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72-529: The Lake Placid Conferences (1899–1909) established home economics as a formal discipline in the United States. Following a meeting of the Lake Placid Club in 1898, trustees including Ellen Swallow Richards , Melvil Dewey , and his wife Annie Godfrey Dewey planned a formal meeting to discuss home economics issues in the United States with leaders in the field. Among the topics discussed at

144-479: A better education while also preparing them for a life of settling down, doing the chores, and taking care of the children while their husbands became the breadwinners. At this time, homemaking was largely accessible to middle and upper class white women whose families could afford secondary schooling. In the late 19th century, the Lake Placid Conferences took place. The conferences consisted of

216-523: A checkbook. In the 1980s, "domestic celebrities" rose to stardom. Celebrities, such as Martha Stewart , created television programs, books, magazines, and websites about homemaking and home economics, which attested to the continued importance of independent experts and commercial mass-media organizations in facilitating technological and cultural change in consumer products and services industries. Despite many secondary education establishments still referring to these enrichment classes as "home economics",

288-542: A classroom setting. Exergames, or digital games that require the use of physical movement to participate, can be used as a tool to encourage physical activity and health in young children. Technology integration can increase student motivation and engagement in the Physical Education setting. However, the ability of educators to effectively use technology in the classroom is reliant on a teacher's perceived competence in their ability to integrate technology into

360-425: A group of educators working together to elevate the discipline to a legitimate profession. Originally, they wanted to call this profession "oekology", the science of right living. However, "home economics" was ultimately chosen as the official term in 1899. The first book on home economics was Mrs. Welch's Cookbook , published in 1884 at Iowa State by Mary Beaumont Welch . Welch's classes on domestic economy were

432-474: A healthy body. This 60-minute recommendation can be achieved by completing different forms of physical activity, including participation in physical education programs at school. A majority of children around the world participate in Physical Education programs in general education settings. According to data collected from a worldwide survey, 79% of countries require legal implementation of PE in school programming. Physical education programming can vary all over

504-408: A household. One of the first to champion the economics of running a home was Catherine Beecher , sister to Harriet Beecher Stowe . Since the nineteenth century, schools have been incorporating home economics courses into their education programs. In its early years, home economics began with the goal of professionalizing domestic labor for women whilst also uplifting the idea of "women's work". In

576-552: A minimum of twenty minutes of sustained, moderate to vigorous physical activity each school day during instructional time. The 2012 "Shape Of The Nation Report" by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (part of SHAPE America ) and the American Heart Association found that while nearly 75% of states require physical education in elementary through high school, over half of

648-405: A narrow sense the term is given to the study of the empirical sciences with special reference to the practical problems of housework, cooking, etc." Home economics Home economics courses are offered around the world and across multiple educational levels. Historically, the purpose of these courses was to professionalize housework, to provide intellectual fulfillment for women, to emphasize

720-435: A new relationship through education and organization of the housewives. Although people were not taught formal classes of home economics, during the 1950s and 1960s home economics manuals had been fully published. These manuals were compulsory for children to read in school. These manuals focused heavily on how to be a good housewife during a new era of transformation and how to adapt to new behaviors and habits. Starting from

792-481: A physical education setting include video projectors and GPS systems. Gaming systems and their associated games, such as the Kinect , Wii , and Wii Fit can also be used. Projectors are used to show students proper form or how to play certain games. GPS systems can be used to get students active in an outdoor setting, and active exergames can be used by teachers to show students a good way to stay fit in and out of

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864-524: A series of fitness tests. Students are graded by a system of gold, silver, bronze, or as a fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional two months in the country's compulsory national service training if they attain bronze or fail. In Ireland, one is expected to do two semesters worth of 80-minute PE classes. This also includes showering and changing times. So, on average, classes are composed of 60–65 minutes of activity. In Poland , pupils are expected to do at least three hours of PE

936-423: A similar book for boys just as well. Home economics was taught to girls in the junior cycle of secondary school in the 20th century. It was added to the senior cycle Leaving Certificate in 1971, at a time when elimination of school fees was increasing participation. In subsequent decades new co-educational community schools saw more boys studying the subject. Increased third-level education participation from

