic chemicals associated with pesticide use have been found in blood and breast milk of mothers; specifically organochlorides, polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PCBs), DDT compounds, and TCDD. These toxins can be, and often are, passed on to

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1440-531: Is 13 kilometres (8 miles) long and has capacity for over 29 cubic kilometres of water to be stored in the North Aral Sea, whilst allowing excess to overflow into the South Aral Sea. Hydrography Hydrography is the branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans , seas , coastal areas , lakes and rivers , as well as with

1560-532: Is 27.76 km/year, of which 11.5 km comes from China. The drainage basin of the lake is about 413,000 km; with 15% in the north-west of Xinjiang in China and a negligible part from mountains along the Kyrgyz -Kazakh border. Lake Balkhash thus takes 86% of water inflow from Balkhash-Alakol basin. The Ili accounts for 73–80% of the inflow: 12.3 km/year or 23 km per year. The river rises in

1680-420: Is concern about the lake's shallowing due to desertification of microclimates and water extraction for multiplied industrial output. Moreover, the impacts of climate change may also negatively affect the lake and its ecosystems. The present name of the lake originates from the word "balkas" of Tatar , Kazakh and Southern Altai languages which means "tussocks in a swamp". From as early as 103 BC up until

1800-401: Is considered an example of ecosystem collapse . The ecosystems of the Aral Sea and the river deltas feeding into it have been nearly destroyed, largely because of the salinity being dramatically higher than ocean water. The receding sea has left huge plains covered with salt and toxic chemicals from weapons testing , industrial projects, and runoff of pesticides and fertilizer. Because of

1920-496: Is more commonly called hydrometry or hydrology . Hydrography of rivers and streams is also an integral part of water management. Most reservoirs in the United States use dedicated stream gauging and rating tables to determine inflows into the reservoir and outflows to irrigation districts, water municipalities and other users of captured water. River/stream hydrographers use handheld and bank mounted devices, to capture

2040-591: Is now called the Aralkum Desert . In a Kazakhstani effort to save and replenish the North Aral Sea, the Dike Kokaral dam was completed in 2005. By 2008, the water level had risen 12 m (39 ft) above that of 2003, to 42 m (138 ft). As of 2013 , salinity dropped, and fish were again present in sufficient numbers for some fishing to be viable. After the visit to Muynak in 2011, former United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon called

2160-557: The Aral Sea . Since 1970, the 39 km outflow of water to fill the Kapchagay Reservoir led to a 66% fall in inflow from the Ili. The concomitant decrease the lake's level was about 15.6 cm/year, much greater than the natural decline of 1908–1946 (9.2 cm/year). The shallowing is acute in the western "half". From 1972 until 2001, a small salt lake Alakol, 8 km south of Balkhash, had practically disappeared and

2280-709: The Baltic herring ( Clupea harengus membras ), big-scale sand smelt ( Atherina boyeri caspia ), black-striped pipefish ( Syngnatus abaster caspius ), Caucasian dwarf goby ( Knipowitschia caucasica ), monkey goby ( Neogobius fluviatilis ), round goby ( N. melanostomus ), Syrman goby ( N. syrman ), bighead goby ( Ponticola kessleri ), tubenose goby ( Proterorchinus marmoratus ), grass carp ( Ctenopharyngodon idella ), silver carp ( Hypophtalmichthys molitrix ), bighead carp ( H. nobilis ), black carp ( Mylopharyngodon piceus ), and northern snakehead ( Channa argus warpachowski ). The herring, sand smelt, and gobies were

2400-605: The Constantine completed the survey of the entire Aral Sea over the next two years. Exiled Ukrainian poet and painter Taras Shevchenko participated in the expedition and produced a number of sketches. In 1851 two newly built steamers arrived from Sweden. The geological surveys had found no coal deposits in the area so the Military Governor-General of Orenburg Vasily Perovsky ordered an "as large as possible supply" of saxaul ( Haloxylon ammodendron ,

2520-630: The International Hydrographic Organization . The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office is one of the oldest, supplying a wide range of charts covering the globe to other countries, allied military organizations and the public. In the United States, the hydrographic charting function has been carried out since 1807 by the Office of Coast Survey of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration within

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2640-484: The Ural River and transporting them overland to be reassembled at Aralsk. The first two ships, assembled in 1847, were the two-masted schooners Nikolai and Mikhail . The former was a warship; the latter a merchant vessel to establish fisheries. They surveyed the northern part of the sea in 1848, the same year that a larger warship, the Constantine , was assembled. Commanded by Lt. Alexey Butakov ( Алексей Бутаков ),

2760-513: The fourth-largest lake in the world with an area of 68,000 km (26,300 sq mi), the Aral Sea began shrinking in the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were diverted by Soviet irrigation projects. By 2007, it had declined to 10% of its original size, splitting into four lakes: the North Aral Sea , the eastern and western basins of the once far larger South Aral Sea , and the smaller intermediate Barsakelmes Lake . By 2009,

2880-422: The mariner 's tools to avoid accident. The latter are best representations of the actual seabed, as in a topographic map, for scientific and other purposes. Trends in hydrographic practice since c. 2003–2005 have led to a narrowing of this difference, with many more hydrographic offices maintaining "best observed" databases, and then making navigationally "safe" products as required. This has been coupled with

3000-469: The monocultured and depleted soil. Forced labor was used and profits were siphoned off by the powerful and well-connected. In 2003, the South Aral further divided into eastern and western basins. The waters in the deepest parts of the sea were saltier and didn't mix with the top waters, so only the top of the sea was heated in the summer, resulting in faster evaporation than had been predicted. A plan

3120-741: The 1930s and was greatly increased in the 1960s. Many canals were poorly built, allowing leakage and evaporation. Between 30 and 75% of the water from the Qaraqum Canal , the largest in Central Asia, went to waste. It was estimated in 2012 that only 12% of Uzbekistan's irrigation canal length was waterproofed. Only 28% of interfarm irrigation channels, and 21% of onfarm channels have anti-infiltration linings , which retain on average 15% more water than unlined channels. Only 77% of farm intakes have flow gauges . By 1960, between 20 and 60 km (4.8 and 14.4  cu mi ) of water each year

3240-616: The 1960s and had largely dried up by the 2010s. It was in the Aktobe and Kyzylorda regions of Kazakhstan and the Karakalpakstan autonomous region of Uzbekistan. The name roughly translates from Mongolic and Turkic languages to "Sea of Islands", a reference to the large number of islands (over 1,100) that once dotted its waters. The Aral Sea drainage basin encompasses Uzbekistan and parts of Afghanistan , Iran , Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , and Turkmenistan . Formerly

3360-528: The 20th century prior to the irrigation, the sea's water level above sea level held steady at 53 m. By 2010 the large Aral was 27 m and the small Aral 43 m above sea level. The disappearance of the lake was no surprise to the Soviets, they expected it to happen long before. As early as 1964, Aleksandr Asarin at the Hydroproject Institute pointed out that the lake was doomed, explaining, "It

3480-643: The 8th century, the Balkhash polity surrounding the lake, whose Chinese name was Yibohai 夷播海, was known to the Chinese as 布谷/布庫/布蘇 "Bugu/Buku/Busu." From the 8th century on, the land to the south of the lake, between it and the Tian Shan mountains, was known in Turkic as Jetisu "Seven Rivers" ( Semirechye in Russian ). It was a land where the nomadic Turks and Mongols of the steppe mingled cultures with

3600-540: The Aral Sea and the responsibility for its survival are now in the hands of the five countries: Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan , and Turkmenistan . In 1994, they adopted the Aral Sea Basin Programme. The Programme's four objectives are: The first phase of the plan effectively began with the first involvement from the World Bank in 1992, and was in operation until 1997. It

3720-1240: The Aral Sea basin had an exceptional array of endemic fish subspecies (as well as the three endemic sturgeon species). Most of these still survive in the North Aral Sea, but some, such as the sturgeons, have been greatly reduced or even driven to extirpation by the lake's shrinkage. Native fish species of the lake included ship sturgeon ( Acipenser nudiventris ), all three Pseudoscaphirhynchus sturgeon species, Aral trout ( Salmo trutta aralensis ), northern pike ( Esox lucius ), ide ( Leuciscus idus oxianus ), asp ( Aspius aspius iblioides ), common rudd ( Scardinius erythropthalmus ), Turkestan barbel ( Luciobarbus capito conocephalus ), Aral barbel ( L. brachycephalus brachycephalus ), common bream ( Abramis brama orientalis ), white-eyed bream ( Ballerus sapa aralensis ), Danube bleak ( Chalcalburnus chalcoides aralensis ), ziege ( Pelecus cultratus ), crucian carp ( Carassius carassius gibelio ), common carp ( Cyprinus carpio aralensis ), Wels catfish ( Silurus glanis ), Ukrainian stickleback ( Pungitius platygaster aralensis ), zander ( Sander lucioperca ), European perch ( Perca fluviatilis ), and Eurasian ruffe ( Gymnocephalus cernuus ). All these fish aside from

Lake Balkhash - Misplaced Pages Continue

3840-479: The Aral Sea crisis, especially in women and children. The impoverished are also particularly vulnerable to the environmental and health related effects of changes to the Aral Sea. These populations were most likely to reside downstream from the Basin and in former coastal communities. They were also among the first to be detrimentally affected, representing at least 4.4 million people in the region. Considered to have

3960-515: The Aral Sea is inevitable." On the other hand, starting in the 1960s, a large-scale project was proposed to redirect part of the flow of the rivers of the Ob basin to Central Asia over a gigantic canal system. Refilling of the Aral Sea was considered one of the project's main goals. However, due to its staggering costs and the negative public opinion in Russia proper , the federal authorities had abandoned

4080-666: The Aral Sea three years later. The Aral Sea fishing industry began with the renowned Russian dealers Lapshin, Ritkin, Krasilnikov, and Makeev, which later formed major fishing unions. Russian naval presence on the Aral Sea began in 1847 with the founding of Raimsk , soon renamed Fort Aralsk, near the mouth of the Syr Darya. As the Aral Sea basin is not connected to other bodies of water, the Imperial Russian Navy deployed its vessels by disassembling them in Orenburg on

4200-639: The Aral Sea to its Memory of the World Register as a resource to study the environmental tragedy. The Amu Darya river flowed into the Caspian Sea via the Uzboy Channel until the Holocene . Geographer Nick Middleton believes it did not begin to flow into the Aral Sea until that time. Despite its former vast size, the Aral Sea had relatively low indigenous biodiversity . However,

4320-482: The Gulf Karashagan and Ili River are low (1–2 m) and sandy. They are often flooded and therefore contain numerous water pools. Occasional hills are present with the height of 5–10 m. The coastline is very curvy and dissected by numerous bays and coves. The large bays of the western part are: Saryshagan, Kashkanteniz, Karakamys, Shempek (the southern pole of the lake), and Balakashkan Ahmetsu, and those in