1008-530: A subject in their courses, sometimes called Human Ecology and Family Sciences. Home economics are known in Indonesia as Family Training and Welfare ( Indonesian : Pembinaan dan Kesejahteraan Keluarga , PKK ). It is rooted on a 1957 conference on home economics held in Bogor ; it became state policy in 1972. The new books are Family management and planning lifestyle for girls in secondary high schools and

1080-540: A week during primary and secondary education. Universities must also organise at least 60 hours of physical education classes in undergraduate courses. In Sweden , the time school students spend in P.E. lessons per week varies between municipalities, but generally, years 0 to 2 have 55 minutes of PE a week; years 3 to 6 have 110 minutes a week, and years 7 to 9 have 220 minutes. In upper secondary school, all national programs have an obligatory course, containing 100 points of PE, which corresponds to 90–100 hours of PE during

1152-429: A week. In Scotland , Scottish pupils are expected to have at least two hours of PE per week during primary and lower secondary education. In Northern Ireland , pupils are expected to participate in at least two hours of physical education (PE) per week during years 8 to 10. PE remains part of the curriculum for years 11 and 12, though the time allocated may vary. In British Columbia , the government has mandated in

1224-490: Is a positive correlation between brain development and exercising. Researchers in 2007 found a profound gain in English Arts standardized test scores among students who had 56 hours of physical education in a year, compared to those who had 28 hours of physical education a year. Many physical education programs also include health education as part of the curriculum. Health education is the teaching of information on

1296-620: Is a subject taught in schools around the world. PE is taught during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor , cognitive, and effective learning through physical activity and movement exploration to promote health and physical fitness . When taught correctly and in a positive manner, children and teens can receive a storm of health benefits. These include reduced metabolic disease risk, improved cardiorespiratory fitness, and better mental health . In addition, PE classes can produce positive effects on students' behavior and academic performance. Research has shown that there

1368-512: Is covered, the qualifications educators must meet, and the textbooks and materials which must be used. These various standards include teaching sports education, or the use of sports as exercise; fitness education, relating to overall health and fitness; and movement education, which deals with movement in a non-sport context. These approaches and curricula are based on pioneers in PE, namely, Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, and Rudolf von Laban, who, in

1440-512: Is critical for physical educators to foster and strengthen developing motor skills and to provide children and teens with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, which allows students to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities throughout their lifetime. These goals can be achieved in a variety of ways. National, state, and local guidelines often dictate which standards must be taught in regards to physical education. These standards determine what content

1512-438: Is not taught. General health education is provided as part of a physical education class. In high schools or secondary schools, there is no specific home economics course, but students may choose related courses to take, such as Family Studies, Food and Nutrition, or Health and Safety. Finland has a 110 year history in home economics teacher education. Household economics and nutrition have been taught at university level since

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1584-702: Is part of the broader Career Technical Education (CTE) umbrella. Career and technical education is a term applied to programs that specialize in skilled trades, applied sciences, modern technologies, and career preparation.  While traditional home economics focused on preparing women to care for a family and home, family consumer science continues to adapt its course offerings to meet the needs of students both for personal growth and professional opportunities. Students can take classes in culinary arts, education, food science, nutrition, health and wellness, interior design, child development, personal finance, textiles, apparel, and retailing. Students who take FCS classes can join

1656-860: Is under-researched, especially in the context of disability , and the social inclusion of disabled people. Many physical education classes utilize technology to assist their pupils in effective exercise. One of the most affordable and popular tools is a simple video recorder . With this, students record themselves, and, upon playback, can see mistakes they are making in activities like throwing or swinging. Studies show that students find this more effective than having someone try to explain what they are doing wrong, and then trying to correct it. Educators may also use technology such as pedometers and heart rate monitors to make step and heart rate goals for students. Implementing pedometers in physical education can improve physical activity participation, motivation and enjoyment. Other technologies that can be used in

1728-504: The American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences , adopted the new term "Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS)" to reflect the fact that the field covers aspects outside of home life and wellness. FCS is taught worldwide, as an elective or a required course in secondary education , and in many tertiary and continuing education institutions. Sometimes it is also taught in primary education . International cooperation in