4440-481: The Ili-Balkhash basin 233,000 tonnes of construction materials, at least 550,000 tonnes of livestock, fertiliser and foodstuffs and at least 53 tonnes of fish. Development of eco-tourism is expected to increase the passengers to 6,000 people per year. Academics and government advisors fear major loss of ecosystems in the lake. Unabashed industrial extraction would likely emulate the environmental disaster at

4560-546: The Kapchagay. The associated 49.5-MW Kerbulak Hydroelectric Power Plant will partially solve the problem of providing electricity to the southern areas of Kazakhstan and will serve as a buffer for daily and weekly fluctuations in the water level of the Ili River. Energy supply to the south-eastern part of Kazakhstan is an old problem, with numerous solutions proposed in the past. Proposals to build power plants on Balkhash in

4680-671: The Kazakh language). These two parts are connected by the Uzynaral strait . In ancient times Balkhash was much larger and many lakes in the area were part of it, such as Zhalanashkol , Itishpes , Alakol and Sasykkol . Even farther back it was a sea, stretching all the way to the Dzungarian Alatau . As recently as 1910 the lake was considerably larger with an estimated area of 23,464 km. By 1946 this had shrunk to 15,730 km. The lake covers about 16,400 km (2000), making it

4800-469: The North Aral Sea has recovered as salinity has decreased from the 1990s onwards, with extirpated crustacean and rotifer species returning naturally via the Syr Darya River, at the expense of the saltwater species. The cladoceran Moina mongolica , extirpated by the introduced fish species, has also returned. The zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha aralensis ) has been reintroduced. In contrast, in

4920-406: The South Aral Sea only a few nematodes , rotifers, and parthenogenic brine shrimp ( Artemia parthenogenetica ) exist. The future prospects for aquatic invertebrates in all remaining Aral Sea fragments depend on their future changes in salinity. Climate shifts have driven multiple phases of sea-level rise and fall. Inflow rates from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya are affected by glacial melt rates at

Lake Balkhash - Misplaced Pages Continue

5040-468: The Soviet Union's entire fish catch, has been devastated. In the 1980s commercial harvests were becoming unsustainable, and by 1987 commercial harvest became nonexistent. Due to the declining sea levels, salinity levels became too high for the 20 native fish species to survive. The only fish that could survive the high-salinity levels was flounder. Also, as water has receded, former fishing towns along

5160-417: The Syr Darya river in the east were diverted from feeding the Aral Sea to irrigate the desert in an attempt to grow cotton , melons , rice and cereals . This temporarily succeeded, and in 1988, Uzbekistan was the world's largest exporter of cotton. Cotton production is still Uzbekistan's main cash crop , accounting for 17% of its exports in 2006. Large scale construction of irrigation canals began in

5280-458: The actual shape of the bottom. The soundings selected from the raw source depth data for placement on the nautical chart are selected for safe navigation and are biased to show predominantly the shallowest depths that relate to safe navigation. For instance, if there is a deep area that can not be reached because it is surrounded by shallow water, the deep area may not be shown. The color filled areas that show different ranges of shallow water are not

5400-448: The arrival of two steamers and three barges. By 1996, up to 120,000 tonnes of building materials, 3,500 tonnes of ore, 45 tonnes of fish, 20 tonnes of melons and 3,500 passengers were transported on Balkhash (per year). During 2004 there were 1000 passengers and 43 tonnes of fish. In 2004, the local fleets consisted of 87 vessels, including 7 passenger ships, 14 cargo barges and 15 tugboats . The government projected that 2012 would see in

5520-551: The average mean temperature is −14 °C in January. Average precipitation is 131 mm per year and the relative humidity is about 60%. Wind, dry climate and high summer temperatures result in high evaporation rate – 950 mm in cold and up to 1200 mm in dry years. Wind has average speed of 4.5–4.8 m/s and blows mainly southward in the western part and to the south-west in the eastern part. The wind induces waves up to 2–3.5 m in height and steady clockwise currents in

5640-501: The basin of the Lake Balkhash, including residents of Almaty – the largest city of Kazakhstan. The largest city on the lake is Balkhash with 66,724 inhabitants (2010). It is on the northern shore and has a prominent mining and metallurgy plant. A large copper deposit was discovered in the area in 1928–1930 and is being developed in the villages north of the lake. Part of the motorway between Bishkek and Karaganda runs along

5760-536: The best data available and will caveat its nature in a caution note or in the legend of the chart. A hydrographic survey is quite different from a bathymetric survey in some important respects, particularly in a bias toward least depths due to the safety requirements of the former and geomorphologic descriptive requirements of the latter. Historically, this could include echosoundings being conducted under settings biased toward least depths, but in modern practice hydrographic surveys typically attempt to best measure

5880-507: The children of these mothers, resulting in low birthweight and congenital abnormalities. The rate of infants being born with abnormalities is five times higher in this region than in European countries. The Aral Sea region has 26% of its children born at low birthweight, which is two standard deviations away from a national population study gathered by the WHO. Exposures to toxic chemicals from

6000-480: The commissioning of surveys was increasingly done by governments and special hydrographic offices. National organizations, particularly navies , realized that the collection, systematization and distribution of this knowledge gave it great organizational and military advantages. Thus were born dedicated national hydrographic organizations for the collection, organization, publication and distribution of hydrography incorporated into charts and sailing directions. Prior to