1800-575: The Gentile reform of 1923, home economics was taught in the lower middle school and in the new unified middle school established in 1963. The name changed to Technical Applications, differentiated into male and female, which was taught until 1977 when it changed to the title of Technical Education, which no longer differed in relation to the sex of the pupils. In South Korea, the field is most commonly known as "consumer science" (소비자학, sobija-hak). The field began in schools taught by Western missionaries in

1872-738: The Scottish Ladies Association for Promoting Female Industrial Education . The intention was to ensure that females would learn sewing and in time other domestic subjects in separate gender based education. The Church of Scotland had decided in 1849 that it wanted female "schools of industry". Women were seen as centres of moral and religious values for families and upper class ladies in the new association saw it as their role to provide it. In 1853 Hope published, The Female Teacher: Ideas Suggestive of Her Qualifications and Duties where she notes that women should be "keepers at home" and men should see to his "labour and his work until

1944-437: The 1800s focused on using a child's ability to use their body for self-expression. This, in combination with approaches in the 1960s, (which featured the use of the body, spatial awareness, effort, and relationships) gave birth to the modern teaching of physical education. Recent research has also explored the role of physical education for moral development in support of social inclusion and social justice agendas, where it

2016-409: The 1940s. Finland has made home economics a required course for boys and girls. When at university, home economics courses fall under categories of the culture and education of nutrition and food, consumer education , environmental education, and family education. The Finnish National Core Curriculum for Basic Education in 2014 also states to reach sustainable development, home economics must be one of

2088-535: The 1960s a number of university-level home economics programs have been renamed "human ecology" programs, including Cornell University's program . Internationally, Home Economics education is coordinated by the International Federation for Home Economics (Fédération internationale pour l'économie familiale). In the majority of elementary (K-6) and public (K-8) schools in Canada, home economics

2160-462: The 1990s saw a decline in practical subjects not favoured for third-level entry requirements, including home economics. In 1945, just days before the Liberation of World War II, Ada Gobetti stated, "The most difficult problem will be that of the housewife. It will be one of the most difficult to resolve if one wants to create a new society." She wanted women, family, work, and society to form

2232-410: The 19th century. By definition, home economics is "the art and science of home management", meaning that the discipline incorporates both creative and technical aspects into its teachings. Home economics courses often consist of learning how to cook, how to do taxes, and how to perform child care tasks. In the United States, home economics courses have been a key part of learning the art of taking care of

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2304-742: The Reifensteiner concept and movement and allowed higher education for women already in the German Kaiserreich. The 1913 doctorate of Johannes Kramer compared different concepts of home economic education worldwide and praised the system e.g. in Iowa. Additionally, home economics are taught as an optional course in lower- and mid-level secondary schools (Haupt- und Realschule). Many education boards in India such as NIOS , CBSE , ICSE , CISCE and various state boards offer home science as

2376-566: The United States was able to create more homemaking educational courses all across the country. Throughout the 1940s, Iowa State College (later University) was the only program granting a master of science in household equipment. However, this program was centered on the ideals that women should acquire practical skills and a scientifically based understanding of how technology in the household works. For example, women were required to disassemble and then reassemble kitchen machinery so they could understand basic operations and understand how to repair

2448-407: The United States, both men and women are expected to take care of the home, the children, and the finances. More women are pursuing higher education rather than homemaking. In 2016, 56.4% of college students were female as opposed to 34.5% in 1956. Some schools are starting to incorporate life skill courses back into their curriculum, but as a whole, home economics courses have been in major decline in

2520-827: The United States, the teaching of home economics courses in higher education greatly increased with the Morrill Act of 1862. Signed by Abraham Lincoln , the Act granted land to each state or territory in America for higher educational programs in vocational arts, specifically mechanical arts, agriculture, and home economics. Such land grants allowed for people of a wider array of social classes to receive better education in important trade skills. Home economics courses mainly taught students how to cook, sew, garden, and take care of children. The vast majority of these programs were dominated by women. Home economics allowed for women to receive

2592-516: The babies who were awaiting adoption. At Cornell University, the first practice baby was called Dicky Domecon, named after the phrase "domestic economy". Dicky was borrowed by Cornell in 1920 when he was three weeks old. Practice babies belonged to the students and to the department and were considered central to the proper training and development of home economics students. Many fields of high acuity use simulation to enhance training in complicated situations. Childcare practicums were often included at

2664-547: The benefits of regular exercise, identify healthy choices in activities, and describe the importance of choosing healthy food. Ontario, Canada has a similar procedure in place. On October 6, 2005, the Ontario Ministry of Education (OME) implemented a DPA policy in elementary schools, for those in grades 1 through 8. The government also requires that all students in grades 1 through 8, including those with special needs, be provided with opportunities to participate in

2736-490: The broader subject of Career Technical Education, a program that teaches skilled trades, applied sciences, modern technologies, and career preparation. Despite the widening of the subject matter over the past century, there has been a major decline in home economics courses offered by educational institutions. Family and consumer sciences were previously known in the United States as home economics, often abbreviated as "home ec" or "HE". In 1994, various organizations, including

2808-500: The course (one point per hour). Schools can regulate these hours as they like during the three years of school students attend. Most schools have students take part in this course during the first year and offer a follow-up course, which also contains 100 points/hours. In England , pupils in years 7, 8, and 9 are expected to do two hours of exercise per week. Pupils in years 10 and 11 are expected to do one hour of exercise per week. In Wales , pupils are expected to do two hours of PE

2880-593: The curriculum. Beyond traditional tools, recent AI advancements are introducing new methods for personalizing physical education, especially for adolescents. AI applications like adaptive coaching are starting to show promise in enhancing student motivation and program effectiveness in physical education settings. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), it is suggested that young children should be participating in 60-minutes of exercise per day at least 3 times per week in order to maintain

2952-433: The different areas of physical fitness including flexibility, strength, aerobic endurance, balance, and coordination. Additional activities in PE include football , netball , hockey , rounders , cricket , four square , racing , and numerous other children's games . Physical education also teaches nutrition , healthy habits, and individuality of needs. The main goals in teaching modern physical education are: It

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3024-429: The early 1900s in order to model a living situation, with the first facility built for home management practice constructed in the early 1920s at North Dakota Agricultural College. The all-women 'team' model used for students was different from prevailing expectations of housewives. For example, women were graded on collaboration, while households at the time assumed that women would be working independently. Nevertheless,

3096-536: The equipment. In doing so, Iowa State effectively created culturally acceptable forms of physics and engineering for women in an era when these pursuits were not generally accessible to them. Throughout the latter part of the twentieth century, home economics courses became more inclusive. In 1963, Congress passed the Vocational Education Act, which granted funds to vocational education job training. Home economics courses started being taught across

3168-750: The evening". Education of females would elevate the "lower classes" and this was the "aim of the Scottish Ladies Association for Promoting Female Industrial Education". Hope organised a petition of 130 signatures of "principal ladies of Scotland" demanding improved sewing lesson for girls in Scottish schools. The petition was supported by letters sent to newspapers and this was of underestimated influence. By 1861 grants were available to support this objective and in 1870 70% of schools were including sewing in their curriculum according to inspectors. Thereza Charlotte, Lady Rucker (1863 – 1941)

3240-732: The field included numerous female figures, such as Ellen Swallow Richards , who had profound impacts on the home economics profession. In 1909, Richards founded the American Home Economics Association (now called the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences ). From 1900 to 1917, more than thirty bills discussed in Congress dealt with issues of American vocational education and, by association, home economics. Americans wanted more opportunities for their young people to learn vocational skills and to learn valuable home and life skills. However, home economics

3312-433: The field is coordinated by the International Federation for Home Economics , established in 1908. These programs have been called human sciences, home science, domestic economy, and the domestic arts, the domestic sciences, or the domestic arts and sciences, and may still be referred to as such depending on the academic institution. Home economics has a strong historic relationship to the field of human ecology , and since

3384-561: The first Lake Placid Conference in September 1899 were preparing women for leadership, distribution of educational bulletins, development of laboratories, teacher training in domestic science (a proposed name for home economics taught at the high school level), and kitchen gardening. The term home economics was chosen to describe a discipline that was at college or university level, included sciences, sociology, and addressed "the necessity for trained women as leaders of public sentiment" At