6120-1088: The concentration of which was 1.127 g/L in 1985, is represented by numerous species of algae . The lake used to have a rich fauna, but since 1970, biodiversity began to decline due to deterioration of water quality. Before then, there were abundant shellfish , crustaceans , chironomidae and oligochaeta , as well as zooplankton (concentration 1.87 g/L in 1985), especially in the western part. The lake hosted about 20 species of fish, 6 of which were native: Ili marinka ( Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensis ), Balkhash marinka ( S. argentatus ), Balkhash perch ( Perca schrenkii ), Triplophysa strauchii , T. labiata and Balkhash minnow ( Rhynchocypris poljakowii ). Other fish species were alien: common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ), spine , Oriental bream ( Abramis brama orientalis ), Aral barbel ( Luciobarbus brachycephalus ), Siberian dace ( Leuciscus baicalensis ), tench ( Tinca tinca ), European perch ( Perca fluviatilis ), wels catfish ( Silurus glanis ), osman ( Diptychus ), Prussian carp ( Carassius gibelio ) and others. The fishery

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6240-437: The country of Kazakhstan. The economic importance of the lake is mostly in its fishing industry. Systematic breeding of fish began in 1930; the annual catch was 20 thousand tonnes in 1952, it increased to 30 thousands in the 1960s and included up to 70% of valuable species. However, by the 1990s production fell to 6,600 tonnes per year with only 49 tonnes of valuable breeds. The decline is attributed to several factors, including

6360-507: The data are interchangeable, but marine hydrographic data will be particularly directed toward marine navigation and safety of that navigation. Marine resource exploration and exploitation is a significant application of hydrography, principally focused on the search for hydrocarbons . Hydrographical measurements include the tidal , current and wave information of physical oceanography. They include bottom measurements, with particular emphasis on those marine geographical features that pose

6480-505: The decrease in biodiversity. Of the 342 species of vertebrates , 22 are endangered and are listed in the Red Book of Kazakhstan. Forests of the Ili delta were inhabited by the rare (now probably extinct) Caspian tiger and its prey, wild boar . Around the 1940s, Canadian muskrat was brought to the Ili delta; it quickly acclimatized, feeding on Typha , and was trapped for fur, up to 1 million animals per year. However, recent changes in

6600-549: The degradation, restricting what Kazakhstan farmers now choose to seed. Inland seas and lakes generally moderate a region's climate through humidification, regulation of thermal energy, and peri-winter albedo effects . Loss of water in the Aral Sea has changed surface temperatures and wind patterns. This has led to a broader annual temperature range (about a 4 to 12 °C broadening) and more dust in storms locally and regionally. The Aral Sea fishing industry, which at its peak employed some 40,000 and reportedly produced one-sixth of

6720-403: The depths observed, with the adjustments for navigational safety being applied after the fact. Hydrography of streams will include information on the stream bed, flows , water quality and surrounding land. Basin or interior hydrography pays special attention to rivers and potable water although if collected data is not for ship navigational uses, and is intended for scientific usage, it

6840-459: The dry dusty land that was once covered by water; many have been there for 20 years. The South Aral Sea remains too saline to host any species other than halotolerant organisms. The South Aral has been incapable of supporting fish since the late 1990s, when the flounder were killed by rising salinity levels. Also destroyed is the muskrat -trapping industry in the deltas of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, which used to yield as many as 500,000 pelts

6960-536: The dry seabed and polluted water have caused other health issues in women and children. Renal tubular dysfunction has become a large health concern in children in the Aral Sea region as it is showing extremely high prevalence rates. Renal tubular dysfunction can also be related to growth and developmental stunting. This, in conjunction with the already high rate of low-birthweight children and children born with abnormalities, contributes to severe negative health effects and outcomes for children. These issues are compounded by

7080-631: The eastern part are: Guzkol, Balyktykol, Kukuna, Karashigan. The eastern part also includes peninsulas Baygabyl, Balay, Shaukar, Kentubek and Korzhintobe. The lake contains 43 islands with a total area of 66 km; however, new islands are being formed due to the lowering of water level, and the area of the existing ones is increasing. The islands of the western part include Tasaral and Basaral (the largest), as well as Ortaaral, Ayakaral and Olzhabekaral. The eastern islands include Ozynaral, Ultarakty, Korzhyn and Algazy . The Balkhash-Alakol Basin covers 512,000 km, and its average surface water runoff

7200-797: The eastern part. The shores of the lake contain individual willow trees and riparian forests , mostly composed of various species of Populus . Plants include common reed ( Phragmites australis ), lesser Indian reed mace ( Typha angustata ) and several species of cane – Schoenoplectus littoralis , S. lacustris and endemic S. kasachstanicus . Under water grow two types of Myriophyllum – spiked ( M. spicatum ) and whorled ( M. verticillatum ); several kinds of Potamogeton – shining ( P. lucens ), perfoliate ( P. perfoliatus ), kinky ( P. crispus ), fennel ( P. pectinatus ) and P. macrocarpus ; as well as common bladderwort ( Utricularia vulgaris ), rigid hornwort ( Ceratophyllum demersum ) and two species of Najas . Phytoplankton ,

7320-416: The ecosystems of Alakol and Balkhash basins. At the 2005 International Environmental Forum devoted to Lake Balkhash, Kazakhmys announced that by 2006 it will restructure its processes, thereby reducing emissions by 80–90%. Contamination of Balkhash originates not only locally, but is also brought by inflow of polluted water from China. China also consumes 14.5 km of water per year from the Ili River, with

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7440-581: The entire world, and produced over 130,000 charts annually, of which about half were sold. The word hydrography comes from the Ancient Greek ὕδωρ ( hydor ), "water" and γράφω ( graphō ), "to write". Large-scale hydrography is usually undertaken by national or international organizations which sponsor data collection through precise surveys and publish charts and descriptive material for navigational purposes. The science of oceanography is, in part, an outgrowth of classical hydrography. In many respects

7560-495: The equivalent of contours on a topographic map since they are often drawn seaward of the actual shallowest depth portrayed. A bathymetric chart does show marine topology accurately. Details covering the above limitations can be found in Part ;1 of Bowditch's American Practical Navigator . Another concept that affects safe navigation is the sparsity of detailed depth data from high resolution sonar systems. In more remote areas,

7680-494: The establishment of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office , Royal Navy captains were responsible for the provision of their own charts. In practice this meant that ships often sailed with inadequate information for safe navigation, and that when new areas were surveyed, the data rarely reached all those who needed it. The Admiralty appointed Alexander Dalrymple as Hydrographer in 1795, with

7800-475: The first planktivorous fish in the lake, leading to a collapse of the lake's zooplankton population. This in turn caused a collapse of the herring and sand smelt population from which neither species has recovered. All introduced species aside from the carp, snakehead, and (possibly) pipefish survived the lake's shrinkage and salinity increase, and during this time the European flounder ( Platichthys flesus )

7920-421: The genera Dreissena (including an endemic subspecies of zebra mussel , Dreissena polymorpha aralensis ), Hypanis , and the lagoon cockle ( Cerastoderma glaucum ) (formerly considered distinct species Cerastoderma rhomboides and C. isthmica ). Native gastropods included Theodoxus pallasi and a member of Caspiohydrobia . Many of these invertebrates had their numbers drastically reduced due to

8040-518: The halt of reproduction programs, poaching and decline in water level and quality. In 1970, the 364- megawatt Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on the Ili River, drawing water out of the new Kapshagay Reservoir for irrigation . Ili's water is also extensively used upstream, in the Xinjiang province of China, for the cultivation of cotton. Currently, there is a project for an additional counter-regulatory dam 23 km downstream from

8160-479: The introduced fish species. Later, during an unsuccessful attempt to introduce mullet ( Mugil sp.) to the Aral from the Caspian Sea , the rockpool shrimp ( Palaemon elegans ) was inadvertently introduced to the sea. The shrimp is thought to be responsible for the extirpation of the near-endemic amphipod Dikerogammarus aralensis , which now survives only in the Syr Darya basin. The copepod Calanipeda aquaedulcis

8280-545: The irrigation systems currently in place, whilst targeting water management at a local level. The largest project in this phase is the North Aral Sea Project, a direct effort to recover the northern region of the Aral Sea. The North Aral Sea Project's main initiative is the construction of a dam across the Berg Strait, a deep channel which connects the North Aral Sea to the South Aral Sea. The Kok-Aral Dam

8400-490: The lack of research on maternal and child health effects caused by the demise of the Aral Sea. For example, only 26 English-language peer-reviewed articles and four reports on children's health were produced between 1994 and 2008. In addition, there is a lack of health infrastructure and resources in the Aral Sea region to combat the health issues that have arisen. There is a lack of medication and equipment in many medical facilities, so health professionals do not have access to

8520-499: The lake is 2.94 g/L. Long-term (1931–70) average precipitation of salts in the lake is 7.53 million tonnes and the reserves of dissolved salts are about 312 million tonnes. The water in the western part has a yellow-gray tint, and in the eastern part the color varies from bluish to emerald-blue. The climate of the lake area is continental . The average mean temperature is about 24 °C with 30 °C (86 °F) highs in July and

8640-485: The lake is fed by the rivers Karatal , Aksu and Lepsy , as well as by groundwater . The Karatal rises on the slopes of Dzungarian Alatau and is the second-largest inflow. The Ayaguz , which fed the east half until 1950, seldom reaches Lake Balkhash. The western half's inflow averages 1.15 km greater, per year. The area and volume vary due to long-term and short-term fluctuations in water level. Long-term fluctuations had an amplitude of 12–14 metres. Since

8760-438: The lake, the mouth of the Ili River, and the Kapchagay Reservoir. The main piers are Burylbaytal and Burlitobe. The ships are relatively light due to the limiting depth in some parts of the lake; they are used mainly for catching fish and transporting fish and construction materials. The total length of the waterway is 978 km, and the navigation period is 210 days/year. Navigation on the Lake Balkhash originated in 1931 with

8880-416: The largest lake wholly in Kazakhstan. Its surface is about 340 m above sea level. It has a gentle curve ( sickle ) shape yet with jagged shorelines. Its length is about 600 km and the width varies from 9–19 km in the eastern part to 74 km in the western part. Saryesik Peninsula, near the middle of the lake, hydrographically divides it into two very different lakes. The western lake covers 58% of

9000-405: The late 1900s, the lake is shrinking due to the diversion of the rivers supplying it. For example, Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on Ili in 1970. Filling the associated Kapshagay Reservoir disbalanced the lake, worsening water quality, especially in the eastern part. Between 1970 and 1987, the water level fell by 2.2 metres, the volume reduced by 30 km salinity in the west half

9120-416: The late 1970s and 1980s stalled, and the initiative to erect a nuclear plant near the village Ulken met strong opposition from environmentalists and residents. Therefore, in 2008, the Kazakh government reconsidered and announced building of a Balkhash Thermal Power Plant . However, in 2024 following a referendum, it was resolved to build a nuclear power plant. There is a regular ship navigation through