3456-602: The first in the nation to give college credit on the subject. Home economics in the United States education system increased in popularity in the early twentieth century. It emerged as a movement to train women to be more efficient household managers. At the same moment, American families began to consume many more goods and services than they produced. To guide women in this transition, professional home economics had two major goals: to teach women to assume their new roles as modern consumers and to communicate homemakers' needs to manufacturers and political leaders. The development of

3528-400: The fourth Lake Placid conference, a definition of home economics was determined as, "1 Home economics in its most comprehensive sense is the study of the laws, conditions, principles and ideals which are concerned on one hand with man's immediate physical environment and on the other hand with his nature as a social being, and is the study specially of the relation between those two factors; 2 In

3600-437: The grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. The educator is also responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity (DPA), which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day (not including curriculum physical education classes). The curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example, they must be able to describe

3672-453: The home and it was performed by teams of equals who rotated roles. Each member of the team was able to live a life outside the home as well as inside the home, ideally, one that both informed her domestic work and was informed by it. This balance between home and the wider world was basic to the movement." There was a great need across the United States to continue improving the vocational and homemaking education systems because demand for work

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3744-622: The key elements throughout curriculum. Between 1880 and 1900, the Reifenstein schools concept was initiated by Ida von Kortzfleisch, a Prussian noble woman and early German feminist. Reifenstein refers to Reifenstein im Eichsfeld, a municipality in Thuringia and site of the first permanent school. Reifensteiner Verband comprised from 1897 till 1990 about 15 own schools and cooperated with further operators. About 40 wirtschaftliche Frauenschulen, rural economist women schools were connected to

3816-548: The late 19th century. The first college-level department of family science was established at Ewha Womans University in Seoul in 1929. In Sweden, Home economics is commonly known as "home- and consumer studies" ( hem- och konsumentkunskap ). The subject is mandatory from middle years until high school in both public and private schools but is regarded as one of the smallest subjects in the Swedish school system. For many decades,

3888-416: The lead skill. The American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences at the beginning of the 20th century saw Americans desiring youth to learn vocational skills as well. Politics played a role in home economics education, and it wasn't until later in the century that the course shifted from being woman-dominated to now required for both sexes.   Now family and consumer science have been included in

3960-547: The name was officially changed in 1994 by the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences to "family and consumer sciences" to more accurately represent the profession and field as a whole. As society changed over time, so did the needs of students in these classes. Topics such as nutrition, family finance, and other social justice issues have been added to family and consumer sciences classes, most frequently taught in high schools and colleges. Today FCS

4032-532: The nation to both boys and girls by way of the rise of second-wave feminism . This movement pushed for gender equality, leading to equality in education. Starting in 1994, home economics courses in the United States began being referred to as "family and consumer sciences" in order to make the class appear more inclusive. With desegregation and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , men and women of all backgrounds could equally learn how to sew, cook, and balance

4104-607: The past century. In 2012 there were only 3.5 million students enrolled in FCS secondary programs, a decrease of 38 percent over a decade. In 2020 the AAFCS estimates that there are 5 million students enrolled in FCS programs, a significant increase from past years that is still growing. Societies and associations Resources Physical education Physical education , often abbreviated to Phys. Ed. or PE , and sometimes informally referred to as gym class or simply just gym ,

4176-431: The physical education programs. Zero Hour is a before-school physical education class first implemented by Naperville Central High School . In the state of Illinois , this program is known as Learning Readiness P.E. (LRPE). The program was based on research indicating that students who are physically fit are more academically alert, experience growth in brain cells , and enhancement in brain development. NCHS pairs

4248-493: The practice homes were valued. These practicum courses took place in a variety of environments including single-family homes, apartments, and student dorm-style blocks. For a duration of a number of weeks, students lived together while taking on different roles and responsibilities, such as cooking, cleaning, interior decoration, hosting, and budgeting. Some classes also involved caring for young infants, temporarily adopted from orphanages. Children's service organizations helped supply

4320-727: The prevention, control, and treatment of diseases. A highly effective physical education program aims to develop physical literacy through the acquisition of skills, knowledge, physical fitness, and confidence. Physical education curricula promote healthy development of children, encourage interest in physical activity and sport, improve learning of health and physical education concepts, and accommodate for differences in student populations to ensure that every child receives health benefits. These core principles are implemented through sport participation, sports skill development, knowledge of physical fitness and health, as well as mental health and social adaptation. Physical education curriculum at