9240-482: The late 1990s. Balkhash is a semi-saline lake. Chemical composition strongly depends on the hydrographic features of the reservoir. Water in the west half is nearly fresh, with the content of total dissolved solids about 0.74 g/L, and cloudy (visibility: 1 metre); it is used for drinking and industry. The east half has less silt in suspension (visibility: 5.5 metres) but resembles oceanic sea water in salinity, with concentration of 3.5–6 g/L. The average salinity of

9360-575: The liver and kidneys — entered the food chain. Inhabitants of the surrounding areas commonly experience a shortage of fresh water, and health problems are widespread — including high rates of certain cancers, respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis (mostly drug resistant ), digestive disorders, anaemia , and infectious diseases. Liver, kidney, and eye problems may also be due to the toxic dust storms. Together, this presented an unusually high fatality rate among vulnerable age groups: child mortality stood at 75 per 1,000 in 2009, while maternal mortality

9480-411: The necessary supplies to do their jobs in the Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan regions. There is also meager development of a health information system that would allow for extensive research or surveillance of emerging health issues due to Aral Sea issues. An absence of a primary care approach in the health systems of this region also hinders services and access that could prevent and treat issues stemming from

9600-485: The older Kazakhstan Block during the Neogene and Quaternary . Rapid erosion of the Tian Shan has meant the depression subsequently filled with sand river sediments in what is geologically a very short time span. The basin is a part of Dzungarian Alatau , which also contains lakes Sasykkol , Alakol and Aibi . These lakes are remnants of an ancient sea which once covered the entire Balkhash-Alakol depression, but

9720-502: The only available depth information has been collected with lead lines. This collection method drops a weighted line to the bottom at intervals and records the depth, often from a rowboat or sail boat. There is no data between soundings or between sounding lines to guarantee that there is not a hazard such as a wreck or a coral head waiting there to ruin a sailor's day. Often, the navigation of the collecting boat does not match today's GPS navigational accuracies. The hydrographic chart will use

9840-470: The original shores have become ship graveyards . Aral , originally the main fishing port, is now about 15 kilometres from the sea and has seen its population decline dramatically since the beginning of the crisis. The town of Moynaq in Uzbekistan had a thriving harbour and fishing industry that employed about 30,000 people; now it lies 30–90 kilometres from the shore. Fishing boats lie scattered on

9960-652: The prediction of their change over time, for the primary purpose of safety of navigation and in support of all other marine activities, including economic development, security and defense, scientific research, and environmental protection. The origins of hydrography lay in the making of charts to aid navigation, by individual mariners as they navigated into new waters. These were usually the private property, even closely held secrets, of individuals who used them for commercial or military advantage. As transoceanic trade and exploration increased, hydrographic surveys started to be carried out as an exercise in their own right, and

10080-574: The present. The Aral Sea was part of the western frontier of the Chinese Empire during the Tang dynasty . Muslim geographers, such as Hafiz-i Abru , wrote about the disappearance of the Aral Sea in 1417 due to diversions in both the Amu Darya and Syr Darya . The Russian expedition of Alexey Butakov performed the first observations of the Aral Sea in 1848. The first steamer arrived in

10200-428: The procedures of the plan. This is due in part to a lack of co-operation among the affected people. The water flowing into the Aral Sea has long been considered an important commodity, and trade agreements have been made to supply the downstream communities with water in the spring and summer months for irrigation. In return, they supply the upstream countries with fuel during the winter, instead of storing water during

10320-439: The project by 1986. From 1960 to 1998, the sea's surface area shrank by 60%, and its volume by 80%. In 1960, the Aral Sea had been the world's fourth-largest lake with an area of 68,000 km (26,000 sq mi) and a volume of 1,100 km (260 cu mi). By 1998, it had dropped to 28,687 km (11,076 sq mi) and eighth largest. Its salinity increased; having originally been 10 g/L, by 1990 it

10440-467: The public and to other nations as well. In 1829, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort , as Hydrographer, developed the eponymous Scale , and introduced the first official tide tables in 1833 and the first " Notices to Mariners " in 1834. The Hydrographic Office underwent steady expansion throughout the 19th century; by 1855, the Chart Catalogue listed 1,981 charts giving a definitive coverage over

10560-402: The remaining water and in the dry beds. This resulted in wind-borne toxic dust that spread quite widely. People living in the lower parts of the river basins and former shore zones ingested pollutants through drinking local water and inhaling contaminated dust. Furthermore, due to absorption by plants and livestock, toxins — many of which bioaccumulate and are not easily broken down or excreted by

10680-546: The rest were marine invertebrates with ties to the Ponto-Caspian and Mediterranean - Atlantic fauna. The dominant species (excluding protozoa ) were rotifers , cladocerans , and copepods . Advanced crustaceans ( Malacostraca ) were represented by a single amphipod species, Dikerogammarus aralensis , an endemic of the Syr Darya basin. There were several native bivalves in the Aral Sea, including members of

10800-482: The river's delta further reduces the inflow of water to the lake. Another factor affecting the ecology of the Ili-Balkhash basin is emissions due to mining and metallurgical processes, mostly at the Balkhash Mining and Metallurgy Plant operated by Kazakhmys . In the early 1990s, the emission level was 280–320 thousand tonnes per year, depositing 76 tonnes of copper, 68 tonnes of zinc and 66 tonnes of lead on

10920-471: The rivers' headwaters as well as precipitation within the river basins; cold, dry climates restrict both processes. Geologically driven shifts in the course of the Amu Darya between the Aral Sea and the Sarykamysh basins and anthropogenic water withdrawal from Amu Darya and Syr Darya have caused fluctuations in the Aral Sea's water level. Artificial irrigation systems began in ancient times and continue to