4392-455: The profession progressed from its origins as an educational movement to its identity as a source of consumer expertise in the interwar period to its virtual disappearance by the 1970s. An additional goal of the field was to "rationalize housework", or lend the social status of a profession to it, based on a theory that housework could be intellectually fulfilling to women engaged in it, along with any emotional or relational benefits. Pioneers of

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4464-431: The same time as other classwork, requiring students to configure their intellectual and home lives as compatible with one another. Home economics programs were using practice babies nationwide, however by 1959 less than one percent of programs still ran full-time operations. The practice was discontinued altogether by the early 1970s. According to Megan Elias, "in the ideal, domestic work was as important as work done outside

4536-571: The secondary level includes a variety of team and individual sports, as well as leisure activities. Some examples of physical activities include basketball, soccer, volleyball, track and field, badminton, tennis, walking, cycling, and swimming. Chess is another activity that is included in the PE curriculum in some parts of the world. Chess helps students to develop their cognitive thinking skills and improves focus, while also teaching about sportsmanship and fair play. Gymnastics and wrestling activities offer additional opportunities for students to improve

4608-539: The states permit students to substitute other activities for their required physical education credit, or otherwise fail to mandate a specific amount of instructional time. According to the report, only six states ( Illinois , Hawaii , Massachusetts , Mississippi , New York , and Vermont ) require physical education at every grade level. A majority of states in 2016 did not require a specific amount of instructional time, and more than half allow exemptions or substitution. These loopholes can lead to reduced effectiveness of

4680-409: The student organization Family, Career, and Community Leaders of America. FCS and CTE courses help prepare students for careers rather than university. Also, homemaking and home economics courses have developed a negative connotation because of the negative gender bias associated with home economics courses. Despite this, homemaking is now socially acceptable for both men and women to partake in. In

4752-403: The subject was only called "hemkunskap" and had a strong focus on the traditional common tasks of a home, family and practical cooking and cleaning. After the 2011 Swedish school reform, the curriculum have been restructured with more focus on the topics of health, economy and environment which includes Consumer economics as well as Consumer awareness . In 1852 Louisa Hope and others created

4824-461: The value of "women's work" in society, and to prepare them for the traditional roles of sexes. Family and consumer sciences are taught as an elective or required course in secondary education , as a continuing education course in institutions, and at the primary level.   Beginning in Scotland in the 1850s, it was a woman-dominated course, teaching women to be homemakers with sewing being

4896-669: The world. In the Philippines , P.E. is mandatory for all years in school, unless the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for their fifth and sixth year. Some schools have integrated martial arts training into their physical education curriculum. A Biennial compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school to assess pupils' physical fitness in Singapore. This includes

4968-512: Was a promoter of household science teaching. She helped establish Domestic Science as a university subject but only at one university in England. In the UK , Home Economics was a GCSE qualification offered to secondary school pupils, but since 2015 been replaced with a course entitled Food and Nutrition which focuses more on the nutritional side of food to economics. In Scotland , Home Economics

5040-683: Was apparent after World War I and II . Therefore, in 1914 and 1917, women's groups, political parties, and labor coalitions worked together in order to pass the Smith-Lever Act and the Smith-Hughes Act . The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 and the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 created federal funds for "vocational education agriculture, trades and industry, and homemaking" and created the Office of Home Economics. With this funding,

5112-485: Was replaced by Hospitality: Practical Cooking at National 3, 4 and 5 level and Health and Food Technology at National 3, 4, 5, Higher and Advanced Higher. The awarding body is the SQA . Over the years, homemaking in the United States has been a foundational piece of the education system, particularly for women. These homemaking courses, called home economics, have had a prevalent presence in secondary and higher education since

5184-503: Was still dominated by women and women had little access to other vocational trainings. As stated by the National Education Association (NEA) on the distribution of males and females in vocations, "one-third of our menfolk are in agriculture, and one-third in non-agricultural productive areas; while two-thirds of our women are in the vocation of homemaking". Practice homes were added to American universities in

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