11040-627: The settled peoples of Central Asia. In 1864, the lake and its neighboring area were ceded to the Russian Empire under the Treaty of Tarbagatai . With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the lake became part of Kazakhstan . Balkhash lies in the deepest part of the vast Balkhash-Alakol depression, which was formed by a sloping trough between mountains of the Alpine orogeny and

11160-450: The shrinkage of the Aral Sea in the 1990s to president Islam Karimov 's cotton policy. The enormous irrigation system was massively wasteful, crop rotation was not used, and huge quantities of pesticides and fertilizer were applied. The runoff from the fields washed these chemicals into the shrinking sea, creating severe pollution and health problems. As demand for cotton increased, the government applied more pesticides and fertilizer to

11280-552: The shrinking of the Aral Sea "one of the planet's worst environmental disasters". The region's once-prosperous fishing industry has been devastated, bringing unemployment and economic hardship. The water from the diverted Syr Darya river is used to irrigate about two million hectares (5,000,000 acres) of farmland in the Ferghana Valley . The Aral Sea region is heavily polluted, with consequent serious public health problems . UNESCO has added historical documents concerning

11400-457: The shrinking water source and worsening water and soil quality , pesticides were increasingly used from the 1960s to raise cotton yield, which further polluted the water with toxins (e.g. HCH , TCCD , DDT ). Industrial pollution also resulted in PCB and heavy-metal contamination. Owing to the insufficiency of water left in the Aral sea, concentrations of these pollutants rose drastically both in

11520-491: The southeastern lake had disappeared and the southwestern lake had retreated to a thin strip at the western edge of the former southern sea. In subsequent years occasional water flows have led to the southeastern lake sometimes being replenished to a small degree. Satellite images by NASA in August 2014 revealed that for the first time in modern history the eastern basin of the Aral Sea had completely dried up. The eastern basin

11640-414: The southern part of the lake lost about 150 km of water surface. Of the 16 existing lake systems around the lake only five remain. The desertification process involved about 1 ⁄ 3 of the basin. Salt dust is blown away from the dried areas, contributing to the generation of Asian dust storms , increase the soil salinity and adversely influencing the climate. Increasing formation of silt in

11760-425: The stickleback (which persisted during the lake's shrinkage and salinity increase), were also extirpated, but many have returned to the North Aral Sea following its recovery from the 1990s onwards. Other salt-tolerant fish species were intentionally or inadvertently introduced during the 1960s when hydropower and irrigation projects reduced the flow of fresh water thereby increasing salinity . These include

11880-428: The stickleback lived an anadramous or semi-anadromous lifestyle. The salinity increase and drying of the lake led to the local extinction of the Aral trout, ruffe, Turkestan barbel, and all sturgeon species, and dams now block their return and migration routes; the Aral trout and Syr Darya sturgeon ( Pseudoscaphirhynchus fedtschenkoi ) may be extinct due to their restricted range. All other native fish, barring

12000-477: The surface area but only 46% of the volume. It is thus relatively shallow, quiet and filled with freshwater. The eastern lake is much deeper and saltier. These parts are connected by the Uzynaral Strait ( Kazakh : Ұзынарал – "long island") – 3.5 km wide and about 6 metres deep. The lake includes several small basins. In the western part, are two depressions 7–11 meters deep. One extends from

12120-454: The surface of the lake. Since then, emissions have almost doubled. Contaminants are also brought from the dump sites by the dust storms . In 2000, a major conference, Balkhash 2000, brought together environmental scientists from different countries, as well as representatives of business and government. The conference adopted a resolution and appeal to the government of Kazakhstan and international organizations, suggesting new ways of managing

12240-586: The warm months for hydroelectric purposes in winter. However, very few legal obligations are binding these contracts, particularly on an international stage. Phase Two of the Aral Sea Basin programme followed in 1998 and ran for five years. The main shortcomings of phase two were due to its lack of integration with the local communities involved. The scheme was drawn up by the World Bank, government representatives, and various technical experts, without consulting those who would be affected. An example of this

12360-399: The water level destroyed its habitat, bringing the fur industry to a halt. Balkhash is also the habitat of 120 types of bird, including cormorants , marbled teal , pheasants , golden eagle and great egret ; 12 of those are endangered, including great white pelican , Dalmatian pelican , Eurasian spoonbill , whooper swan and white-tailed eagle . In 2005, 3.3 million people lived in

12480-641: The western coast (near Tasaral Island) to Cape Korzhyntubek, whereas the second lies south from the Gulf Bertys, which is the deepest part of the "half". The average depth of the eastern basin is 16 m and has the maximum depth (of 26 m). The average depth of the lake is 5.8 metres, and the total volume of water is about 112 km. The western and northern shores of the lake are high (20–30 m) and rocky; they are composed of such Paleozoic rocks as porphyry , tuff , granite , schist and limestone and keep traces of ancient terraces. The southern shores near

12600-486: The western part. There are 110–130 sunny days per year with the average irradiance of 15.9 MJ/m per day. Water temperature at the surface of the lake varies from 0 °C in December to 28 °C in July. The average annual temperature is 10 °C in the western and 9 °C in the eastern parts of the lake. The lake freezes every year between November and early April, and the melting is delayed by some 10–15 days in

12720-454: The western shore of the lake. The western shore also hosts military installations built during the Soviet era, such as radar missile warning systems. The southern shore is almost unpopulated and has only a few villages. The nature and wild life of the lake attract tourists, and there are several resorts on the lake. In 2021, Lake Balkhash was selected as one of the top 10 tourist destinations in

12840-453: The worst health in this region, their plight was not helped when their fishery livelihoods vanished with the decreasing levels of water and loss of many aquatic species. Thus, those in poverty are entrenched in a vicious cycle. Many different solutions to the problems have been suggested over the years, varying in feasibility and cost, including: In January 1994, Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , Turkmenistan , Tajikistan , and Kyrgyzstan signed

12960-421: The year 0 CE they saw minimal water between the 5th and 10th centuries; and maximal between the 13th and 18th centuries. In the early 20th century and between 1958 and 1969, lake swelled to cover about 18,000 km. In droughts such as the late 1900s, 1930s and 1940s, the lake shrank to about 16,000 km having a drop in level of about 3 metres. In 1946, the area was 15,730 km (volume 82.7 km. From

13080-419: Was 12 in every 1,000. The dust storms have also contributed to water shortages through salt deposition. Overusing pesticides on crops to preserve yields has exacerbated this. Crops are destroyed where salt is deposited by the wind. The most heavily affected fields must be flushed with water four times per day to remove salt and toxic matter. A 1998 study indicated that few crops (besides fodder ) tolerate

13200-440: Was announced for the recovery of the North Aral Sea by building Dike Kokaral , a concrete dam separating the two halves of the Aral Sea. In 2004, the sea's surface area was 17,160 km (6,630 sq mi), 25% of its original size, and a nearly fivefold increase in salinity had killed most of its flora and fauna. Dike Kokaral was completed in 2005 and, as of 2006, some recovery of sea level had been recorded. The Aral Sea

13320-672: Was at 376 g/L. (By comparison, seawater is typically 35 g/L, and the Dead Sea between 300 and 350 g/L.) In 1987, the lake split into two separate bodies of water: the North Aral Sea (the Lesser Sea, or Small Aral Sea) and the South Aral Sea (the Greater Sea, or Large Aral Sea). In June 1991, Uzbekistan gained independence from the Soviet Union. Craig Murray , UK ambassador to Uzbekistan in 2002, attributes

13440-513: Was focused on carp, perch, asp ( Leuciscus aspius ) and bream. Abundant and dense reeds in the southern part of the lake, especially in the delta of the Ili River, served as a haven for birds and animals. Changes in the water level led to the degradation of the delta – since 1970, its area decreased from 3,046 to 1,876 km, reducing wetlands and riparian forests which were inhabited by birds and animals. Land development, application of pesticides , overgrazing and deforestation also contributed to

13560-415: Was going to the land instead of the Aral Sea and the sea began to shrink. From 1961 to 1970, the Aral's level fell an average of 20 cm (7.9 in) per year. In the 1970s the rate nearly tripled to 50–60 cm (20–24 in) per annum, and in the 1980s to 80–90 cm (31–35 in) per annum. The amount of water taken for irrigation from the rivers doubled between 1960 and 2000. In the first half of

13680-464: Was increasing. Projects were proposed to slow the changes down, such as by splitting the lake in two with a dam, called off as the Soviet Union saw recession, democratisation and secession. Total losses amounted to 24.58 km, including The minimal water level of recent decades (340.65 meters AOD ) was in 1987, when the filling Kapshagay Reservoir was completed. The level recovered to 342.5 m by January 2005, attributed to exceptional precipitation in

13800-485: Was ineffectual for a number of reasons, but mainly because it was focused on improving directly the land around the Aral Sea, whilst not intervening in the water usage upstream. There was considerable concern amongst the Central Asian governments, which realised the importance of the Aral Sea in the ecosystem and the economy of Central Asia, and they were prepared to cooperate, but they found it difficult to implement

13920-430: Was introduced to revive fisheries. The extirpated species (aside from possibly the pipefish) returned to the North Aral Sea following its recovery. Herring, sand smelt, gobies and flounder persisted in the South Aral Sea until increasing salinity extirpated all but the gobies. Prior to its shrinkage, the Aral Sea had about 250 species of native aquatic invertebrates , the majority (about 80%) being freshwater species;

14040-466: Was introduced to the Aral to replace the zooplankton species reduced by the herring population, and the North American mud crab Rhithropanopeus harrisii was inadvertently introduced during this attempt as well. Later, as the lake's salinity increased, many of the freshwater-adapted species disappeared, only leaving behind the marine and saline species. However, the zooplankton population in

14160-553: Was not connected with the Aral–Caspian Depression . All the rivers of this region that carry their waters from high mountains flow into Lake Balkhash, however, none of them flows out. The major ones are: Ili , Aksu and Karatal . River Tokrau flows from the north, but its waters get lost in the sands before reaching the lakeshore. The lake is divided into two parts by the Saryesik peninsula (which means "Yellow Door" in

14280-473: Was part of the five-year plans , approved by the council of ministers and the Politburo . Nobody on a lower level would dare to say a word contradicting those plans, even if it was the fate of the Aral Sea." The reaction to the predictions varied. Some Soviet experts apparently considered the Aral to be "nature's error", and a Soviet engineer said in 1968, "it is obvious to everyone that the evaporation of

14400-451: Was the public awareness initiatives, which were seen as propagandist attempts by people with little care or understanding of their situation. These failures have led to the introduction of a new plan, funded by a number of institutions, including the five countries involved and the World Bank. In 1997, a new plan was conceived which would continue with the previous restoration efforts of the Aral Sea. The main aims of this phase are to improve

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